Chapter2 Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates PDF

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Boolean Algebra & Logic Gates
28 July, 2018 INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC DESIGN

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OUTLINE OF CHAPTER 1
Basic Axiomatic Definition Basic Theorems Boolean

Definition of Boolean Algebra and Properties of Functions
Boolean Algebra
Canonical and Other Logic Digital Logic Integrated

Standard Forms Operations Gates Circuits

2.1 BASIC DEFINITIONS
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BASIC DEFINITIONS
• What is an algebra?
– Mathematical system consisting of
• Set of elements
• Set of operators
• Axioms or postulates
• Why is it important?
– Defines rules of “calculations”

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BASIC DEFINITIONS
• Example: arithmetic on natural numbers
– Set of elements: N = {1,2,3,4,…}
– Operator: +, –, *
– Axioms: associativity, distributivity, closure, identity elements, etc.
• Note: operators with two inputs are called binary

– Does not mean they are restricted to binary numbers!
– Operator(s) with one input are called unary

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BASIC DEFINITION
• A set is collection of having the same property.
– S : set, x and y : element or event
– For example: S = {1, 2, 3, 4}

• If x = 2, then x∈S.
• If y = 5, then y ∉S.

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BASIC DEFINITIONS
• A binary operator defines on a set S of elements is a rule that assigns, to
each pair of elements from S, a unique element from S.
– For example: given a set S, consider x*y = z.
• * is a binary operator.
– If (x, y) through * get z and x, y, z∈S, then

• * is a binary operator of S.
– if * is not a binary operator of S and x, y∈S, then

• z ∉ S.

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BASIC DEFINITION
The most common postulates used to formulate various algebraic structures are as
1. Closure. A set S is closed with respect to a binary operator if,
follows:
• For every pair of elements of S, the binary operator specifies a rule for
obtaining a unique element of S.
• For example, natural numbers N={1,2,3,...} is closed with respect to the

binary operator + by the rule of arithmetic addition, since, for any x,
y∈N, there is a unique z∈N such that
• x+y=z
• But operator – is not closed for N, because 2-3 = -1 and 2, 3∈N, but
• (-1)∉N.

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BASIC DEFINITIONS
2. Associative law. A binary operator * on a set S is said to be associative
whenever
• (x * y) * z = x * (y * z) for all x, y, z∈S

▪ (x+y)+z = x+(y+z)
3. Commutative law. A binary operator * on a set S is said to be

commutative whenever
• x * y = y * x for all x, y∈S
▪ x+y = y+x

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BASIC DEFINITIONS
4. Identity element. A set S is said to have an identity element with
respect to a binary operation * on S if there exists an element e∈S with
the property that
– e * x = x * e = x for every x∈S
• 0 + x = x + 0 = x for every x∈I. I = {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}.
• 1 * x = x * 1 = x for every x∈I. I = {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}.

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BASIC DEFINITION
5. Inverse. A set S is having the identity element e with respect to the
binary operator to have an inverse whenever, for every x∈S, there
exists an element y∈S such that
– x*y=e
• In the set of integers, I, the operator + over I with e = 0, the inverse of an
element x is (-x) since x+(-x) = 0.

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BASIC DEFINITION
6. Distributive law. If * and ．are two binary operators on a set S, * is
said to be distributive over ． whenever
– x * (y．z) = (x * y)．(x * z)

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BASIC DEFINITION
• The field of real numbers is the basis for arithmetic and ordinary
algebra. The operators and postulates have the following meanings:
– The binary operator + defines addition.
– The additive identity is 0.
– The additive inverse defines subtraction.
– The binary operator ．defines multiplication.
– The multiplicative identity is 1.
– The multiplicative inverse of x = 1/x defines division, i.e., x ．1/x = 1.
– The only distributive law applicable is that of ． over +:
• x ．(y+z) = (x ． y) + (x ． z)

2.2 AXIOMATIC DEFINITION OF
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
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AXIOMATIC DEFINITION OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

• We need to define algebra for binary values
– Developed by George Boole in 1854
• Huntington postulates for Boolean algebra (1904):

• B = {0, 1} and two binary operations, + and．
1. Closure with respect to operator + and operator ·
2. Identity element 0 for operator + and 1 for operator ·
3. Commutativity with respect to + and ·
x+y = y+x, x·y = y·x

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4. Distributivity of · over +, and + over ·
• x·(y+z) = (x·y)+(x·z) and x+(y·z) = (x+y)·(x+z)
5. Complement for every element x is x’ with x+x’=1, x·x’=0

6. There are at least two elements x,y∈B such that x≠y
• Terminology:
– Literal: A variable or its complement

– Product term: literals connected by •
– Sum term: literals connected by +

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• A two- valued Boolean algebra is defined:
– on a set of two elements, B = {0,1},
– with rules for the two binary operators + and •

– The rules of operations: AND、OR and NOT
AND OR NOT
X Y X Y X+Y X
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
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• Huntington postulates for the set B = {0,1} and the two binary operators
defined before.
1. Closure law
▪ 1,0∈B
2. Identity laws
▪ 0 for + and 1 for ·
3. Commutative laws
▪ x+y = y+x, x·y = y·x
4. Distributive laws
▪ x· (y+z) = (x·y) + (x · z)

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Distributive laws
x y z y+z x · (y + z) x·y x·z (x · y) + (x · z)

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

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5. Complement
– x+x‘ = 1 → 0+0‘ = 0+1 = 1; 1+1‘ = 1+0 = 1
6. Has two distinct elements

▪ 1 and 0, with 0 ≠ 1
• Note
– A set of two elements
– + : OR operation; ．: AND operation
– A complement operator: NOT operation
– Binary logic is a two-valued Boolean algebra

2.3 BASIC THEOREMS AND PROPERTIES
OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
BASIC THEOREMS AND PROPERTIES OF 22
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
• Duality Principle says that:
– if an expression is valid in Boolean algebra, then
– the dual of that expression is also valid.
• To form the dual of an expression:

– replace all + operators with · operators,
– all · operators with + operators,
– all 1’s with 0’s, and all 0’s with 1’s.

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
• Form the dual of the expression
x + (yz) = (x + y)(x + z)
• Following the replacement rules…

x(y + z) = xy + xz
• Take care not to alter the location of the parentheses if they are present.

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Postulates and Theorems of Boolean Algebra
Postulate 2, identity (a) x + 0 = x (b) x · 1 = x
Postulate 5, complementarity (a) x + x’ = 1 (b) x · x’ = 0
Theorem 1, idempotent (a) x + x = x (b) x · x = x
Theorem 2, involution (a) x + 1 = 1 (b) x · 0 = 0
Theorem 3, involution (x’)’ = x
Postulate 3, commutative (a) x + y = y + x (b) xy = yx
Theorem 4, associative (a) x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z (b) x(yz) = (xy)z
Postulate 4, distributive (a) x (y + z) = xy + xz (b) x + yz = (x + y) (x + z)
Theorem 5, DeMorgan (a) (x + y)’ = x’ y’ (b) (xy)’ = x’ + y’
Theorem 6, absorption (a) x + xy = x (b) x(x+y) = x

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
• Need more rules to modify algebraic expressions
– Theorems that are derived from postulates
• What is a theorem?
– A formula or statement that is derived from postulates (or other proven
theorems)
• Basic theorems of Boolean algebra

– Theorem 1 (a): x + x = x (b): x · x = x
– Looks straightforward, but needs to be proven!

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
• Theorem 1 (a) show that x+x = x. • Post. 2: (a) x+0=x, (b) x·1=x
• x+x = (x+x) ·1 by 2(b) • Post. 3: (a) x+y=y+x, (b) x·y=y·x
= (x+x)(x+x’) by 5(a) • Post. 4: (a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,

= x+xx’ by 4(b) (b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
= x+0 by 5(b) • Post. 5: (a) x+x’=1, (b) x·x’=0
=x by 2(a)
We can now use Theorem 1(a) in future proofs

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
• Theorem 1 (b) show that x·x = x. • Post. 2: (a) x+0=x, (b) x·1=x
• x·x = xx+0 by 2(a) • Post. 3: (a) x+y=y+x, (b) x·y=y·x
= xx+xx’ by 5(b) • Post. 4: (a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,

= x(x+x’) by 4(a) (b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
= x·1 by 5(a) • Post. 5: (a) x+x’=1, (b) x·x’=0
=x by 2(b) • Th. 1: (a) x+x=x,

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
• Theorem 2 (a) show that x+1 = 1. • Post. 2: (a) x+0=x, (b) x·1=x
• x + 1 = 1．(x + 1) by 2(b) • Post. 3: (a) x+y=y+x, (b) x·y=y·x
=(x + x')(x + 1) by • Post. 4: (a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,

5(a) (b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
= x + x' 1 by 4(b) • Post. 5: (a) x+x’=1, (b) x·x’=0
= x + x' by 2(b) • Th. 1: (a) x+x=x, (b) x.x=x

=1 by 5(a)

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
• Theorem 2(b): x．0 = 0 by duality • Post. 2: (a) x+0=x, (b) x·1=x
• Theorem 3: (x')' = x • Post. 3: (a) x+y=y+x, (b) x·y=y·x
– Postulate 5 defines the • Post. 4: (a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
complement of x, (b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
▪ x + x' = 1
• Post. 5: (a) x+x’=1, (b) x·x’=0
▪ x ． x' = 0
• Th. 1: (a) x+x=x, (b) x.x=x
– The complement of x' is x is also
(x')' • Th. 2: (a) x+1=1

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
• Absorption Property (Covering) • Post. 2: (a) x+0=x, (b) x·1=x
Theorem 6(a): x + xy = x
• Post. 3: (a) x+y=y+x, (b) x·y=y·x
• x + xy = x．1 + xy by 2(b)
• Post. 4: x(a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
= x (1 + y) by 4(a) y xy x+xy
= x (y + 1)by 3(a) (b) x+yz

0 = (x+y)(x+z)
0 0 0
0 1 0 0
= x．1 by Th. 2(a) • Post. 5: (a) x+x’=1, (b) x·x’=0
1 0 0 1
=x by 2(b)
• Th. 1: (a) x+x=x,
1 1 (b)1 x·x=x1
• Theorem 6(b): x (x + y) = x by duality
• Th. 2: (a) x+1=1, (b) x·0=0
• By means of truth table (another
way to proof )

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
• DeMorgan’s Theorem
• Theorem 5(a): (x + y)’ = x’y’
• Theorem 5(b): (xy)’ = x’ + y’
By means of truth table
x y x’ y’ x+y (x+y)’ x’y’ xy x’+y’ (xy)’

0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Consensus Theorem
1. xy + x’z + yz = xy + x’z
2. (x + y) • (x’ + z) • (y + z) = (x + y) • (x’ + z) -- (dual)
• Proof:
xy + x’z + yz = xy + x’z + (x + x’) yz
= xy + x’z + xyz + x’yz
= (xy + xyz) + (x’z + x’zy)
= xy + x’z

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
• The operator precedence for evaluating Boolean Expression is
– Parentheses
– NOT
– AND
– OR
• Examples
– x y' + z
– (x y + z)'

2.4 BOOLEAN
FUNCTIONS
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BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS
• A Boolean function consists of:
– Binary variables
– Binary operators OR and AND
– Unary operator NOT
– Parentheses
– The constants 0 and 1
• Examples
– F1= x y z'
– F2 = x + y'z
– F3 = x' y' z + x' y z + x y'
– F4 = x y' + x' z

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BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS
• For a given value of the binary variables, the function can be equal to
either 1 or 0.
• Consider as an example the following Boolean function:
– F1 = x + y’ z
– The function F1 = 1, if x = 1 OR if y’ = 1 and z = 1.
– F1 = 0 otherwise.
• The complement operation dictates that when y’ = 1 then y = 0.
• Therefore, we can say that

– F1 = 1 if x = 1 OR if y = 0 and z = 1.

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BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS
• A Boolean function expresses the logical relationship between binary
variables.
• It is evaluated by determining the binary value of the expression for all
possible values of the variables.
• A Boolean function can be represented in a truth table.

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BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS
• The truth table of 2n entries
• F1= x y z‘, F2 = x + y'z, F3 = x' y' z + x' y z + x y‘, F4 = x y' + x' z
• Two Boolean expressions may specify the same function F3 = F4
x y z x’ y’ z’ y’z x’y’z x’yz xy’ x’z F1 F2 F3 F4
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

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BOOLEAN FUNCTION
• Implementation with logic gates
• F4 is more economical

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BOOLEAN FUNCTION
Algebraic Manipulation
• When a Boolean expression is implemented with logic gates,

– Each term requires a gate
– Each variable within the term designates an input to the gate
– Literal is a single variable within a term that may be complemented

or not.

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BOOLEAN FUNCTION
• Example:
– F1= x y z‘ 1 term and 3 literals
– F2 = x + y'z 2 terms and 3 literals
– F3 = x' y' z + x' y z + x y‘ 3 terms and 8 literals
– F4 = x y' + x' z 2 terms and 4 literals
• Manipulation of Boolean algebra consists mostly of reducing an
expression by reducing the number of terms, the number of
literals, or both in a Boolean expression, it is often possible to
obtain a simpler, less area, cheaper circuit.

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BOOLEAN FUNCTION
Simplify the following functions to a minimum number of
• x(x’+y)
literals. • (x + y) (x + y’)
I. = (x x’) + (x y) by post (4a) I. = x + y y’ post (4b)
II. =0+xy by post (5b) II. =x+0 post (5b)
III. =xy by post (2a) III. =x post (2a)
• x+x’y • (x + y) (x’ + z) (y + z) = (x + y) (x’ + z)
I. = (x + x’) (x + y) by post (4b) – consesus theorem with duality.
II. = 1 (x + y) by post (5a)
III. =x+y by post (2b)

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BOOLEAN FUNCTION
Simplify the following functions to a minimum number of
• x y + x’ z + y z
literals.
I. = x y + x’ z + 1 y z
II. = x y + x’ z + (x + x’) y z post (5a)
III. = x y + x’ z + x y z + x’ y z post (4a)
IV. = x y + x y z + x’ z + x’ y z post (3a)
V. = x y (1 + z) + x’z (1 + y) post (4a)
VI. = x y 1 + x’ z 1 Theo(2a)
VII. = x y + x’ z post (2b)

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BOOLEAN FUNCTION
• The complement of a function F is F’ and is obtained from
– An interchange of 0’s for 1’s and 1’s for 0’s in the value of F.
• The complement of a function may be derived algebraically

through De Morgan’s theorem.
– De Morgan’s theorem can be extended to three or more variables.

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BOOLEAN FUNCTION
• (A + B + C)’ = (A + x)’ let B + C = x
= A’ x’ by theorem (5a) De Morgan
= A’ (B + C)’ substitute B+C = x

= A’ (B’ C’) by theorem (5a) De Morgan
= A’ B’ C’ by theorem (4b) (associative)

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BOOLEAN FUNCTION
• Generalizations:
– Function is obtained by interchanging AND and OR operators and
complementing each literal.
• (A+B+C+D+ ... +F)' = A'B'C'D'... F'
• (ABCD ... F)' = A'+ B'+C'+D' ... +F'

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BOOLEAN FUNCTION
Find the complement of the function F1 by applying De Morgan’s theorem as
many times as necessary
• F1’ = (x‘ y z' + x‘ y‘ z)' . • F2’ = x (y’ z' + y z).
• = (x’ y z’)’ (x’ y’ z)’ • = [x(y’ z’ + y z)]’
• = ( x + y’ + z) (x + y + z’) • = x’ + (y’ z’ + y z)’

• = x + (y’ z’)’ (y z)’
• = x’ (y+ z) (y’ + z’)

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BOOLEAN FUNCTION
• Simpler procedure:
– Take the dual of the function and complement each literal
• Find the complement of the function F1

– F1 = (x‘ y z' + x‘ y‘ z)' .
– = (x’ y z’)’ (x’ y’ z)’
– The dual of F1 = (x’ + y + z’) (x’ + y’ z).

– Complement each literal = (x + y’ + z) (x + y + z’) = F1'

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BOOLEAN FUNCTION
• Find the complement of the function F2
– F2 = x (y’ z' + y z).
– = x (y’ z’) + (y z)
– The dual of F2 = x + (y’ + z’) (y + z)
– Complement each literal = x’ + (y + z) (y’ + z’) = F2'

2.5 CANONICAL AND
STANDARD FORMS
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CANONICAL AND STANDARD FORMS

• A binary variable may appear • Each of these four AND term is
either in its normal for (x) or in
called a minterm or a standard
its complement form (x’).
• Consider : product.
– x AND y. • n variables can be combined to
• Each variable may appear in
form 2n minterms.
either form, there are four
possible combinations:
– x’ y’
– x’ y
– x y’
– xy
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• In a similar fashion,
– n variables forming and OR term,
– with each variable being primed or unprimed,

– provide 2n possible combinations,
– called maxterms or standard sums.
• Each maxterm is the complement of its corresponding minterm, and

vice versa.

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Minterms Maxterms
x y z Term Designation Term Designation
0 0 0 x’ y’ z’ m0 x+y+z M0
0 0 1 x’ y’ z m1 x + y + z’ M1
0 1 0 x’ y z’ m2 x + y’ + z M2
0 1 1 x’ y z m3 x + y’ + z’ M3
1 0 0 x y’ z’ m4 x’ + y + z M4
1 0 1 x y’ z m5 x’ + y + z’ M5
1 1 0 x y z’ m6 x’ + y’ + z M6
1 1 1 xyz m7 x’ + y’ + z’ M7

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• A Boolean function can be expressed algebraically by
– A truth table
– Sum of minterms
– Each of these minterms results in f1 = 1.

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x y z f1
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 x’y’z
x'y'z
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 + xy’z’
xy'z'
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 + xyz
xyz
f1 = = m1 + m4 +m7 (Minterms)

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x y z f2
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 x'yz
x’yz
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 + xy’z
xy'z
1 1 0 1 + xyz’
xyz'
1 1 1 1 + xyz
xyz
f2 = = m3 + m5 +m6 + m7 (Minterms)

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• These examples demonstrate an important property of Boolean
algebra:
– Any Boolean function can be expressed as a sum (ORing) of minterms.
• Consider the complement of a Boolean function.

– From the truth table
• A minterm for each combination that produces a 0
• Then ORing those terms.

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• The complement of f1:
x y z f1
– f1' = m0 + m2 +m3 + m5 + m6
0 0 0 0
– = x‘ y‘ z‘ + x‘ y z‘ + x‘ y z + x y‘ z + x y z‘
0 0 1 1
– If we take the complement of f1‘ , then we 0 1 0 0
obtain f1 0 1 1 0
– (f1‘)’ = (x‘ y‘ z‘ + x‘ y z‘ + x‘ y z + x y‘ z + x y z‘)’ 1 0 0 1
– f1= (x + y + z) (x + y’ + z) (x + y’ + z’) (x’ + y’ + z) 1 0 1 0
– = M0 M 2 M 3 M 5 M 6 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1

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• The complement of f2:
x y z f2
– f2' = m0 + m1 +m2 + m4
0 0 0 0
– = x‘ y‘ z‘ + x‘ y’ z + x‘ y z’ + x y‘ z’
0 0 1 0
– If we take the complement of f2‘ , then we 0 1 0 0
obtain f2 0 1 1 1
– (f2‘)’ = (x‘ y‘ z‘ + x‘ y’ z + x‘ y z’ + x y‘ z’)’ 1 0 0 0
– f2= (x + y + z) (x + y + z’) (x + y’ + z) (x’ + y+ z) 1 0 1 1
– = M0 M 1 M 2 M 4 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

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• These examples demonstrate a second property of Boolean algebra:
– Any Boolean function can be expressed as a product of (ANDing) of
maxterms.
• Consider the complement of a Boolean function.

– From the truth table
• A maxterm for each combination that produces a 0
• Then ANDing those terms.
• Boolean functions expressed as a sum of minterms or product of

maxterms are said to be in canonical form.

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• Sum of minterms:
– There are 2n minterms and
– 22n combinations of function with n Boolean variables.
– It is sometimes convenient to express the Boolean function in its sum of
minterms form.
– If not in this form, it can be made so by first expanding the expression
into a sum of AND terms.
– Each term is then inspected to see if it contains all the variables.
– If it misses one or more variables, it is ANDed with an expression such as
x + x’, where x is one of the missing variables.
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• Example: express F = A+B’C in a sum of minterms.
– Step1: A is missing two variable B and C!
– 1st include B
– A = A (B + B’)
– = AB + AB’
– 2nd include C
– A = AB (C + C’) + AB’ (C+C’)
– = ABC + ABC’ + AB’C + AB’C’

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– Step2: B’C is missing one variable A!
– Include A
– B’C = B’C (A + A’)
= AB’C + A’B’C
– Step3: Combine all terms
– F = ABC + ABC’ + AB’C + AB’C’ + AB’C + A’B’C
according to Theorem 1 (x + x = x),
it is possible to remove one of them
– F = ABC + ABC’ + AB’C’ + AB’C + A’B’C = m1 + m4 + m5 + m6 + m7

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• ABC + ABC’ + AB’C’ + AB’C + A’B’C
A B C F
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

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• Product of maxterms:
– 22n functions of n binary variables can be also expressed as product
of maxterms.
– To express the Boolean functions as a product of maxterms
• It must first be brought into a form of OR terms.
– This may be done by using the distributive law, x + yz = (x +y) (x + z).

– Then any missing variable x in each OR term is ORed with x x’.

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• Example: express F = x y + x’ z in a product of maxterm.
• Step1: using distributive law

– = (xy + x’) (xy + z)
• Step2: using distributive law

– = (x + x’) (y + x’) (x + z) (y + z)
– = 1 (x’ + y) (x + z) (y + z)
– = (x’ + y) (x + z) (y + z)

67

– = (x’ + y) (x + z) (y + z)
• Function has three variables x, y and z. Each OR term is missing one
variable.
– (x’ + y) = x’ + y + z z’ = (x’ + y + z) (x’ + y + z’)
– (x + z) = x + z + y y’ = (x + y + z) (x + y’ +z)
– (y + z) = y + z + x x’ = (x + y + z) (x’ + y + z)
• Combine all the terms and remove the ones that appear twice
– F = (x + y + z) (x + y’ + z) (x’ + y + z) (x’ + y + z’)

68

• x’yz’ + x’yz + xy’z + xyz x y z F
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1

69

•

70

•

71

• Sum of minterms = product of maxterms
• Interchange the symbols Σ and Π and list those numbers missing from
the original form
• Σ of 1's
• Π of 0's

72

•
x y Z F
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

73

• The two canonical forms of Boolean algebra are basic forms that one
obtains from reading a function from the truth table.
• These forms are very seldom the ones with the least number of literals,
because each minterm or maxterm must contain, by definition, all the
variables either complemented or uncomplemented.
• Standard form, the terms that form the function may contain one, two,
or any number of literals.
– Sum of products and products of sum

74

• Sum of products
– Contains AND terms (product terms) of one or more literals each.
– The sum denotes the ORing of these terms.

– Example:
• F1 = y’ + x y + x’ y z’
– 3 product terms of one, two and three literals.
– Their sum is in effect an OR operation.

75

• F1 = y’ + x y + x’ y z’
• Logic diagram of sum-of-products

– Each product term requires and AND gate except for a term with a
single literal.
– The logic sum is formed with an OR gate.

76

• Product of sums
– Contains OR terms (sum terms) of one or more literals each.
– The product denotes the ANDing of these terms.

– Example:
• F2 = x (y’ + z) (x’ + y + z’)
– 3 sum terms of one, two and three literals.
– Their product is in effect an AND operation.

77

• F2 = x (y’ + z) (x’ + y + z’)
• Logic diagram of product of sums

– Each product term requires and AND gate except for a term with a
single literal.
– The logic sum is formed with an OR gate.

78

• Multi-level implementation
– F3 = AB + C (D + E)
– Neither in sum of products nor in products of sums.

79

• Change it to a standard form by using the distributive law
– F3 = AB + C (D + E) = AB + CD + CE

2.6 OTHER LOGIC
OPERATIONS
81
OTHER LOGIC OPERATIONS

• 2n rows in the truth table of n binary variables.
• 22n functions for n binary variables.
• n = 2, and the number of possible Boolean functions is 16.
x y F0 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9 F10 F11 F12 F13 F14 F15

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

82

Boolean Functions Operator Symbol Name Comments
F0 = 0 Null Binary Constant 0
F1 = x y AND x and y
F2 = x y’ x/y Inhibition x, but not y
F3 = x Transfer x’
F4 = x’ y y/x Inhibition y, but not x
F5 = y Transfer y
F6 = x y’ + x’ y x⊕y Exclusive-OR x or y, but not both
F7 = x + y x+y OR x or y
F8 = (x + y)’ x↓y NOR NOT- OR
F9 = (x y + x’ y’) (x ⊕ y) ‘ Equivalence x equals y
F10 = y’ y’ Complement NOT y
F11 = x + y’ x⊂y Implication If y, then x
F12 = x’ x’ Complement NOT x
F13 = x’ + y x⊃y Implication If x, then y
F14 = (xy)’ x↑y NAND NOT- AND
F15 = 1 Identity Binary constant 1

83

• The functions are determined from the 16 binary combinations that can
be assigned to F.
• The 16 functions can be expressed algebraically by means of Boolean
functions.
• The Boolean expressions listed are simplified to their minimum number
of literals.
• All the new symbols shown, except for the exclusive-OR symbol ⊕ are
not in common use by digital designers.

2.7 DIGITAL LOGIC
GATES
85
DIGITAL LOGIC GATES

• Boolean expression: AND, OR and NOT operations
• Constructing gates of other logic operations

1. The feasibility and economy;
2. The possibility of extending gate's inputs;
3. The basic properties of the binary operations (commutative and

associative);
4. The ability of the gate to implement Boolean functions.

86
DIGITAL LOGIC GATES

• Consider the 16 functions in Table (slide 82)
– Two are equal to a constant (F0 and F15).
– Four are repeated twice (F4, F5, F10 and F11).
– Inhibition (F2) and implication (F13) are not commutative or
associative.
– The other eight: complement (F12), transfer (F3), AND (F1), OR (F7),
NAND (F14), NOR (F8), XOR (F6), and equivalence (XNOR) (F9) are
used as standard gates.
– Complement: inverter.
– Transfer: buffer (increasing drive strength).
– Equivalence: XNOR.

87
DIGITAL LOGIC GATES

Name Graphic Symbol Algebraic Function Truth Table
x y F
0 0 0
AND F=xy 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
x y F
0 0 0
OR F=x+y 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
x y
INVERTER F=x’ 0 1
1 0

88
DIGITAL LOGIC GATES

x y
BUFFER F=x 0 0
1 1
x y F
0 0 1
NAND F = (x y) ’ 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
x y F
0 0 1
NOR F = ( x + y) ‘ 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

89
DIGITAL LOGIC GATES

x y F
0 0 0
XOR F=x⊕y 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
x y F
0 0 1
XNOR F=(x⊕y)‘ 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

90
DIGITAL LOGIC GATES

• Extension to multiple inputs
– A gate can be extended to multiple inputs.
• If its binary operation is commutative and associative.
– AND and OR are commutative and associative.
• OR
– x+y=y+x
– (x + y) + z = x + (y + z) = x + y + z
• AND
– xy=yx
– (x y) z = x (y z) = x y z

91
DIGITAL LOGIC GATES

• The NAND and NOR functions
are commutative, but they are
not associative
– (x ↓ y) ↓z ≠ x (y ↓ z)
• (x ↓ y) ↓ z = [ (x + y)’ + z]’
= (x + y) z’ = x z’ + y z’
• x (y ↓ z) = [ x + (y + z)‘ ]’
= x‘ (y + z) = x’ y + x’ z

92
DIGITAL LOGIC GATES

• The NAND and NOR functions are commutative, and their gates can be
extended to have more than two inputs, provided that the definition of the
operation is slightly modified.
• The difficulty is that the NAND and NOR operators are not associative
– (x ↓ y) ↓z ≠ x (y ↓ z)
• (x ↓ y) ↓ z = [ (x + y) ’ + z] ’ = (x + y) z ’ = x z ’ + y z ’
• x (y ↓ z) = [ x + (y + z) ‘ ]’ = x ‘ (y + z) = x ’ y + x ’ z
• To overcome this;
– Define the multiple NOR (or NAND) gate as complemented OR (or AND) gate.
• x ↓ y ↓ z = (x + y + z) ’
• x ↑ y ↑ z = (x y z) ’

93
DIGITAL LOGIC GATES

• Multiple NOR = a complement of OR gate,
• Multiple NAND = a complement of AND.
• The cascaded NAND operations = sum of products.

• The cascaded NOR operations = product of sums.

94
DIGITAL LOGIC GATES

• The XOR and XNOR gates are commutative and associative.
• Multiple-input XOR gates are uncommon?
• XOR is an odd function: it is equal to 1 if the inputs variables have an

odd number of 1's. x y z F
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1

95
DIGITAL LOGIC GATES

• The binary signals at the inputs and outputs of any gate has one of two
values, except during transition.
– One signal value represents logic-1
– The other logic-0.
• Two signal values are assigned to two logic values

• There exist two different assignments of signal level to logic value.

96
DIGITAL LOGIC GATES
• The higher signal level is designated by H and the lower signal level by L.
• Choosing the high-level H to represent logic-1 defines a positive logic

system.
• Choosing the low-level L to represent logic-0 defines a negative logic
system.

97
DIGITAL LOGIC GATES

x y F
L L L
L H L
H L L
H H H
(a) Truth table with H and L (b) Gate block diagram
x y x
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
(c) Truth table for positive logic (d) Positive logic AND gate
• The physical behaviour of the gate when H is 3 volts and L is 0 volts.

• Truth table of (c) assumes positive logic assignment, with H = 1 and L = 0.

98
DIGITAL LOGIC GATES

x y z
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
(e) Truth table for negative logic (f) Negative logic OR gate
• Truth table of (e) assumes positive logic assignment, with H = 0 and L =

1.

2.8 INTEGRATED
CIRCUITS
10
0
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
Level of Integration
• An IC (a chip)
• Examples:
– Small-scale Integration (SSI): < 10 gates
– Medium-scale Integration (MSI): 10 ~ 100 gates
– Large-scale Integration (LSI): 100 ~ xk gates
– Very Large-scale Integration (VLSI): > xk gates

10
1
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
• VLSI
– Small size (compact size)
– Low cost
– Low power consumption
– High reliability
– High speed

10
2
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
• Digital logic families: circuit technology
– TTL: transistor-transistor logic (dying?)
– ECL: emitter-coupled logic (high speed, high power consumption)

– MOS: metal-oxide semiconductor (NMOS, high density)
– CMOS: complementary MOS (low power)
– BiCMOS: high speed, high density

10
3
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
• The characteristics of digital logic families
– Fan-out: the number of standard loads that the output of a typical
gate can drive.
– Power dissipation.
– Propagation delay: the average transition delay time for the signal to
propagate from input to output.
– Noise margin: the minimum of external noise voltage that caused an
undesirable change in the circuit output.

10
4
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
• CAD – Computer-Aided Design
– Millions of transistors
– Computer-based representation and aid
– Automatic the design process
– Design entry
• Schematic capture
• HDL – Hardware Description Language
– Verilog, VHDL
– Simulation
– Physical realization
• ASIC, FPGA, PLD

10
5
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
• Why is it better to have more gates on a single chip?
– Easier to build systems
– Lower power consumption
– Higher clock frequencies
• What are the drawbacks of large circuits?

– Complex to design
– Chips have design constraints
– Hard to test

10
6
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
• Need tools to help develop integrated circuits
– Computer Aided Design (CAD) tools
– Automate tedious steps of design process

– Hardware description language (HDL) describe circuits
– VHDL (see the lab) is one such system

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1

Boolean Algebra & Logic Gates

28 July, 2018 INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC DESIGN

Basic Axiomatic Definition Basic Theorems Boolean

Canonical and Other Logic Digital Logic Integrated

28 July, 2018 INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC DESIGN

28 July, 2018 INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC DESIGN

• Note: operators with two inputs are called binary

28 July, 2018 INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC DESIGN

– For example: S = {1, 2, 3, 4}

28 July, 2018 INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC DESIGN

– If (x, y) through * get z and x, y, z∈S, then

– if * is not a binary operator of S and x, y∈S, then

28 July, 2018 INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC DESIGN

• For example, natural numbers N={1,2,3,...} is closed with respect to the

28 July, 2018 INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC DESIGN

• (x * y) * z = x * (y * z) for all x, y, z∈S

3. Commutative law. A binary operator * on a set S is said to be

28 July, 2018 INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC DESIGN

• 1 * x = x * 1 = x for every x∈I. I = {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}.

28 July, 2018 INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC DESIGN

28 July, 2018 INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC DESIGN

28 July, 2018 INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC DESIGN

28 July, 2018 INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC DESIGN

AXIOMATIC DEFINITION OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

• Huntington postulates for Boolean algebra (1904):

2. Identity element 0 for operator + and 1 for operator ·

3. Commutativity with respect to + and ·

x+y = y+x, x·y = y·x

28 July, 2018 INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC DESIGN

AXIOMATIC DEFINITION OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

5. Complement for every element x is x’ with x+x’=1, x·x’=0

– Literal: A variable or its complement

– Sum term: literals connected by +

28 July, 2018 INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC DESIGN

AXIOMATIC DEFINITION OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

– with rules for the two binary operators + and •

AXIOMATIC DEFINITION OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

28 July, 2018 INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC DESIGN

AXIOMATIC DEFINITION OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

x y z y+z x · (y + z) x·y x·z (x · y) + (x · z)

28 July, 2018 INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC DESIGN

AXIOMATIC DEFINITION OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

6. Has two distinct elements

28 July, 2018 INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC DESIGN

– the dual of that expression is also valid.

• To form the dual of an expression:

– all · operators with + operators,

– all 1’s with 0’s, and all 0’s with 1’s.

28 July, 2018 INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC DESIGN

• Following the replacement rules…

28 July, 2018 INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC DESIGN

28 July, 2018 INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC DESIGN

• Basic theorems of Boolean algebra

– Looks straightforward, but needs to be proven!

28 July, 2018 INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC DESIGN

= (x+x)(x+x’) by 5(a) • Post. 4: (a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,

= x+0 by 5(b) • Post. 5: (a) x+x’=1, (b) x·x’=0

We can now use Theorem 1(a) in future proofs