STUDY REPORT ON LNG CARRIER TECHNOLOGY

1. The LNG Process Chain [1]

Liquefied natural gas is natural gas, primarily composed of methane, which has been
converted to liquid form for ease of storage and transport. LNG takes up about 1/600th the
volume of natural gas. The conversion of natural gas to its liquefied form allows for the
transport of greater quantities.
Liquefaction describes the process of cooling natural gas to -162°C (-259°F) until it forms as
a liquid. LNG must be turned back into a gas for commercial use and this is done at
regasification plants.
Since 1964, LNG production, export, import and distribution has followed a process sequence
similar to that illustrated in Figure 1.
Extraction of the natural gas from the earth’s surface is the first step along the LNG process
chain.
Step two in the process chain is cleaning the natural gas at the liquefaction plant. A series of
processing steps allows the separation and removal of the various extraneous compounds from
the natural gas prior to liquefaction. More specifically, carbon dioxide and water are extracted
upstream of liquefaction or they would cause damage to liquefaction facilities by freezing.
Hydrocarbons heavier than methane are sometimes also separated and sold as raw materials
to the petrochemical industry or used as fuel. Following the removal of most contaminants
and heavy hydrocarbons from the feed gas, the natural gas advances within the facility to
undergo the liquefaction process. The natural gas being converted to its liquefied form is
almost entirely methane at this point. To obtain maximum volume reduction, the gas has to be
liquefied through the application of refrigeration technology which makes it possible to cool
the gas down to approximately -162 °C (-256°F) when it becomes a liquid.
Step three in the LNG process chain is transporting the liquefied natural gas to the consumer.
Primary modes are by sea and truck. Today, LNG is transported on double-hulled ships
specifically designed to contain the cargo at or near atmospheric pressure at a cryogenic
temperature of approximately -162°C (-259°F). LNG carriers are a blend of conventional ship
 design with specialized materials and advanced systems for handling cryogenic cargoes. The
containment tanks have layers of insulation which isolate the LNG cargo from the hull by
ensuring a minimum distance from the sides and bottom of the hull per the IGC (IMO
International Gas Codes) and add layers of protection in the event of grounding or collision.
In areas around the world where a liquefaction plant is in the vicinity of regasification
facilities, the most cost effective transportation mechanism for LNG is by tank truck. Using
specialized, double-skinned tank trucks, liquefied natural gas can be transported to a
regasification facility quickly and effectively.
The fourth step in the LNG process chain involves the import terminals, which are marine or
waterfront facilities. LNG carriers deliver the LNG to a marine terminal where the LNG is
stored before undergoing regasification, which converts the LNG back into its gaseous form.

2. LNG Transportation Overview

Large reserves of natural gas exist around the world in areas for which there is no significant
market, or where natural gas resources far exceed local or regional demand, or where pipeline
options are limited. Such hydrocarbon reserves are “stranded” in North Africa, West Africa,
South America, Caribbean, the Middle East, Indonesia, Malaysia, Northwestern Australia and
Alaska. Some of the natural gas produced from these resources is liquefied for shipping to
areas where usage of natural gas exceeds indigenous supply. Such markets include Japan,
Taiwan, Korea, Western Europe and the U.S. LNG offers greater trade flexibility than pipeline
transport, allowing cargoes of natural gas to be delivered where the need is greatest and the
commercial terms are most competitive. The figure below shows that as the distance over
which natural gas must be transported increases, usage of LNG has economic advantages over
usage of pipelines. In general, liquefying natural gas and shipping it via ocean transport
becomes cheaper than transporting natural gas in offshore pipelines for distances of more than
700 miles (1126.3 km) or in onshore pipelines for distances greater than 2,200 miles (3539.8
km). [2]
LNG carriers range significantly in size, though more recent additions to the fleet demonstrate
a bias toward vessels with larger capacities. The smallest cross-border LNG vessels, typically
18,000 m3 to 40,000 m3, are mostly used to transport LNG from Southeast Asia to smaller
terminals in Japan. Carriers under 18,000 m3 are used in domestic and coastal trades,
facilitating delivery of LNG to remote areas. [3]

Figure 3. Global LNG Fleet by Capacity, end-2013 (cm – cubic meter)

As of end-2013, 60% of the global fleet had a capacity between 125,000 and 149,000 m3,
making it the most common class of LNG carrier. However, ships in the 150,000 to 177,000m3
range have dominated new-built orders over the past decade. These vessels currently make up
21% of the global fleet, a share that is expected to grow rapidly in the years ahead. The largest
category of LNG vessel is the Q-Series, developed by Qatargas, accounting for 13% of the
vessels in operation in 2013. The Q-Series is composed of both Q-Flex (210,000-217,000 m3)
and Q-Max (261,700 - 266,000 m3) vessels. [3]

Figure 4. Comparison of bounding box of Q-max with some other ship sizes
3. Design of gas carrier [4]
The rules and regulations for the design and construction of gas carriers rely on practical ship
designs codified by the International Maritime Organization (IMO). This is a root of work
based on the knowledge of much expertise. All ships from June 1986 started to be constructed
according to the International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying
Liquefied Gases in Bulk (the IGC Code). This code also defines cargo properties and
documentation, provided to the ship (the Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Liquefied
Gases in Bulk), shows the cargo grades the ship can carry.
Particularly, it takes into account temperature limitations imposed by the metallurgical
properties of the materials making up the cargo containment and piping systems. It also takes
into account the reactions between various gases and the elements of construction not only on
tanks but also related to pipeline and valve fittings.
When the IGC Code was published, an intermediate code was also developed by the IMO -
the Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk (the
GC Code). This covers ships constructed between 1977 and 1986. As gas ships existed before
IMO Code has been published, the ships constructed before 1977 were defined as ‘existing
carriers’ for the purpose of the meaning of the rules, being covered then by the IMO’s Code
for existing Ships Carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk (the ‘Existing Ship Code’).
The double hull concept includes the bottom areas as a protection against grounding and,
again, the designers’ experience has proven of great value in several serious grounding
incidents, saving the crew, marine environment and surrounding populations from the
consequences of a ruptured containment system. So a principal feature of gas carrier design is
double containment and an internal hold. The cargo tanks, or as generally are referred to as
the ‘cargo containment system’, are installed in the hold, often as a completely separate entity
from the ship; i.e. being not as a part of the ship’s structure or its strength members. On the
other side, the codes define a distinctive difference between gas carriers and other transporters
such as for oil and chemicals.

Figure 5. Containment classification of gas carriers

 Cargo tanks may be constructed with tanks independent of being of the self-supporting type
or of a membrane design. The self-supporting tanks are defined in the IGC Code as being of
‘Type-A’, ‘Type-B’ or ‘Type-C’. Type-A comprises box shaped or prismatic tanks (i.e.
shaped to fit to the hold space). Type-B is the type of tank where fatigue life and crack
propagation analyses have shown improved characteristics. Such tanks are usually spherical
but occasionally may be of prismatic geometry. Type-C tanks are pressure vessels, often
spherical or cylindrical, but sometimes bi-lobe in shape to minimize broken stowage. The
usage of one system or another depends on the type of the trade. For instance, Type-C tanks
are suited to small volume carriage. They are therefore found most often on coastal or regional
transportation. The large international LPG carriage is suited to the Type-A. Type-B tanks and
cargo tanks following membrane principles are found in LNG fleet.

4. Cargo Containment Systems in Liquefied Gas Carriers [5]

4.1.Self-supporting independent (or free standing) cargo tanks
Independent cargo tanks are integrally self-supporting, therefore do not compose the
structure of the ship’s hull. They do not contribute to the strength of the hull of the vessel
either. As introduced previously, in accordance to the IGC code, cargo tanks are
dependent on the design pressure, and three different types of independent tanks for gas
carriers are possible: Tank Type-A, Type-B and Type-C.
a) Type-A independent tank
The Type-A, in a general appraisal, are box-shaped or prismatic cargo tanks in order
to fit to the hold space. It must have a full secondary barrier, based on classical ship
structure rules. This requirement provides a redundancy to prevent any possible
leakage caused by a rupture of the tank primary barrier, no matter if the leakage is
caused by fatigue cracks or tank overfilling. The tank must be constructed with
strength utilization similar to a deep tank in a ship structure. For Type-A tanks the hull
structures are permitted to be designed for cargoes with boiling temperatures not lower
than -55°C, which is not a realistic alternative for LNG purposes, being more adequate
for propane, butane and ammonia transportation.

Figure 6. Prismatic self-supporting Type-A cargo tank

 b) Type-B independent tank
The concept of these cargo tanks is such that they can be constructed using flat
(prismatic IHI) or spherical plates (Moss). This last design poses otherwise more
complex and detailed stresses when compared to Type-A. Therefore, the controls need
to be stricter. They require fatigue investigation and crack scale up analysis during the
carriers’ operational life.
The Type-B needs also a partial secondary barrier that provides redundancy only to
fatigue cracking. Another design redundancy is to avoid fatigue damage, except for
extreme loads. The construction material used for extreme load purposes is therefore
stricter than to that of Type-A, providing larger safety factors against eventual
overloading.
The purpose of the Type-B (spherical or prismatic) tank’s secondary barrier is to
provide the cargo a temporary containment and prevent the carrier’s hull from being
cooled to an unsafe level. This secondary barrier must be designed to contain leakages
for a given period (usually 15 days), requiring continuous monitoring to detect
leakages from the primary barrier. Because of the enhanced design factors, a Type-B
tank requires only a partial secondary barrier in the form of a drip tray.
The main types comprised in this category use volumes up to 135,000 m³, although
larger capacities (180,000 m³) are being constructed more recently. The maximum
allowed design pressure usually is 0.25 barg and not exceeding 0.70 barg.
b.1) Kvæner Moss’ spherical tanks
The Norwegian Kvæner Moss developed a design of tank to transport LNG at
cryogenic temperatures with pressure around the atmospheric pressure. The Type-
B spherical tank was conceived, almost exclusively, to be used as LNG carriers,
and seldom is used for the LPG trade. Schematic view of this tank is presented in
Fig.7.

Figure 7. Kvæner Moss’ spherical tanks

The enhanced design factors used in its construction makes it require a partial
secondary barrier only, as a drip tray. The hold spaces are usually completed with
dry inert gas or dry air providing the necessary inert void’s atmosphere if the vapor
detection system indicates some cargo leakage. A protective steel dome is used to
cover the primary barrier above deck level and an insulation layer is applied over
the outside surface of the tank. They are constructed, essentially, by supporting the
independent spheres constructed from aluminum alloy with a continuous and
stiffened cylinder (skirt) attached to the sphere’s equator using a special extrusion
process. The skirt is stiffened in the upper part by horizontal rings and the lower
part by vertical corrugated stiffeners. This device transmits the weight of the tank
and cargo to the lower hull. It allows the sphere to contract and expand with
minimum loads transferred to the hull structure, since they are anchored to the
ship’s double hull using the steel skirt with a thermal brake made from a special
alloy.
Spheres can accommodate the same cargo volume with the lowest tank’s external
area, demanding lower costs with plates, welds, etc. to construct the cargo tank.
This was one of the reasons why spherical tanks were favored for containment in
the early conceptual designs. However, spheres use hull space less efficiently
having the disadvantage to project its upper hemisphere over the ship’s main deck.
Spherical design provides a high degree of safety against failures or fractures
therefore they do not require secondary barriers. Each one of the tanks is covered
by a spherical steel cover in order to protect the tank and the insulation against the
weather, as well as to control the void space atmosphere.
They are heavily insulated with polyurethane or polystyrene foam with thickness of
250 mm to reduce the boil-off to a minimum, and are encapsulated within the void
spaces of the LNGC’s hull. They are positioned in-line from bow to stern of the
LNGC, and from four to six spheres are used. In this design, the supports of the
spheres are provided by equatorial rings to transmit the loads to the hull using
stainless steel skirts with circular shape. A special device is provided between the
equator and the skirts in order to limit the transfer of cold to the skirts. Another
connection is used to eliminate welding fragile points between the tanks
(aluminum) and skirts (stainless steel).
The void spaces between the LNG carriers’ inner hull and outer hull are used for
water ballast and also provide protection to the cargo tanks in case of a collision or
grounding. There is no secondary barrier since the tanks, due to their spherical
construction, have a high degree of safety against fracture or failure. Each tank is
covered by a spherical steel tank cover, the main purpose being for tank and
insulation weather protection. The cover also permits control of the hold space
atmosphere. The lower edge of each cover is welded to the weather deck, forming
a watertight seal. Flexible rubber seals are applied at the points where the tank dome
protrudes out from the cover deck. The sphere is equipped with LNG pumps inside,
with no connection whatsoever in the tank bottom. The sphere maintains its own
structural integrity, without the need of the ship structure for this purpose. The load
is transferred to the vessel via a metal skirt connected to the sphere's equator, and
there are multiple barriers between the external environment and LNG load. The
ship's hull is double with internal structures, and some vessels have an additional
wall surrounding all spheres, which is protected by another external skirt, providing
support and insulation for the sphere’s wall.
In the beginning of the 2010’s, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd. (MHI) finished
the development of a new generation of LGNCs, defining evolutions of the Kvæner
Moss’ spherical tank. The new carrier was named ‘Sayaendo’, the first of a series,
and the second version ‘Extreme’ (or ‘Sayaendo 2’).
This series features a peapod-shaped continuous weather cover for the Moss
spherical tanks that is integrated with the ship's hull, in lieu of a conventional
hemispherical cover. It constitutes a visual and conceptual distinctive design from
the classical hemispherical dished ends of the conventional Moss tanks. This new
configuration allegedly enables greater structural efficiency and size and weight
economies, resulting not only in improvements in fuel consumption as well as in
operating economy but also in enhancements in terms of compatibility with LNG
terminals and maintainability. According to ABS (2014) the ‘Sayaendo’ design
builds on the strength (reliability) of spherical tank with lightweight, being suitable
for cold navigation as a competitive differential.

Figure 8. Conventional Moss and continuous tank cover (Sayaendo) comparison

b.2) IHI’s prismatic tanks
Nevertheless, Type-B cargo tanks, not necessarily has to be of spherical geometry.
There are other shape (prismatic), provided by Type-B for the LNG transportation.
The prismatic tanks have some differentials as (i) maximize the carrier-hull
volumetric efficiency and (ii) arrange the whole cargo tank placed beneath the main
topside. When design is adopted, the maximum design pressure of the vapor space,
as recommended for the Type-A cargo tanks, shall be not more than 0.7 barg.
SPB LNGCs comply with IMO Type-B requirements by using Al-Alloy self-
supporting prismatic tanks, proven for its reliability. These LNGCs had its
development approved in 1985 by U.S. Coast Guard, launching to the water in 1993
two LNGCs of 87,000 m³, the Polar Eagle and Artic Sun.
 Figure 9. IHI’s self-supporting prismatic tank
According to IHI, the prismatic tank is divided into four compartments by
bulkheads LNG leak proof. Thus, according to the technology, it is predicted that
the local frequency of the liquid motion within the cargo tank is not affected by the
vessel motion frequency. Thus, it is expected that it could not happen any resonance
between the movement of the liquid cargo and the ship's movement, being
supposedly possible to load the ship with any level of the cryogenic.
It also avoids, in principle, the occurrence of load stratification that may take place
due to the sudden mix of LNG with different densities, compositions and heat
capacities in the bottom of the ship’s tanks (rollover). If this occurs with two layers
of LNG the sudden mix may result in the release of large amounts of vapor.
One of the characteristics of the SPB prismatic tanks is its free shape, since it is
constructed with stiffened plates. This allows constructing the ship’s hull
considering the best hull performance given a design condition (draft, beam, etc.)
and designing cargo tanks to follow the hull contour afterwards, leading to a
compact LNGC with reliable hull shape.

Figure 10. Cross section and hook up of a Self-supporting Prismatic Shape Type B Tank
(SPB)
 Each cargo tank is supported by a special type of reinforced plywood, and
subdivided by a tight bulkhead (working as a centerline for the liquid content) and
a swash bulkhead into 4 spaces. So the natural frequency of the liquid movement
inside tank is different from that of ship’s motion, eliminating chances of resonance
between the liquid cargo and ship movements. Consequently, no sloshing problem
is expected and any level of loading within the tank is supposedly always possible.
This enables partial loaded voyage, quick dispatch from the berth in emergency,
making SPBs suited to FPSOs, FLNGs, FSRUs, or any other offshore structure, in
which tanks are always half loaded. Because of the nature of stiffened plate
structure, the tank has the same strength to support inner and outer pressures.
The IHI’s prismatic Type-B is independent of the LNGC’s structure, having some
advantages when compared to spherical Moss tanks, since it maximizes the
available cargo voids. The hold spaces are used for inspection and maintenance. IHI
also claims for some advantages such as less fuel expense (less horsepower
consumption with compact hull form), more cargo deliverability thanks to less heel
of the pump well, less BOG due to the nominal lower vaporization within the cargo
tanks, no spray in ballast voyage. Some other characteristics are also cited: less
down time, maintenance expenses and easy operation. However, IHI’s design has
the inconvenient to increase weight and cost, because it includes plates and bracings
keeping hull’s plates from being distorted due to hydrostatic loads. One important
characteristic of this design is the deck that is completely flat from side to side, with
no obstacles on the deck when compared with membrane and extruded sphere on
the deck of Moss LNGCs. This contributes to less wind resistance thus with less
power consumption, easy maintenance and easy navigability and maneuverability.
c) Type-C independent tanks

Figure 11. Bi-lobe Type C cargo tanks built at Sinopacific for Denmark’s Evergas
These tanks are usually of spherical or cylindrical geometry pressure vessels with
design pressure higher than 4 barg. These tanks are always used for semi-pressurized
and fully pressurized gas transporters. Type C tanks are designed and built to according
pressure vessel codes and, as a result, can be subjected to accurate stress analysis.
Consequently, no secondary barrier is required and hold spaces can be filled with either
 inert gas or dry air; if the carrier is pressurized normal air can be used. If the ship is
typical fully pressurized, with the cargo transported at ambient temperature, the tanks
may be designed for a maximum working pressure of about 18 barg.
For a semi-pressurized ship the cargo tanks and associated equipment are designed for
a working pressure of approximately 5 to 7 barg and a vacuum of 0.3 barg. Usually,
the steel applied for the semi-pressurized ships are capable of withstanding transport
temperatures of -48°C for LPG or -104°C for ethylene which can be used to transport
LPG. Type C tanks as fitted in a typical fully pressurized gas carrier.
These cargo tanks are constructed to a minimum design pressure, and they are not used
for LNG transportation purpose except in the cases this cryogenic is carried as fuel.
The advantage of Type-C is the possibility to handle the BOG, increasing the cargo
tank pressure. When compared to Type-A and Type-B, this carrier presents some
disadvantages due to higher containment weight and lower effective utilization of void
spaces.
4.2.Non self-supporting (or non-free standing or integrated) cargo tanks
Non self-supporting membrane tanks are, otherwise, surrounded by the double hull
carrier’s structure. Membranes tanks are non-self-supporting tanks consisting of thin
layers (membranes) supported through insulation by adjacent hull structure. The
membranes are designed to compensate thermal effects without significant stresses. In
order to control the effects on ship structure from a potential leakage of cryogenic liquids,
the Code requires that a secondary barrier is to be provided.
The double membrane design consists of one (or two) thin layer of stainless steel or alloy
steel of high nickel content, with thicknesses ranging between 0.7 and 1.2 mm. It is
capable to contain a hydrostatic load 25.000 m³ of LNG, but uses the vessel structural
support. The two membranes are separated by a thin layer of perlite, plywood and
insulating polyurethane foam. The tanks are kept at a very low positive pressure and the
boil-off gas is collected supplying fuel for the vessels propulsion. There is no bottom
connection whatsoever in order to avoid leaks or failures.
The barriers between the outside environment and LNG cargo are: double hull, the inner
hull structure, the outer membrane, the isolation plywood box and inner membrane. The
ships are usually equipped with load stabilization systems to prevent the movement
effects (sloshing) of the liquid cargo due to the ship’s (solid) motion during storms, harsh
weather or sea force. The gap between the load and the water is at least 2 m, and often 3
to 4 m. A large cofferdam separates each tank with the respective membranes, reducing
the potential of an undesirable event occurred in a tank affects the adjacent tank.
The cargo containment system consists of insulated cargo tanks encased within the inner
hull and located in-line from bow to stern. The void spaces between the inner and outer
hull are used for ballast and also to protect the cargo tanks in case of grounding or
collision. Membranes functions as a huge containment inside the hull fabricated of a thin
metal layer that works as a primary barrier. This layer receives another layer of insulation
followed by a thin layer of metal (primary barrier), insulation, secondary membrane
barrier, and further insulation in a ‘sandwich’ construction. The membrane is designed in
such a way that thermal and other expansion or contraction is compensated for without
undue stressing of the membrane.
a) GTT No. 96 Membrane System
The cargo tanks are separated from other compartments, and from each other, by
transverse cofferdams which are dry compartments. The description that follows is of
a GazTransport No. 96 double membrane system design. Although the principal design
features will be similar in other systems, e.g. Technigaz Mark III, there will be
differences in membrane construction and insulation structure.
The No. 96 membrane system consists fundamentally of a cryogenic liner directly
supported by the ship’s inner hull. The liner consists of two identical metallic
membranes and two independent insulation layers. The primary and secondary
insulation layers are fabricated of Invar (36% nickel-steel alloy – high nickel content
with low thermal contraction coefficient)) with 0.7 mm thick. The primary membrane
has the function to contain the LNG cargo, and the secondary (identical to the primary)
has the function to guarantee 100% of redundancy in case of eventual failure or
leakage.

Figure 12. Layout of No.96 Containment Tank

The main function of the membranes is to prevent leakages, while the insulation
supports and transmits the loads. Additionally, they minimize the heat transfer between
the cargo and the inner hull. The secondary membrane, comprised between the two
insulation layers, not only provides a safety barrier between the two layers, but also
reduces convection currents within the insulation. The primary and secondary
insulation voids are kept under an inert nitrogen atmosphere with pressure control.
This nitrogen buffer cannot in any case exceed the cargo tank pressure. This is to
prevent the membranes from collapsing inwards.
Therefore, the insulation design is supposed to guarantee:
 The heat inflow be limited to such an extent that the boil-off rate (BOR) is
about 0.15%/day based on sea surface temperature of 32°C and air temperature
45°C;
 The inner hull steel does not attain a temperature below its minimum design
value, even in the case of failure of the primary barrier;
 Any deflections resulting from applied strains and stresses are acceptable by
the primary barrier.
Another important function of the thermal insulation is to act as a barrier to prevent
any contact between ballast water and the primary barrier, in the event of leakage
through the inner hull.
These two identical layers of membrane/insulation, is such that given a leak in the
primary barrier, the cargo will be contained by the secondary barrier. The secondary
barrier is designed to contain any possible leakage of cargo for a period of 15 days
(according to the IGC, item 1V 4.7.4). This system ensures that all the hydrostatic
loads of the cargo are transmitted through the membranes and insulation to the inner
hull plating of the ship.

Figure 13. Design of No.96 Containment Tank

In the GazTransport No. 96 design, the inner hull, that is, the outer shell of each tank,
is lined internally with the patent tank containment and insulation system, consisting
of:
 A thin flexible membrane (‘primary’), which is in contact with the cargo. This
is made from Invar and has a typical thickness of 0.7mm;
 A layer of primary insulation made of plywood boxes filled with typical
thickness of 230 mm;
 A second flexible called ‘secondary’, similar to the first, made also of Invar
with typical thickness of 0.7mm;
 A second layer of boxes, also filled with Perlite, and in contact with the inner
hull, called the ‘secondary insulation’, typically of 300 mm thickness;
 These two thermal insulation layers consist of load bearing system fabricated
of plywood standard boxes of 1 m x 1.2 m, filled with expanded perlite.
  The primary layer is held by means of the primary couplers, which are fixed to
the secondary coupler assembly. The secondary layer is fixed by means of the
secondary couplings anchored to the inner hull.
The boil-off issue is addressed by GTT to meet the requirements for lower rates as a
first step, replacing the perlite in the boxes by glass-wool, included in a newer version,
the No. 96-GW. GTT otherwise considers that ‘evolution’ is not a structural change,
since the bearing plywood structure is kept identical to the No. 96 system, guaranteeing
a BOR of 0.125% of the volume carried per day. With another design for even better
thermal efficiency, GTT proposed the No. 96-L03 design, where GTT sustains that it
is possible to obtain a BOR of 0.105%.
b) GTT Mk III Membrane System

Figure 14. Layout of Mark III Containment System

This design consists of a cryogenic liner directly supported by the internal ship’s hull.
The liner is made of a primary metallic membrane of corrugated (or waffles) stainless
steel 304 L, with 1.2 mm thick to allow for expansion and contraction, located on top
of a prefabricated insulation panel, including a complete secondary membrane. The
primary membrane contains the LNG cargo and is directly supported by and fixed to
the insulation system. Standard size of the corrugated sheets is 3m x 1m.
The insulation that supports the primary membrane consisted of laminated balsa wood
panels held between two plywood layers, and the face plywood formed the secondary
barrier. The balsa wood panels were interconnected with specially designed joints
comprising PVC foam wedges and plywood scabs and were supported on the inner
hull of the tanker by wooden grounds.
 The knot is the intersection of the corrugations (small and large corrugations). The
secondary membrane is made of Triplex, a composite laminated material, i.e., a thin
sheet of aluminum between two layers of glass cloth and resin. It is positioned inside
the prefabricated insulation panels between the two insulation layers.

Figure 15. Design of Mark III Containment System

Two evolutions are also addressed by GTT in the same fashion as above: (i) for a lower
BOR solution with the Mark III Flex design, and (ii) with increases for strength, with
the Mark III Flex HD design.

5. Boil-off management and propulsion system

Liquefied natural gas is stored and transported in tanks as a cryogenic liquid, i.e. liquid at a
temperature below its boiling point. Due to heat leakage into LNG and its cryogenic nature,
during storage, shipping and loading/unloading modes LNG continuously evaporates. Inside
the tanks, LNG exists in a thermodynamic equilibrium between liquid and vapor, depending
on the given pressure and temperature. Namely, to keep the temperature constant and
appropriate for tank pressure, LNG will cool itself (auto-refrigeration) by evaporating a small
portion of the LNG and generated Boil-off gas (BOG). [6]
Most of BOG is generated during transportation of LNG by ships. BOG released during the
voyage of an LNG tanker may occur due to the following reasons: [6]
 The ingress of heat into cargo tanks due to the difference between the temperature in
the cargo tanks and temperature of the environment;
 Due to the cooling of a ship’s tanks during ballast voyages, achieved by occasional
spraying of LNG in the upper part of the tank;
 Due to the sloshing of cargo in partially filed tanks due to the action of waves, causing
friction on the inner wall of the tank creating an additional thermal effect.
According to World Gas Intelligence, on a typical voyage an estimated 0.1–0.25% of the cargo
converts to gas each day, depending on the efficiency of the insulation and the roughness of
the voyage. In a typical 20-day voyage, anywhere from 2–6% of the total volume of LNG
originally loaded may be lost. [7]
 Normally an LNG tanker is powered by steam turbines with boilers. These boilers are dual
fuel and can run on either methane or oil or a combination of both. [7]
The gas produced in boil off is traditionally diverted to the boilers and used as a fuel for the
vessel. Before this gas is used in the boilers, it must be warmed up to roughly 20 °C by using
the gas heaters. The gas is either fed into the boiler by tank pressure or it is increased in
pressure by a low duty compressors. [7]
What fuel the vessel runs on is dependent on many factors which include the length of the
voyage, desire to carry a heel for cool down, price of oil versus price of LNG. [7]
There are three basic modes available: [7]
 Minimum boil-off/maximum oil: In this mode tank pressures are kept high to reduce
boil off to a minimum and the majority of energy comes from the fuel oil. This
maximizes the amount of LNG delivered but does allow tank temps to rise due to lack
of evaporation. The high cargo temps can cause storage problems and offloading
problems.
 Maximum boil-off/minimum oil: In this mode the tank pressures are kept low and you
have a greater boil-off but still there is a large amount of fuel oil used. This decreases
the amount of LNG delivered but the cargo will be delivered cold which many ports
prefer.
 100% gas: Tank pressures are kept at a similar level to max boil off but this is not
enough to supply all the boilers needs so you must start to "force". A small pump is
started in one tank to supply LNG to the forcing vaporizer, where the LNG is warmed
and vaporized back into a gas that is usable in the boilers. In this mode no fuel oil is
used.
Recent advances in technology allow re-liquefaction plants to be fitted to vessels, allowing
the boil off to be re-liquefied and returned to the tanks. Because of this, the vessels' operators
and builders have been able to contemplate the use of more efficient slow-speed Diesel
engines (previously most LNG carriers have been steam turbine-powered). Since 2000, LNG
tanker using Dual or Tri-Fuel Diesel Electric (DFDE or TFDE) propulsion system have been
introduced in service. These two systems bring to the vessels’ operator the flexibility in using
different fuels (BOG, Diesel Oil or Fuel Oil) due to economical reason.

6. Sloshing phenomenon and prevention

Sloshing is the violent motion of the free surface of a fluid in a partially filled container or
tank. The principal factors that affect the nature of this phenomenon are the tank shape, fill
height and the ship motions in a seaway. Typically sloshing is taken to refer to the motion of
the free surface of a liquid in a tank. As a consequence of this motion violent impacts can
occur on the tank boundaries and this document concerns itself with the design procedures
necessary to review the strength of the tank boundary to these sloshing impacts. [8]
Sloshing and sloshing impact loads are produced in cargo and ballast tanks of ships as a
consequence of the physical movement of the tank due to the wave-induced ship motions
arising from the sea states in which the ship operates. Ship motions are stochastic in nature as
a result of the many wave amplitudes and frequencies present in a seaway and the ship motions
induce fluid motion characteristics having similar frequencies within partially filled tanks.
Significant sloshing motions can occur when the ship motion excitation periods, in response
to irregular wave excitation, are close to the longitudinal or transverse natural periods of the
fluid flow within a tank. Under such conditions the energy in the fluid flow can be large and
this can produce significant velocities within the fluid which can result in large fluid impacts
on the tank boundaries and supporting structures. [8]
LNG ships with membrane type cargo tanks are particularly susceptible. These tanks have the
potential to produce strong sloshing phenomena and impacts on the tank boundaries as the
tanks have no internal structures which can restrict the fluid motion or dampen resonant fluid
motions induced close to tank natural periods. Independent containment systems such as the
spherical Moss design and the IHI prismatic designs (SPB) are not subject to the same sloshing
impacts. Partial loading at any tank filling level is inherent in the design of Moss design tanks
and IHI-SPB, giving them distinct advantages over membrane containment systems, when
handling spot trades and offshore loading/unloading. [9]
This has taken on an even greater importance with operators seeking the operational flexibility
of partial cargo loading in combination with the growing preference for membrane-type
containment systems. [9]
LNG is carried as liquid at approximately -162oC. As the low-filling condition produces
progressive waves known as hydraulic jumps, partially-loaded carriers can exhibit high
dynamic loads. As a consequence, sloshing due to partial filling must be examined very
carefully. Characteristics unique to LNG, namely low temperature, compressibility of
entrapped gas, hydrodynamic interaction between liquid and containment system, and
dynamic material characteristics challenge the vessel’s strength and may require additional
reinforcement of critical areas. These areas are the insulation system, tank structure or the
pump tower which serves as the cargo handling connection to the hull, and the base support
structure. [9]
The sloshing motion in an LNG tank at the low-filling level is quite different from that
experienced at high filling levels. When the tank motion is large, the front of the “hydraulic
jump” (when the motion within the tank causes the liquid to create a wave action) becomes
steeper, developing a breaking wave. If the hydraulic jump hits the bulkhead before breaking,
a large impact can occur. The uniform velocity of the hydraulic jump also results in a large
drag force on the lower part of the pump tower and its supporting system.
Sloshing impact occurs when there is a sudden change in the wetted surface due to liquid
motion in the tank. In a partially filled compartment, a wider area on the tank wall is vulnerable
to the sloshing impact of the cargo. [9]
Design modifications and improvements [9], [10]
The high dynamic loads and impact sloshing pressure on the insulation system and tank
structure in membrane-type vessels are major concerns.
From the experience gained on the first LNG ships put into service and from a large number
of model tests and computer analyses since, there have been numerous design improvements,
to counter the sloshing impact.
The height of “chamfer” at the topside was increased and the insulation boxes at the tank top
were reinforced to withstand the sloshing impact in the fully laden condition. There has also
been a considerable improvement in the design and construction of the membrane and
supporting insulation structures.
 LNG vessels normally operate in a fully laden condition or with a minimum of cargo (heel)
during the ballast voyage. In a fully laden condition the typical filling level is greater than
95% of the tank height, and in ballast condition less than 10%. The current design (tank
insulation and scantlings) is effective in preventing sloshing impact loads when the vessel is
carrying heel only.
The ship’s cargo tanks are designed to limit the impact forces and the safety margin has been
considerably enlarged. New tank designs are reasonably free from any sloshing risk. However,
operators should always be aware of the potential risks to the cargo containment system and
also on the tank equipment due to sloshing.
Tank filling limits [9]
Classification Societies, GTT and Marintek, carried out a series of model tests to investigate
the effects of sloshing in partially filled prismatic LNG tanks. As a result of the tests, the
following precautions should be taken to avoid damage due to sloshing

a) CARGO TANK LEVELS: The first precaution is to maintain the level of the tanks within
the required limits i.e.:
o Lower than a level corresponding to 10% of the height of the tank or,
o Higher than a level corresponding to normally 70% of the height of the tank.

b) SHIP’S MOVEMENT: The second precaution is to try to limit the ship’s movement, which
would generate sloshing in the tanks. The amplitude of sloshing depends on the condition
of sea (wave pattern), the trim and the speed of the ship. Often a minor alteration of course
may change the ship motion considerably, particularly at high speed, and this may have a
significant effect on sloshing

The above limits will be stated within the ship specific Cargo Operating Manual, and will
generally be included in the Conditions of Carriage section of the International Certificate of
Fitness for the Carriage of Liquefied Gases in Bulk.

7. References
[1] LNG Information Paper No. 2 – The International Group of Liquefied Natural Gas
Importers (GIIGNL);
[2] Introduction to LNG – An overview on liquefied natural gas (LNG), its properties,
organization of the LNG industry and safety considerations – Center for Energy Economics,
Bureau for Economic Geology, The University of Texas at Austin.
[3] 2014 World LNG Report – International Gas Union.
[4] The carriage of liquefied gases – UK P&I Club.
[5] Transoceanic carriage of LNG: background and technological innovations – Alan da Silva
Esteves & José Alberto dos Reis Parise, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pontifical
Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro.
[6] Problem of Boil-off in LNG Supply Chain – Đorđe Dobrota, Branko Lalić and Ivan
Komar, University of Split, Croatia.
[7] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LNG_carrier#Reliquefaction_and_boil-off
[8] Sloshing Assessment Guidance Document for Membrane Tank LNG Operations - Lloyd’s
Register, May 2009.
[9] http://www.liquefiedgascarrier.com/sloshing.html
[10] Sloshing in membrane LNG carriers and its consequences from a designer’s perspective,
Gaztransport & Technigaz.