Second Mid Term

The following quantities associated to solar radiation are commonly measured:

Direct beam irradiance (Gn) is the energy flux density (units: W/m2) of the solar radiation
incoming from the solid angle subtended by the Sun‟s disk on a unitary surface perpendicular to
the rays.
Direct horizontal irradiance (Gb) differs from the direct beam irradiance in that it is
measured on a flat horizontal plane. (means it is the amount of radiation received by a
surface horizontal to the ground)
Lambert‟s cosine law states that the energy flux density on a plane surface is directly
proportional to the cosine of the incidence angle. Since the incidence angle of the solar
beam striking the horizontal ground is equal to sun the zenith angle

Diffuse irradiance (Gd) represents the energy flux density of the solar radiation incoming
from the entire sky dome on a horizontal surface, excluding the direct beam coming from
the Sun‟s disk.

Global irradiance (G) is the sum of the direct horizontal and diffuse components, given as:

The term ‘‘global’’ is associated to the fact that the solar radiation is received from the entire 2
solid angles of the sky vault.
We have seen below picture in our previous classes

Figure 2
The total irradiance (Gt) received by a surface tilted with an angle  in respect to the
horizontal plane (Fig.ure 2) is the sum of beam flux density, diffuse flux density, and the
additional flux density Gr of the solar radiation reflected from the ground, respectively.

where  is the incidence angle (i.e., the angle between the sun direction and the normal
to the surface (Fig. 2), Rd is the conversion coefficient taking into account the sky view
factor and Gr is the energy flux density of radiation reflected by the ground that is
intercepted by the tilted surface.
 SOLAR TIME

Solar Time is the time based on the apparent angular motion of the
sun across the sky with solar noon.

Solar Noon : The time the sun crosses the longitude (meridian) of
the observer.

Solar time is the time used in all of the sun-angle relationships; it

does not coincide with local clock time.

When earth is rotated by 1º, it corresponds to 4 minutes in the solar

time. (24 x 60/360 = 4‟)
 Standard time and time zone

Standard time is the synchronization of clocks within a

geographical area or region to a single time standard. Single standard
time is fixed according to the longitudes, which are the vertical lines
across the earth. The time of Greenwich is taken as the standard time
and named as Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). Also Greenwich
meridian is the 0º longitude.

Time Zone s a region of the globe that observes a uniform standard

time for legal, commercial, and social purposes. Time zones tend to
follow the boundaries of countries and their subdivisions because it
is convenient for areas in close commercial or
other communication to keep the same time.
 Solar time and standard time

What's the difference between Solar time and standard time?

Standard time is based on the 24 time zones. All clocks in a time

zone are set to standard time. For example, Pittsburgh and New York
City are in the Eastern Time Zone. If it is 1:15 pm in one city, it is
1:15 pm in the other.

Local time takes into consideration the actual location of the sun in
the sky based on the longitude. There are about 6 degrees of
difference in longitude between Pittsburgh and New York City, so
the sun reaches the highest point in the sky in NYC about 24
minutes earlier than it does in Pittsburgh.
Time Zones
 Equation of time

Due to the tilt of earth and non zero eccentricity (0.0167) of earth‟s orbit there is a
discrepancy of the apparent time (Time shown in the Sundials or can be said as
the current time) and the mean solar time (Time seen in the clocks).

The equation of time is given by

Where , n is the day of the year.

Where δ : Declination angle and n : number of day.

Equation of time
 Solar time and standard time

Relation Between the Solar time and standard time is given by

Lst is the standard meridian for the local time zone,

Lloc is the longitude of the location
E is the equation of time
SOLAR ANGLES
Relation between hour angle and Solar time

Angle of Incidence (θ) is given by,

and

cos θz = cos φ cos δ cos ω + sin φ sin δ, if β = 0

Hour Angle (ω) = (360/24)(T-12)

θ : Angle of incidence μ : Surface Azimuth angle

δ : Angle of Declination T : Solar Time
ω : Hour Angle μs :Solar Azimuth angle
Number of daylight hours
 Simplification of angle of incidence equation

For the angle of incidence of surfaces sloped due north or due south can be derived from the
fact that surfaces with slope β to the north or south have the same angular relationship to
beam radiation as a horizontal surface at an artificial latitude of φ − β.

cos θ = cos(φ − β) cos δ cos ω + sin(φ − β)sin δ, in northern hemisphere

and in southern hemisphere (φ − β) is replaced by (φ + β)
 Tutorial

(All given times are Solar time)

Tutorial
Tutorial
Tutorial
ANGLES FOR TRACKING SURFACES

cos θ = cos θz cos β + sin θz sin β

 Tutorial

1. Calculate the sun‟s altitude and azimuth angles at 9:00 a.m. solar time on September 21 at
33 degree N.

2. Find the solar altitude and azimuth angles in Tocumen (Panamá) on June 1 at 7 a.m (Local
time). Given- {Latitude L = 9.05 N (+), Longitude l(local) = 79.37 W (+), and Longitude
l(st) = 75 W (+) }

3. Determine the solar time and azimuth angle for sunrise at 58° N latitude on (A) June 21
and (B) December 22.

4. Calculate the hour angle at sunrise and sunset and total duration of sunshine on a plane
surface tilted at an angle of 40 degree. Given φ=28 degree N, δ=-21°and γ=48 degree.

5. (a) Calculate the angle of incidence of beam radiation, the slope of the surface, and the
surface azimuth angle for a surface at a φ = 40◦, δ = 21◦, and ω = 30◦ (2:00 PM) and
(b) φ = 40◦, δ = 21◦, and ω = 100◦ if it is continuously rotated about an east-west axis to
minimize θ.
 Instruments/Devices used to measure Solar Radiation

Radiometry is the science of electromagnetic radiation measurement.

The generic device is named radiometer.

Each of the quantities defined in previous section are measured with a specific
device;

Pyrheliometer that measures the direct beam irradiance

Pyranometer that measures the horizontal beam and diffuse irradiances (i.e.
Global irradiance (G) )
 What is pyrheliometer?

Pyrheliometer is an instrument using a collimated detector for measuring solar

radiation from the sun at normal incidence.
Pyrheliometer
•The pyrheliometer is a broadband instrument
that measures the direct beam component (Gn)
of solar radiation.
It means the instrument should be
permanently pointed toward the Sun.
A two-axis Sun tracking mechanism is most
often used for this purpose.

• The detector is a multi-junction thermopile

placed at the bottom of a collimating tube,
provided with a quartz window to protect
the instrument.

• The detector is coated with black paint (acting

as a full absorber for solar energy (in the
wavelengths range 0.280–3 um).

• The pyrheliometer aperture angle is 50.

Consequently, radiation is received from the
Sun and a limited circumsolar region, but all
diffuse radiation from the rest of the sky is
excluded.
• A readout device is used to give the instant
First class pyrheliometer (Hukseflux 2012).
value of the direct beam irradiance.
A pyranometer is an instrument for measuring total solar (beam plus
diffuse) radiation, usually on a horizontal surface.
Pyranometers: pyranometer is used to measure global solar radiation falling on a horizontal
surface. Its sensor has a horizontal radiation-sensing surface that absorbs solar radiation energy
from the whole sky (i.e. a solid angle of 2π sr)
•There are two types of pyranometers:
 thermopile pyranometers
semiconductor pyranometers.

•A thermopile pyranometer is the “true” pyranometer that actually measures the total
amount of radiation on a surface.
It has a thermopile detector (a device that converts thermal energy into electrical
energy) with strongly light-absorbing black paint that consumes all radiation from
the sun equally.
This Detector consists of two rings, out of one is black painted which acts as a
High absorbing material. And thermopile is attached to the detector.
Temperature difference is measured by thermopile, which results in a small voltage
at the sensor that can be measured and translated into W/m2.

• However, a semiconductor or silicon pyranometer uses a photodiode (a device that

converts light into current) to create an electrical signal from the incoming solar
radiation.

•The disadvantage of the silicon pyranometer is that its spectral sensitivity is limited,
which means it simply does not see the whole spectrum of the sun.
Pyranometer
Construction:

• Glass Domes: Glass Layers to remove the

dust particles.
• Sensor: made up of High absorber material.
Guard Plate
• Guard Plate: Provide mechanical support

• Leveling screw: to keep our system parallel to

Earth.

Working: Leveling screw

• It has a thermopile detector (a device that
converts thermal energy into electrical energy) Shading
with strongly light-absorbing black paint that Ring
consumes all radiation from the sun equally. To remove
the direct
• This creates a temperature difference in the radiation
device/instrument and results in a small voltage
at the sensor that can be measured and
translated into W/m2
Pyranometer-2012
Solar Energy
Solar collector is a device for collecting solar radiation and transfer the energy to
usable form. E.g. heat and electricity

Solar Thermal (Heat)

Solar Photovoltaic (Electricity)

Flat Plate Collector
Flat Plate Collectors:

Design & Construction

Working

Basic Equations

Effect of Dust on
Collectors

Efficiency

Liquid Heaters

Air Heaters
 Flat Plate Collector

• What is Flat Plate Collector?

Solar Thermal Collectors are special kind of heat exchangers that transform solar
radiation energy to internal energy of the transport medium. It collects, or captures,
solar energy and uses that energy to heat water using the well known greenhouse effect.

The major component of any solar system is the solar collector.

The solar energy thus collected is carried from the circulating fluid either directly to the
hot water or space conditioning equipment, or to a thermal energy storage tank from
which can be drawn for use at night and/or cloudy days.

The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet's atmosphere
warms the planet's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its
atmosphere. If a planet's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases called
greenhouse gases, they will radiate energy in all directions.

• Green House Gases : Carbon dioxide, Methane, Water vapor and Ozone.
 Construction of Flat Plate Collector

Types of solar collectors:-

• Non concentrating collectors
• Concentrating collectors

A typical flat-plate collector is a metal box with a glass or plastic cover on top and a
dark coloured absorber plate on the bottom. The sides and bottom of the collector are
usually insulated to minimize heat loss.
1. It is a Non concentrating type collector.
2. the collector area and the absorber area are numerically same.
3. The efficiency of flat plate collector is low
 Components of Flat Plate solar Collector

1. flat absorber plate

2. Tubes or channels
3. transparent glass sheet
4. Fiber glass insulation
5. Container encloses the whole assembly
in a box

• Flat absorber plate:- treated with a selective surface coating to increase the
fraction of incoming radiation absorbed.
- It is made of copper, steel or aluminum (having high thermal conductivity)
and having black surface.
- The thickness of the metal sheet ranges from 0.5 to 1.0 mm.
 Components of Flat Plate solar Collector
• Tubes or channels:- Flow tubes through which the heat transfer fluid circulates.
- They are soldered to the absorber plate.
- Water flowing through these tubes takes away the heat from the absorber plate.
- The diameter of tubes is around 1.25 cm, while that of the header pipe which leads water in and out
of the collector and distributes it to absorber tubes is 2.5 cm.
- The metal commonly used both for the absorber and tubes is copper.

• Transparent glass sheet:- limits the radiation and convection heat losses.
- Convection heat losses through a stagnant air layer between the absorber plate and the glass.
- Instead of using a single glass, we can use two glasses(One inner and outer) with vacuum in between,
so that amount
of heat due to conduction is reduced to minimum.
- Radiation loss are also reduced as the spectral transmissivity of glass is such that it transparent to
short wave radiation and nearly opaque to long wave thermal radiation emitted by interior collector
walls and absorbing plate.

• Insulation:- 2.5 to 8.0 cm thickness is provided at the bottom and on the sides in order to
minimize the heat loss(conduction losses).
- Materials used for insulation are fiber glass, mineral wool, rock wool.
 Components of Flat Plate solar Collector

• Container encloses the whole assembly in a box:-

- Contain the different elements.

- The commercially available collector have a face area of 2 m2.
- Thickness of the collector is 10-15 cm.
- The whole assembly is fixed on a supporting structure that is installed \
on a tilted position at a suitable angle.
- For the whole year, the optimum tilt angle of collector is equal to the
latitude of its location. During winter the tilt angle is kept 10-150 more
than the latitude of the location, while in summer it should be 10-150 less
than the latitude.
 Working PRINCIPLE

Stokes shift of peak of energy distribution with wavelength

• A good absorber is also a good emitter.

• The wavelength of the emitted radiation shifts as the temperature of the source changes
towards left (UV) for higher temperature and towards right (IR) for lower temperature.

• Since the temperature of the black body is lesser, it will shift towards the higher
wavelength region and heat up the system
 Working
Losses
Sources of Heat Radiation

Gain of Heat

Processes at a flat-plate collector

 A cover plate for a collector should have a high transmittance for solar
radiation and should n o t dete ri orate with time. The material most
commonly used is glass. A 0.32-cm thick sheet of window glass ( iron
content, 0.12 percent ) transmits 85 percent of solar energy at normal
incidence. And all glass is practically opaque to long-wavelength radiation
emitted by the absorber plate. Even though the plastics are cheaper and
thinner than the glass and will provide higher transmittance its not widely
used due to the lower durability.
 TRANSMITTANCE ( τ )-ABSORPTANCE ( α ) PRODUCT ( τα )

When the light is passed through the transparent object a part of the radiation is
lost due to the properties of the material used. A new parameter „τ‟ transmittance
and „α‟ absoptance is used to calculate the balance between the incident radiation
and the heat used. Of the incident energy, τ α is absorbed by the absorber plate
and (1 − α)τ is reflected back to the cover system. The reflection from the
absorber plate is assumed to be diffuse (and unpolarized) so the fraction (1 − α)τ
that strikes the cover system is diffuse radiation and (1 − α)τ ρ d is reflected back
to the absorber plate. The quantity ρ d refers to the reflectance of the cover system
for diffuse radiation incident from the bottom side.
 Energy Balance in Flat-Plate Collectors
• A fundamental concept for thermal analysis of any thermal system is the
conservation of energy, which can be analyzed through energy balance
calculation under steady state conditions.

• In steady state, the useful energy output of the collector is the difference
between the absorbed solar radiation and the total thermal losses from the
collector
Useful energy = Absorbed solar energy - Thermal losses

• Thermal efficiency of the collector is an important parameter to consider in

this kind of analysis as it creates the basis for comparison of different materials
and modifications of collector systems

where Qu is the useful energy output from a collector,

GT is the incident solar radiation flux (irradience)
Ac is the collector area.
In denominator, total energy input for the collector. In this formula the
GT is the parameter characterizing the external conditions, and it is usually known
from practical measurements (with a pyranometer).
See Ref: Chapter 6 of Duffie and Beckman's textbook
To find how much energy remains available for useful thermal
work, we need to understand the energy balance within the
collector: absorbed energy - losses.

where S is the absorbed solar radiation

UL is the total losses
Tplate is the temperature of the absorbing plate
Tambient is the temperature of the surrounding/air
Ac area of the collector surface.

See Ref: Chapter 6 of Duffie and Beckman's textbook

 how the quantity S is obtained ?
when measurements of incident solar radiation (IT) are available,
the convenient approximation for the absorbed energy is given
by:
S: Absorbed radiation per unit area

We have seen this expression from last class

where (τα)av is the product of transmittance of the collector cover
and absorptance of the plate averaged over different types of
radiation

how the UL is obtained ?

Reading Assignment ( Just have a look on the method)

Duffie, J.A., and Beckman, W.A., Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes, Wiley and
Sons, 2013, Chapter 6, Sections 6.1-6.4 (18 pages)
 Flat Plate Collector Performance and Characterization

• The maximum possible useful energy gain can be achieved when the collector is at the
same temperature as the inlet fluid.

• In this case, the heat losses are minimized. However, in an actual operation setting,
this is not always the case.

• To describe the effective (actual) useful energy gain via heat exchange, we should
introduce the heat removal factor - FR
• This coefficient shows how much energy remains after heat losses to the surrounding
due to collector and inlet temperature difference. Therefore, the energy balance
equation for the actual system can be written as follows

This flow factor depends FR on the mass flow rate of the fluid and
heat capacity,
The basic method of assessment of collector performance is:
 To expose the system to solar radiation
 Run the fluid through it
Measure the inlet and outlet temperature along with the flow rate.

Then the useful energy gain can be calculated from the experimental
data as follows

m‟ :Fluid mass flow rate, kg/s

Cp : Fluid specific heat, J/kg°C
To, Ti : Output temperature and input
temperature respectively.
 Tutorial
For a two-cover collector using glass plate with reflectance coefficient and an
absorber plate with α = 0.90 (independent of direction), find the transmittance-
absorptance product at an angle of 40◦
Solution

From Figure and τ at 40◦ is 0.75

Concentrating Collectors
 Table of Contents
1.Introduction.
2.Concentrating collectors
3.Types of concentrating collectors
3.1. Parabolic trough system
3.2. Parabolic dish system
3.3. Power tower system
 Introduction
•For applications such as air conditioning, central power generation, and
numerous industrial heat requirements, flat plate collectors generally cannot
provide carrier fluids at temperatures sufficiently elevated to be effective.

•Therefore more focused OR concentrating collectors can be used. These are

devices that optically reflect and focus incident solar energy onto a small
receiving area.

•As a result of this concentration, the intensity of the solar energy is

magnified, and the temperatures that can be achieved at the receiver (called the
"target") can approach several hundred or even several thousand degrees
Celsius.

•The concentrators must move to track the sun if they are to perform
effectively.
 Concentrating collectors

Concentrating, or focusing, collectors intercept direct radiation

over a large area and focus it onto a small absorber area.

These collectors can provide high temperatures more efficiently

than flat-plate collectors (max 90^0C), since the absorption
surface area is much smaller.

Most concentrating collectors require mechanical equipment that

constantly orients the collectors toward the sun and keeps the
absorber at the point of focus. Therefore; there are many types of
concentrating collectors .
3. Types of concentrating collectors

There are four basic types of concentrating collectors:

• Parabolic trough system

• Parabolic dish
• Power tower
• Stationary concentrating collectors
 3.1. Parabolic trough system
Parabolic troughs are devices that are shaped like the letter “u”.
The troughs concentrate sunlight onto a receiver tube that is
positioned along the focal line of the trough.

A transparent glass tube envelops the receiver tube to reduce

heat loss.
Their shapes are like letter “u” The parabolic trough sytem

Crossection of parabolic trough.

 Parabolic troughs often use single-axis or dual-axis
tracking.
one axis tracking parabolic trough with axis two axis tracking concentrator.
oriented E-W.

See this vedio: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VdL6C_O9ywU

Temperatures at the receiver can reach 400 °C for
generating electricity.

Parabolic trough
 3.2. Parabolic dish systems
A parabolic dish collector is similar in appearance to a
large satellite dish, but has mirror-like reflectors and an
absorber at the focal point. It uses a dual axis sun tracker .

crossection of parabolic dish. The Parabolic dish collector

Parabolic dish collector with a mirror-like reflectors and an

Crossection of parabolic dish absorber at the focal point
 •A parabolic dish system uses a computer to track the sun and
concentrate the sun's rays onto a receiver located at the focal
point in front of the dish.
• In some systems, a heat engine, such as a Stirling engine, is
linked to the receiver to generate electricity.
• Parabolic dish systems can reach 1000 °C at the receiver, and
achieve the highest efficiencies for converting solar energy to
electricity in the small-power capacity range.

solar dish stirling

engine.

Stiriling engine
A a machine used to provide
power or refrigeration, operating
on a closed cycle in which a
working fluid is cyclically
compressed and expanded at
different temperatures.

Solar dish stirling engine [9].

 3.3. Power tower system
A heliostat uses a field of dual axis sun trackers that direct
solar energy to a large absorber located on a tower. To date
the only application for the heliostat collector is power
generation in a system called the power tower.

The Power tower system Heliostats

Power tower system

•A power tower has a field of large mirrors that follow the sun's
path across the sky.
• The mirrors concentrate sunlight onto a receiver on top of a high
tower.
•A computer keeps the mirrors aligned so the reflected rays of the
sun are always aimed at the receiver, where temperatures well
above 1000°C can be reached.
•High-pressure steam is generated to produce electricity.
•The power tower system with heliostats is shown in the figure

Power tower system with heliostats

 How These Solar Power Plant Works

•Solar thermal power (electricity) generation systems collect and concentrate sunlight to
produce the high temperature heat needed to generate electricity.

•All solar thermal power systems have solar energy collectors with two main
components: reflectors (mirrors) that capture and focus sunlight onto a receiver. I

•In most types of systems, a heat-transfer fluid is heated and circulated in the receiver
and used to produce steam.

•The steam is converted into mechanical energy in a turbine, which powers a generator
to produce electricity.

•Solar thermal power systems have tracking systems that keep sunlight focused onto the
receiver throughout the day as the sun changes position in the sky.

•Solar thermal power systems may also have a thermal energy storage system component
that allows the solar collector system to heat an energy storage system during the day,
and the heat from the storage system is used to produce electricity in the evening or
during cloudy weather.
Organic Solar Cells
Solar Cell Efficiency Chart
 Outline

Organic Solar Cell (definition)

Classification (brief)

Construction of Single Layer Solar Cell

Working of a Single Layer Solar Cell

Need to understand some definitions:

Exciton
Homo
Lumo
 Why organic solar cell?

Classical photovoltaic solar cells based on inorganic

semiconductors (Silicon) was developed in 1954 by
Chapin, Fuller and Pearson in the Bell Labs.

• Some of its demerits of Si :

Silicon is expensive.
Not flexible
Limited availability of inorganic material
 Organic Solar cell

An organic solar cell device or organic photovoltaic cell (OPVC) is a

class of solar cell that uses conductive organic polymers or small
organic molecules for light absorption and charge transport.

A common characteristic of both the small

molecules and polymers (shown Fig 1) used as the
light-absorbing material in photovoltaics is that
they all have large conjugated systems.

A conjugated system is formed

where carbon atoms covalently bond with
alternating single and double bonds.

Fig 1: Organic materials/polymers

 Why organic solar cells?

Ease of Processing

Mechanical flexibility

Economically viable

Safer environment

Unlimited availability

Less expensive than inorganic materials (Si).

Compatibility (thin cells)

Classification of organic solar cell

We will discuss these structures step by step

 Single layer organic photovoltaic cells
(Construction & Working)

• Single layer OPV is made by sandwiching a layer

of organic electronic materials between two
metallic conductors, typically a layer of indium tin
oxide (ITO) with high work function and a layer of
low work function metal such as Aluminum,
Magnesium or Calcium.

• The difference of work function between the two

conductors sets up an electric field in the organic
layer.

• When the organic layer absorbs light, electrons

will be excited to the LUMO and leave holes in the
HOMO, thereby forming excitons.

• The potential created by the different work

functions helps to split the exciton pairs, pulling
electrons to the positive electrode and holes to the
negative electrode.
 Advantages of ITO
i) ITO is a ceramic material which is optically transparent (in thin layers)
as well as electrically conducting.

ii) It acts as a metal mirror for IR rays so that polymeric semiconducting

material will be protected from high heat.

iii) Higher work function compared to Aluminium.

Note: Work function of ITO : 6.04 eV, while work function of Aluminium is 4.2 eV.
 Exciton

• An exciton is a bound state of an electron and an electron hole which are

attracted to each other by the electrostatic Coulomb force. It is an electrically
neutral particle that exists in insulators, semiconductors and in some liquids.
 HOMO and LUMO States

• At room temperature, most electrons are in the bonding state,

which is also called the highest occupied molecular orbital state
(HOMO).
• The anti-bonding state can be considered as the lowest
unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO).
• The energy difference between the HOMO and LUMO levels
can be considered as the band gap of the polymer material.
 Bilayer Organic Solar Cell
• Bilayer solar cells contain two layers in between the conductive
electrodes.
• The two layers have different electron affinity and ionization
energies, therefore electrostatic forces are generated at the
interface between the two layers.
• Light creates excitons in this small charged region.
 Bi-Layer Organic Solar Cell
In a bilayer OPV cell, sunlight is absorbed in the photoactive layers composed of
donor and acceptor semiconducting organic materials to generate
photocurrents.

The two layers have different electron affinity and ionization energies, therefore
electrostatic forces are generated at the interface between the two layers

Construction
 What is electron affinity and Ionization Energy?

In chemistry and atomic physics, the electron affinity (Eea) of an atom or molecule is
defined as the amount of energy released or spent when an electron is added to a
neutral atom or molecule in the gaseous state to form a negative ion.
X + e− → X− + energy

The ionization energy (ionisation energy) is defined as the minimum amount of energy required
to remove the most loosely bound electron, the valence electron, of an isolated neutral gaseous
atom, molecule or ion.

The layer with higher electron affinity and ionization potential is the electron acceptor,
and the other layer is the electron donor
• As shown in Figure, Light incident on bilayer organic solar cells and excitons are
formed in which electrons are excited from the valence band into the conduction
band (Light Absorption).
• Due to the concentration gradient, the excitons diffuse to the donor/acceptor
interface (Exciton Diffusion)
• These excitons are separates into free holes (positive charge carriers) and electrons
(negative charge carriers) (Charge Separation).
• A photovoltaic is generated when the holes and electrons move to the
corresponding electrodes by following either donor or acceptor phase (Charge
Extraction).
Lets Recall on What we have discussed so far
• In past weeks, we have discussed:

 How to convert solar energy into electricity

 How to convert solar energy into heat water/air.

• Now we will discuss:

Conversion of Solar energy into chemical energy

 Which allows us to directly create fuel.

Solar Fuel
Q1. Why this is so important?

Q2. Why we want to create fuel instead of electricity OR heat?

 Why do we need solar fuel?

Ans: Since Sun does not always shine.

Solar energy is not always constant.

Two types of variation:

• Daily Variation: Difference between day and night
• Seasonal Variation: Sun irradiation in winter is not the same as in summer.

Also if even sun is not there, we expect our energy need to be always covered.
Hence we need some kind of storage to be able to create electricity requirements, even
If sun is not present.
 Problem in Current Energy Scenario

• Actually the biggest problem in the current energy scenario is not the production of
renewable energy but its storage.

• We know how to efficiently harvest the energy around us, but we do not have reliable
way to store it.
 Solar Fuel

• Today we will discuss on How to store solar energy in the form of chemical energy
in so-called solar fuels.
Examples:
Hydrogen (H2),
Carbon based fuels such as Methane (CH4), carbon monoxide (CO) and methanol (CH3OH)

A fuel is actually a molecule with a chemical bond that has captured energy, which
can be used when needed. We are now developing technologies that enable us to
capture energy from the sun and store it in chemical bonds, in hydrogen, methane or
methanol. These molecules are called solar fuels, which can not only be used for
transport and electricity generation, but also as feedstock in (the chemical) industry.

Feedstock: Raw material to supply or fuel a machine OR industrial process.

Q. How do we produce these Solar fuels?
 Photosynthesis

Nature has been converting the energy into chemical energy for a long time by
converting CO2 and water into oxygen and sugars using sun light.
This process is called photo synthesis.

Fuel
Now we want to utilize this process with inorganic semiconductor materials.
These materials are able to split a water molecule into a oxygen and H2 using the
energy of sunlight.
 Artificial Photosynthesis, Water Splitting

• Split a water molecule into oxygen and hydrogen using the energy of
sunlight. This process sometimes is referred as an artificial
photosynthesis.

2H2O2H2 + O2 (Electrolysis)
Tut done in the last classes
See class notes