Volume of the International Symposium

The Image of Divinity in the Neolithic and Eneolithic.

Ways of Communication
(Sibiu, Romania, 26th-28th October 2017)
 Proiect aprobat și finanțat de Consiliul Județean Suceava

Committee:
President:
Professor Sabin Adrian Luca (Lucian Blaga University from Sibiu, Brukenthal National
Museum, Romania)
Members:
Professor Gheorghe Lazarovici (Lucian Blaga University from Sibiu, Romania)
Ph.d. Magda Lazarovici (Institute of Archeology, Iași, Romania)
Professor Marin Cârciumaru (Valahia University from Târgoviște, Curtea Domnească
Târgoviște National Museum Complex, Romania)
Professor Nicolae Ursulescu (Alexandru Ioan Cuza University from Iași, Romania)
Ph.d. Constantin-Emil Ursu (The Bucovina Museum, Romania)
Ciprian Anghel Ștefan (ASTRA National Museum Complex, Romania)
Ph.d. Anamaria Tudorie (Lucian Blaga University from Sibiu, Romania)

Descrierea CIP a Bibliotecii Naţionale a României

THE IMAGE OF DIVINITY IN THE NEOLITHIC AND ENEOLITHIC. International
symposium (2017 ; Sibiu)
Volume of the International Symposium : The Image of Divinity in the Neolithic and
Eneolithic : Ways of Communication (Sibiu, Romania, 26th-28th October 2017). - Suceava
: Editura Karl A. Romstorfer, 2018
ISBN 978-606-8698-26-7

902

Muzeul Bucovinei
© Editura Karl A. Romstorfer, Suceava
Str. Stefan cel Mare - 33, Suceava - 720003
Tel.: 004-0230-216439; Fax: 004-0230-522979
mail: contact@muzeulbucovinei.ro
www.muzeulbucovinei.ro
 CONTENT

Gheorghe Lazarovici, The Image of Man and Divinity from Paleolithic to Present.
Related to Rock Art……………………………………………………………………. 5

Juraj Pavúk, Aneta Bakamska, Zur Typologie und Chronologie der neolithischen
anthropomorphen Plastik auf dem Balkan..................................................................... 47

Joan Marler, Sacred Communication in Context the Earliest Neolithic in the Balkan
Peninsula……………………………………………………………….…………….. 67

Miriam Robbins Dexter, Neolithic Female Figures and their evolution into groups
of F erocious and B eneficent H istoric-Age G oddesses, Fairies a nd
Witches………………………………………………………………………………... 81

Atilla Nándor Hágó, György Szakmány, A Unique Clay Figurine Fragment from
Carei-Kozárd (Satu-Mare County, Romania)………………………………………… 93

Pál Raczky, András Füzesi, Alexandra Anders, Domestic and Symbolic Activities
on a Tell-Like Settlement at Öcsöd-Kováshalom in the Tisza Region…………………… 117

Tibor-Tamás Daróczi, A Phenomenology of Godhood. Agencies of Human Sk ulls

and Complete Animal Skeletons During the Neolithic and Copper Age of the Eastern
Carpathian Basin……………………………………………………………………... 141

Ana-Maria Păpureanu, Florentina Marțiș, Anamaria Tudorie, Sabin Adrian

Luca, Data A bout T wo B uttons and a B ead, M ade of Spondy lus G aederopus
Linnaeus, 1758. Discoveries from Tărtăria-Gura L uncii – 2014
Campaign……………………………………………………………………………... 173

Cornelia-Magda Lazarovici, Cucuteni Pots with Human Face. Shapes, Decoration

and Meanings................................................................................................................. 193

Adela Kovács, The Antropomorphus Vessels from Botoșani County Museum and the
Metaphore of the Feminine Body…………………………………………………… 211

Alexandru Berzovan, Religion and Magic in the Iron Age Fortress of Stâncești,
Botoșani County (6th – 3rd Centuries BC)……………………………………………... 229

Iharka Szücs-Csillik, Zoia Maxim, "Crown" constellation: s ymbol and

sign................................................................................................................................. 241

Marco Merlini, The Pagan Artemis-Diana Attending the Christian Annunciation in

a Post-Byzantine Athonite Fresco…………………………………………………….. 251
 RELIGION AND MAGIC IN THE IRON AGE FORTRESS
OF STÂNCEȘTI, BOTOȘANI COUNTY (6TH – 3RD
CENTURIES BC)

Alexandru BERZOVAN
Romanian Academy, Iași Institute of Archaeology, Romania
berzovanalexandru@gmail.com

Abstract: The present study aims to address a series of issues related to the religious
and magical beliefs and practices of communities that have lived in the forts of Stâncești,
mainly from the data published in the dedicated archaeological monograph. Of special
interest is a pit belonging to the first stage of habitation. Four human skulls were
discovered there, alongside two skeletons of headless animals, hearth debris, pots, and a
stone grindstone. It could represent the material remains of ritual involving human
sacrifices. Also in connection with some magical practices can be the anthropomorphic
figurines. In the two fortresses of Stânceşti eight such pieces were discovered, in all three
stages of dwelling. Glass eye beads may also be related to certain superstitions, as in the
Mediterranean world such pieces were used as amulets against the evil eye.
Keywords: Stâncești, Iron Age, Getae, Human Sacrifice, Anthropomorphic figurines, Eye
Beads, Pintaderae.

1. Introduction
Between the 1960s and 1970s, a team led by the late archaeologist Adrian C.
Florescu carried out excavations in the two large fortresses in Stânceşti. The results of
these investigations brought to light a significant number of aspects related to the material
culture of the Getae tribes that inhabited the northern area of the Moldavian Plateau at the
turn of the Early and the Late Iron Age.
Situated on the outskirts of Mihai Eminescu commune (see Pl 1/1 and 2),
occupying a slightly elevated plateau above the surrounding areas, the two fortresses were
defended with ramparts and ditches that even today reach large dimensions, being a
testimony of large collective efforts (Florescu, Florescu, 2012; RAJ Botoșani 2016, 290
with the bibliography).
The chronology of the forts as of yet is not without its problems, mostly due to
the sometimes confusing information in the monograph (see for a short discussion
Măndescu 2010, 73-74). However, until future researches will bring the necessary
clarifications, we shall use the conclusions put forward by the authors of the excavation.
According to them, the evolution of the forts can be divided into three distinct stages.
Thus, in a first stage, dated between 6th and 5th centuries BC, Fort I was raised. Later,
during the 4th century BC, probably due to a demographic and economic increase, Fort
II is being built, adjacent to the first. It is the period of maximum development reached
by the community. In the third stage, dated in the 3rd century BC, the community
undergoes a decline, leading to the abandonment of Fort II. The complete abandonment
seems to happen sometime at the end of the 3rd century BC, and is probably connected

229
with the advance of the Poienești - Lukasevka culture in the area of Moldavian Plateau,
whose bearers had been identified with the historically warrior-tribes of the Bastarnae.
The present study aims to address a series of issues related to the religious and
magical beliefs and practices of communities that have lived in the forts of Stâncești. We
shall not discuss the symbolism of some artifacts belonging to the famous hoard, as these
were produced in the Scythian environment and we do not know if the local inhabitants
of Stâncești fort attributed them any symbolical value (Berzovan 2016b).

2. The pit with human and animal remains

Of particular interest in the problem we are discussing is a sunken complex
reported in the Fort 1 of Stânceşti, situated in a relatively central position compared to
the other traces of habitation (Florescu, Florescu 2012, 115). Unfortunately, the
incomplete documentation, the absence of material analyzes on the bones, as well as the
sometimes confusing descriptions given by the authors of the excavation –a common
problem in the entire monograph as it has been pointed out (Бруяко 2014, 41) - do not
permit a very accurate reconstruction.
The complex (Pl. 2) appeared at a depth of 1.90 m from the surface of the soil,
presenting itself as a pyriform pit with dimensions between 3.10 x 2.65 m and 1.70 x
0.95, respectively. From a stratigraphic point of view, it belongs to the first stage of
habitation. The shape of the pit is approximately oval, with a maximum depth of 2.60 m
from the surface. The filling of the complex was slow. In the eastern part of the pit we
can observe the presence of a spared threshold, at a depth of 2.60 m, on which the skeleton
of a headless animal was laid (Pl. 2/1).
In the deepest part of the pit, in the area of the northern wall, there is yet another
headless animal skeleton (Pl. 2/2). At approx. 0.5 m south of it, a human skull was found;
face up, devoid of the lower and upper jaw (Pl. 2/3). At a distance of 0.5 m south of it,
three other distinct human skull caps were identified from three distinct individuals,
located at a small distance from each other and apparently face down (Pl. 2/4-6).
In the central area of the pits, on a surface of 1.70 x 1.20 m, fragments of burned
hearth with numerous traces of ash, charcoal and small animal bones were signaled. To
the north of the hearth was found an oval grindstone (Pl. 2/7), with a diameter of 0.45 x
0.30 m, and near it a jar and a bowl, partially resealable, both of them hand-made (Pl. 2/8,
9).
Unfortunately, the lack of analyzes on the osteological material, currently lost
(Florescu, Florescu 2012, 116), does not allow us to enter too much detail. The only study
dedicated to the osteologicall analysis of the animal bones found in Stâncești does not
mention at all this complex (Haimovici 1974, 55-62). For example, it would have been
interesting to see whether or not the four skulls show signs of violence or burning. All we
know is that, according to the authors of the discovery, one of the skulls likely belonged
to a teenager.
The problem of the presence of human skulls and generally of human remains in
non-funerary contexts has been extensively discussed in the specialized literature (Sîrbu
1993, 33, most recently Przybyla et al., 37-45, with examples from the Early Iron Age to
Migration Period). For example, for the Early Iron Age, at the level of the East Carpathian
Space, there are several discoveries of human skulls deposited in complexes located
within settlements (see Niculiţă et al., 2016, 131-132). In the Late Iron Age, in the 5th-
3rd centuries BC, situations similar to those in Stânceşti are known in the East-Carpathian
area at Saharna Mică or Trebujeni-Potârca (Niculiţă et al., 2014, 272-273), Cândeşti
(Florescu, Florescu 2012, etc.). The number of such discoveries increases for the classical

230
period of Ancient Dacia, in the 2nd century BC - 1st century AD period (Sîrbu 2004, 91;
Sîrbu 2008, 85; Przybyla et al. 2010, 38; see also Sîrbu, Davîncă 2014).
Discoveries of this type, dated to the end of the Early Iron Age, are also known in
the North-Pontic steppe and forest-steppe. For example, a jaw of a woman was discovered
in a probably cultic complex located in the "Scythian” fort of Severynivka, Vinnytska
District, Ukraine, situated less than 200 km east of Stânceşti. Besides, a significant
number of archaeological finds of human heads are known in the "Scythian" forest-steppe
(see discussion at Shelekhan et al. 2016, 197-199).
As for the interpretation of skull depositions, they have been linked either to some
peculiar funerary practices, human sacrifices (see Sîrbu 1993, 33-34), possibly an
ancestral worship or a cult of the skull (Sîrbu 1993, 35) the latter supposed by some
authors to have existed in the culture of the northern Thracian tribes (Sanie 1999, 118)
and neighboring populations.
Returning to the discussed case from Stânceşti, in the absence of anthropological
and archaeozoological data, the interpretation of the complex seems to be difficult. But
there are some clues that could help us to formulate a few hypotheses. It is worth noticing
the central position, within the enclosure, which might suggest that we could be dealing
with the outcome of a communal, public ritual, eventually related to the time when the
fortress and the settlement were founded. We also believe that in the present case it is less
likely that the four skulls belong to war prisoners, enemies or individuals who have in
some way violated the rules of social conduct – if such, they would have been placed
either at the entrance to the city, to serve as an example or to frighten enemies, or
somewhere outside. And if it were the ancestors' remains - as the authors of the discovery
(Florescu, Florescu 2012, 115) assumed at some point - it would have been more natural
for them to be placed in a more complex structure. Perhaps an eventual cult of the
ancestors at Stâncești might be documented by the two mounds embedded within the
second fortress, if future investigations would prove that they are indeed funerary mounds
and are contemporary - at least partially - with the forts.
The inventory of the pit, viewed through its symbolism, could lead us to the idea
of an agrarian rite. The grinding stone is used to grind grains, to produce food. The jar is
a vessel commonly used for storing and eating food, and the bowl is a dish used to
consume it. Ash, animal bones, may indicate food offerings, maybe even a feast. Thus,
the ritual could have served to ensure the prosperity of the community, the ceremony
being strengthened, according to the custom of the times, by the sacrifice of four
individuals. However, we also need to take into account other possibilities regarding a
longer use of the complex, taking into account the observation of the authors of the
excavation regarding its slow filling.

3. Antropomorphic figurines
Often related to magical and religious practices are the anthropomorphic
figurines, quite widespread in the Getae fortresses at the level of the 5th-3rd centuries BC
(Zanoci 1998, 78), as well as in unfortified settlements (see Berzovan et al. 2017, 175).
In the two fortresses of Stânceşti eight such pieces were discovered (Pl. 3). From the point
of view of their distribution, two were found in complexes belonging to the first phase,
three in the second phase, the third phase belonging to three copies (Florescu, Florescu
2012, 117). Three of the pieces were found in dwellings.
From a morphological point of view, the pieces were made in a simplistic manner,
apparently from a single clay baton. Typically, seven of the eight can be classified into
the 5th category according to Valeriu Sîrbu, of the figurines formed basically only from
the head and legs, without hands, but with the sometimes expressive rendering of the

231
facial details (Serbu 1993, 60). Of these, one of them seems to render a female character
(Pl. 3/1). A particular type is represented by piece nr. 8 (Pl. 3/8). It is crossed by a
longitudinal channel, probably for fixing on a wooden stick. The upper part appears to
have at least three distinct pairs of "eyes”.
As for anthropomorphic figurines, it is believed that they could have been used in
various magical practices that aimed at harming, healing, or obtaining benefits in respect
of the person whose body was "replicated" in clay (see Sîrbu 1993, 58 -61; Sanie 1999,
64). For the Mediterranean world, there is a significant number of written sources that
refer to the use of clay, wax or bronze figurines in magical practices (Faraone 1989, 294-
300; Faraone 1991). For the Ancient Middle East there are numerous recipes of spells
with an apotropaic role involving the use of various categories of figurines (see Darby
2014, 75-81 especially 81-91).
Also, we cannot rule other interpretations, that in some cases some of the figurines
might in fact render minor, protective spirits of the house and animals similar to the Lares
of the Roman world (Crişan 1986, 399-400).

4. Between aesthetics and superstition. The glass eye-beads.

Certain information about the minor superstitions of those who have lived in the
forts of Stânceşti can be offered to us by another category of artifacts: the so-called „eye
beads” found in all stages of habitation, especially in the second and third (Pl. 4/2-7).
The glass eye beads are widely in the Eastern Carpathian space at the level of the
4th-3rd century BC (Zanoci 1998, 88, Arnăut 2003, 136), for example at Poiana (Teodor
et al.1997, 29-30), Buneşti – Dealul Bobului (Bazarciuc 1979, 34, Bazarciuc 1983,
Poiana Mănăstirii - Între Șanțuri (Berzovan 2016a, 220), etc., being also very popular
artifacts during the entire Antiquity (see for example Eisen 1916, Tempelmann-
Maczynska 1985, 48-52, etc.).
Besides their unquestionable aesthetic aspects, these pieces could also have been
also cherished for their apotropaic role; such functions are demonstrated for the eye beads
found in the Pontic Greek environment (Столба 2009, 109-128; Dzneladze, Symonenko
2010, 204), but also in other areas (for ex. Perego 2010, 75). Even in the present day, in
Greece and the Levant, very similar pieces are used as protection against the „evil eye”
(see Dundes 1992; Yoleri et al.2006, 104-113).

5. The clay pintadera.

Possibly related to certain magic and religious practices might be a pintadera
made of burnt clay (Pl. 4/1). Unfortunately, the authors of the monograph do not give us
enough information about the discovery context of this artifact. Furthermore, the
fragmentary character of the piece does not allow us to reconstruct the decorative motifs.
Artifacts similar as the one we discuss are well known at the turn between the
Early and the Late Iron Age (see an extensive discussion at Бруяко 2014, 39-49). The
functionality of such pieces is difficult to establish. In the literature there are various
opinions. Pintaderas could have been used to obtain decorated dough’s, or more likely,
in making temporary markings and paintings. In this latter case, the absence of visible
traces of pigments may be explained in some cases by the abrasive washing to which the
archaeological artifacts are often subjected once taken from the ground, but further
analyses are needed.
The practice of tattoo and body painting is well attested by ancient sources for the
northern Thracian tribes, including the Getae (Crișan 1986, 91-94), and as parallels from
ethno archaeology show, this practice might have had not just aesthetic purposes but also

232
social and even religious ones. The pintadera could be used to make temporary markings,
thus being used in various rites.

6. Final considerations
Although not very numerous, the elements presented here give us valuable
information about some of the beliefs and practices of the inhabitants of the two forts of
Stânceşti. On the whole, they are no major different from those observed in other
contemporary Getic communities, fitting into the cultural landscape of the era. It remains
for new findings to complement this preliminary picture.
It is interesting to note - so far - the absence of large public cult places, of a
necropolis – for commoners and royalty, as one would expect for such a large political
and administrative center that was built and maintained through a large effort, while
functioning seemingly uninterrupted for almost three centuries. However, we must keep
in account the fact that only a small fraction of the forts was excavated. For better or
worse, the forts of Stâncești still have much to offer for future researchers.

Acknowledgments
We thank Dr. Adela Kovács and Daniel Ciucălău (Botoșani County Museum) for
offering us photographs for some of the artifacts discussed in this paper.

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Plate 1. 1. The Carpatho-Danubian area and the location of Stâncești fort. 2. The two
forts of Stâncești (processed Google Earth image).

236
Plate 2. 1. The pit with human and animal remains: 1-2. Animal remains; 3-6. Remains
of human skulls; 7. Grinding stone; 8-9. Clay vessels.

237
Plate 3. Various clay anthropomorphic figurines, no scale (after Florescu, Florescu
2012).

238
Plate 4. 1. Pintadera (photo and drawing); 2-7. Glass eye beads (photo by Daniel
Ciucălău, Botoșani County Museum).

239