Earthwork 101

James J. Seli, PE

 Principal at Schnabel Engineering.

 35years of experience providing
geotechnical engineering and
construction observation and testing
services.
 Responsible for internal training of
field representatives at Schnabel.

1
 Learning Objectives

 Understandthe purpose of
compaction and why it is
important.
 Understand the compaction
process.
 Understandthe QC process
during compaction.
 Learn the keys to evaluating
results.
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What is Earthwork?

 Moving earth materials

from one place to another.

2
 Why Earthwork?

 Shape the ground surface.

 Build earth structures.
 Embankments
 Dams and Levees

Earthwork

 Excavation destroys the natural soil

structure.
 The soil becomes loose.
 Loose soils are weak.
 Loose soils are compressible.
 Weak, compressible soils are not
desirable for civil engineering
applications.
 Therefore, we need to remedy this
condition. 6

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 Earthwork

 Compact soils
 Improve Strength
 Improve Compressibility

 Oncecompacted the soils

have suitable strength and
compressibility to support civil
engineering structures.

Earthwork
Process
 Excavate earth material.
 Move it to new location and
place it in a thin layer (lift).
 Compact the lift with a roller.
 Check
if we have adequately
compacted the soil.
 Repeat.

 Howdo we check the

compaction?
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 Compaction Theory

Soil Phases

 Soils phases
 Soilgrains (solids)
 Water
 Air

 Air
and Water
combine to fill the
voids between the soil
particles.

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5
 Improving Strength & Compressibility

 Push the soil particles

closer together …
 The soil becomes stronger
 The soil becomes less
compressible

 Therefore, our objective

is to pack the particles
closer together.

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Soil Phases

Volume of Air Air

Volume of Weight
Water
Total Water of Water
Volume Total
Weight
Volume of Weight of
Solids
Solids Solids

 Volume of Voids (Vv) = Volume of Water + Volume of Air

 Total Volume (V) = Volume of Voids + Volume of Solids

 Total Weight (W) = Weight of Solids + Weight of Water

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6
 Soil Phases

Volume of Air Air

Volume of Weight
Water
Total Water of Water
Volume Total
Weight
Volume of Weight of
Solids
Solids Solids

 Total Density (t ) = Total Weight / Total Volume

 Moisture Content (w) = Weight of Water / Weight of Solids

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Compaction

 When we compact a soil, we push the soil particles

closer together, reducing the volume of the voids.
 Air is forced out

Compaction

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7
 Compaction

 In
a given volume, we displace air (no weight) and
replace it with solids and water.
 Total weight increases.
 Total density increases.
Air
Air

Water
Water
Compaction

Solids Solids

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Density, Strength, Compressibility

 Pack soil particles closer together …

 Soil strength increases
 Soil compressibility decreases.

 Pack soil particles closer, total density increases.

 Astotal density increases, strength and
compressibility improve.
 Right?

 Not necessarily.

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8
 What about the water?

 Add water to a soil …

 Increases total weight
 Increases total density.

 Soil
particles are not packed
any tighter.
 Strength
is not improved.
 Compressibility is not improved.

 Therefore,
total density is not a
good measure of soil
improvement.
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What Now?

 Our goal is to pack the particles tighter.

 We need a measurement that only increases when

this happens.

 Therefore, we define dry density, d as the weight of

solids / total volume.

 Dry density is independent of the moisture content.

 We use dry density to measure the compaction of

soils in the field.
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9
 Relationship Between Dry and
Total Densities

 Total
density (t) and moisture content
(w) are easy to measure.
 Measuring dry density (d) is more
difficult.
 We can show d , t and w are related as
follows:

d = t / (1 + w)

we can measure t and w,

 Therefore,
and then calculate the d. 19

Zero Air Voids

 As we compact a soil, we
reduce the amount of air in
the voids
 When air void volume
becomes zero, what
happens?
 Thevoids will be
completely filled with water.

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10
 Zero Air Voids

 Ifwe try to compact beyond the point where all air

voids are gone, one of two things happens.
 Waterleaves the soil, the moisture content is reduced.
 The water prevents further compaction.

 Foreach moisture content, there is a unique

density where all of the voids are filled with water.
 Furthercompaction (increase in dry density) is not
possible without removing water.
 This density is Zero Air Voids Density (ZAVD).
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Evaluating Compaction in the Field

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 Evaluating Compaction

 We need a criteria for adequate compaction.

 We measure the dry density of the fill to evaluate
its compaction.
 What dry density is good enough?
 We need a benchmark to which we can compare
our measurements.

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Compaction Standards

 Projectspecifications typically require compaction

to some percentage of a maximum dry density
(often 95%) – referred to as relative compaction
 However,the maximum dry density will not be the
same for all soils.
 Therefore,
we need a method to determine the
maximum dry density value for each soil.

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12
 Laboratory Compaction Tests

 Compaction or Proctor Tests

Mold
establish the maximum dry
density for a particular soil.
 Theyaccomplish this by
compacting soils in a mold Hammer

using a drop hammer.

 Thedry density of the
resulting sample is obtained.

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How Much Compaction Energy?

 Notonly will the maximum dry density be different for

each soil, but it will also depend on the amount of
energy we use to compact the soil.
 We solve this dilemma with a laboratory test using a
standard amount of compaction energy.
 The amount of energy is based on the weight of the
hammer, the height of drop, the number of hammer
blows per layer, and the number of layers.
 These tests are typically called compaction tests or
proctor tests.
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13
 Does the Moisture Content Matter?

• Now we have a standard

energy for establishing a
maximum dry density.
• Does the moisture content at
which the sample is compacted
matter?

Yes!
• What moisture content do we
use for the standard?
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Yes, Moisture Content Matters

 Moisture in a soil acts as a lubricant; it allows the soil

particles to be more easily pushed into a denser
state.
 Can there be too much moisture?
Yes!
 As the percentage of voids filled with water
increases, additional compaction becomes more
difficult (approaching ZAVD).

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14
 Compaction Curves

 Wecompact a series of samples with different

moisture contents.
 The same energy is used for each sample.
 We plot the resulting dry density for each sample
as a function of compaction moisture content.
 The result is a moisture density relation.
 More
commonly referred to as a Proctor curve or
compaction curve.

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Moisture Density Relation

Peak density is ZAVD

Curve

the maximum dry Maximum Dry Density

density. gd (2)

Moisture content gd (3)

at the peak is the gd (1)

optimum gd (4)

moisture content.
Also plot the
ZAVD curve w (1) w (2) w (3) w (4)

Optimum Moisture Content

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15
 Two Compaction Standards

 The maximum dry density for a given soil depends

on the amount of energy to compact each point on
the curve.
 Twocommon standards:
 ASTM D698 Laboratory Compaction
Characteristics of Soil Using Standard Effort
 ASTM D1557 Laboratory Compaction
Characteristics of Soil Using Modified Effort
 AASHTO and many DOTs also have standards.

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Two Compaction Standards

 ASTM D698 - Standard Proctor test.

Standard
 ASTM D1557 - Modified Proctor test. Hammer

 Standardsdefine hammer weight,

hammer drop, blows per layer, and
number of layers (i.e. the amount of
energy).
 Standard Proctor – 5.5 lbs, 12 inches, 3
layers
 Modified Proctor - 10 lbs, 18 inches, 5
layers
Modified
 Modified
energy is about five times Hammer
Standard energy.
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16
 Two Compaction Standards

 The Modified maximum

dry density will be higher Modified
than the Standard.
 The Modified optimum
moisture content will be
lower than the Standard Standard
curve.
 Increasing compaction
energy shifts results up
and left.
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Clean Granular Soils

 Compaction tests on clean

granular soils often do not
produce good results.
 Measured MC not MC
during compaction
 Analternative method is
needed for these soils.
 We use the concept of
relative density.
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17
 Relative Density

 Relativedensity is based on the premise that there

is a minimum density and a maximum density for a
soil.
 Project
specifications require compaction to some
percentage of the range between the minimum and
maximum densities.
 ASTM D4253 and D4254 are procedures for
determining the maximum and minimum densities,
respectively.
 Applicable to soils with up to 15% non-plastic fines.
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Minimum Density (ASTM D4254)

 Pouroven dried soil into a

compaction mold in a manner to
achieve a minimum density.
 Strike
of the top of the mold,
minimizing disturbance
(compaction) of the soil.
 Weigh the mold and soil.
 Calculate the minimum density.

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 Maximum Density (ASTM D4253)

 Soil placed in mold.

 Surcharge on soil.
 Mold is shaken on a vibratory
table for a specified time.
 Measureheight of sample
and weight of sample.
 Calculate maximum density.

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Use of Relative Density in the Field

 Relative Density, DR

DR = [(d – dmin) / (dmax – dmin)] x (dmax / d) x 100

 Various correlations with Proctor values

 95% RC (standard proctor) y 70% DR (USBR Earth Manual)

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 Use of Relative Density in the Field

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Alternatives to ASTM Methods

 Vibrating tables are problematic.

 USACE – Modified Providence Method: Similar to
ASTM, except for maximum density, vibrate sample
by striking mold with a mallet.
 ASTM D7382 –Maximum Dry Unit Density with
Vibratory Hammer. Develops a maximum dry
density using commercial vibrating hammer

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 Earthwork Operations

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Earthwork Placement

 Fill
is placed on an approved
subgrade.
 Fill is placed in thin lifts.
 Each lift is compacted.
 Measure dry density and compare
to maximum dry density
determined in the laboratory.
 When the specified relative
compaction is achieved, another lift
is placed. 42

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 Earthwork Placement

 Typical lift thickness: 8 to 12 inches.

 Thicker lifts may result in low densities at the bottom
of the lift.
 Each lift is compact by a number of roller passes.
 The number of roller passes required depends on …
 Roller size
 Lift thickness
 Compaction moisture content

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Suitable Compaction Moistures

 Range
of moistures at which we can easily achieve
compaction.
 Compaction on the dry side of this range can be
achieved by applying more compaction energy.
 The range of moisture content on the wet side of the
curve where we can compact the soil is limited by
the ZAVD curve.

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 Suitable Moisture Contents

Dry of Optimum Wet of Optimum

Max. Dry
Density

95% RC

12.4% 18.0% 20.3%

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Types of Rollers

 Twobasic types
 Smooth drum
 Sheepsfoot

 Smooth drum used for

granular soils
 Sheepsfoot used for fine-
grained, cohesive soil
 Rollersoften include drum
vibrators
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 Earthwork Observation and Testing

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Observation and Testing

 Earthworkis typically observed and tested by testing

agency retained by the owner or contractor.
 The
testing agency evaluates whether the contractor is
meeting the earthwork specs.

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 Observing Earthwork Operations

 The testing agency should …

 Classify the soil being placed. Confirm it meets
the project specifications.
 Visually evaluate the moisture content. Does it
appear wet or dry of optimum.
 Check the lift thickness is in accordance with the
specs.
 Observe the compaction of each lift. Note the
roller pattern and number of passes.
 Observe the behavior of the fill during
compaction.
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Field Density Testing

 After
a lift has been compacted,
we evaluate the relative
compaction by running a field
density test.
 Common types of field density
tests.
 Sand Cone Test (ASTM D1556)
 Nuclear Gauge Test (ASTM D6938)
 Drive Cylinder Test (ASTM D2937)

 Testresults are compared to the

laboratory compaction curve. 50

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 Evaluating Test Results

 Compare the dry density from

the FDT to the maximum dry
density from the laboratory
compaction test.
 Plot
the test result (dry density &
moisture content) on the
compaction curve to check it’s
reasonableness.

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Evaluating Results

 Test A
 Moisture close to
optimum ZAVD

 Density greater than

95% of maximum dry
density
A

95%

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 Evaluating Results

 Test B
 Density is less than 95%
 Moisture content well ZAVD

above optimum.
 More energy may help, but
difficult to achieve
compaction
 May need to dry the soil
95%

53

Evaluating Results

 Test C
C
 Density > 100%
 Not necessarily wrong
ZAVD
 High compaction
energy
 However, check to
make sure it’s the
correct curve
95%

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 Evaluating Results

 Test D
 Inadequate density
 Can achieve density at
ZAVD
this moisture by adding
more energy
 Adding moisture will make
it easier.

95%

D
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Evaluating Results

 Test E
 Density is OK
 Moisture content is high
ZAVD
 What’s wrong with this
test? E
 It’s an impossible result.

95%

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 Evaluating Results
It’s Not Just About Testing

 Observations during fill placement

are as important as the test
results.
 Visual evaluation of moisture content
 Lift thickness and roller pattern
 Behavior of fill during compaction

 Consistent
placement and
compaction procedures will
produce consistent results.

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Behavior During Compaction

 Behaviorsthat indicate
inadequate compaction:
 Pumping
 Rutting
 Cracking

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 Behavior During Compaction

 Behaviorsthat indicate
adequate compaction:
 Sheepsfoot Roller Walking-
out
 Elimination of ridges

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Evaluating Results
Picking the Right Curve

 Laboratory compaction curves are

developed for different fill soils used
on each project.
 The number of compaction curves for
each project may vary from one or
two to dozens, depending on the size
of the project and the variability of
the soils.
 Itis critical to select the correct
compaction curve.
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 Evaluating Results - Example

• FDT on MH soil. FDT dry density = 96 pcf

• Three curves for MH soils on this project.
• Results very from 90% to 105%
• How do we pick the right curve?

MDD = 91 pcf MDD = 102 pcf MDD = 107 pcf

61

Picking the Right Curve

 Visually classify the fill soils tested.

 Select a Proctor curve with the same soil
classification and similar gradation.
 Your “gut feeling” about the degree of compaction can
also guide you on the selection of the curve.
 If you think the soil is near (wet of, dry of) optimum,
pick a curve that supports this conclusion.
 One-point compaction test can help.
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 One-point Compaction Test

 Compact a sample in the mold

using the appropriate
compaction standard.
 Determineits moisture content
and dry density.
 This
moisture content – dry
density pair should plot on the
curve for the appropriate
compaction curve.
63

One-point Compaction Example

 One-point results – 100 pcf @18% MC

 Since the same energy is used, the point should
plot on the correct curve.
 Use the middle curve.

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 Other Testing Issues

 Frequency of testing
 Nuclear gauge check tests
 Moisture content
 Density

 Oversize correction.

65

Frequency of Testing

 Conduct at least one FDT on each lift of fill.

 Most specs require a test for a certain area of fill or
for a certain volume of fill (i.e. one test every 5000 sf
or one test every 1000 cy)
 Ifthe specs are silent on the test frequency, conduct
a test for every 10,000 sf (100’ x 100’) of area, or
fraction thereof.

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 Nuclear Gauge Check Tests

• Moisture content errors in certain soils

– Hydrogen other than in water
– Boron, chlorine and cadmium

• ASTM D6938 requires periodic checks

of moisture content by a non-nuclear
method.
• Some specifications (USACE, FAA),
require periodic check tests of the
nuclear gauge density results using the
sand cone or drive cylinder method.
67

Oversize Corrections

 Samples compacted in the laboratory

have oversized particles removed.
 If oversize particles are present in the
field, they will inflate dry density
results (non-conservative).
 When oversize particles are present,
an oversize correction must be
applied (ASTM D4718)

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 What if We Can’t Achieve Compaction?

69

Corrective Actions

 Ifcontinued compaction effort does not

achieve compaction …
 Check for test errors.
 Make sure you are using the right
compaction curve.
 Adjust the moisture content
 Increase compaction energy

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 Test Errors

 Nuclear gauge errors.

 Moisture / density errors in the
gauge.
 Gauge proximity.
 Testing in a trench or near some
barrier.

 Vibrations during sand cone

testing.
 Will result in low densities

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Adjust Moisture Content

 Wrong moisture content

makes compaction
difficult (impossible).
 Add water.
 Scarify and dry soil.
 Chemical drying
agents.

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 Increase Compaction Energy

 Bigger roller.
 More roller passes.
 Thinner lifts.

73

Summary

 Compactfill to increase strength and decrease

compressibility.
 Compactionprocess: excavate fill, transport,
place, compact, evaluate compaction, repeat.
 Compaction effectiveness depends on the amount
of energy applied and the moisture content of the
soil at the time of compaction.
 Soil can be either too wet or too dry for compaction.

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 Summary

 Evaluate compaction effectiveness by …

 Observing the compaction process (lift thickness, number of
roller passes, behavior during compaction).
 Measuring dry density in the field and comparing it to
laboratory maximum dry density.

 Selecting the correct lab curve for comparison is

critical.
 Bealert for test results that don’t look right or are just
impossible.

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Questions?

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