1.

Fundamental Concepts and Definitions

1.1 Categories of an Aircraft
There are 8 categories of aircraft, namely airplane, rotorcraft, glider, lighter-than–air, powered lift,
powered parachute, weight-shift-control and rocket.
a) Airplane - An engine-driven fixed-wing aircraft heavier than air, that is supported in flight by
the dynamic reaction of the air against its wings.
b) Rotorcraft - A heavier-than-air aircraft that depends principally for its support in flight on the lift
generated by one or more rotors.
c) Glider- A heavier-than-air aircraft, that is supported in flight by the dynamic reaction of the air
against its lifting surfaces and whose free flight does not depend principally on an engine
d) Lighter-than-air - An aircraft that can rise and remain suspended by using contained gas
weighing less than the air that is displaced by the gas
e) Powered lift - A heavier-than-air aircraft capable of vertical takeoff, vertical landing, and low
speed flight that depends principally on engine-driven lift devices or engine thrust for lift during
these flight regimes and on non-rotating airfoil(s) for lift during horizontal flight.
f) Powered Parachute - A powered aircraft comprised of a flexible or semi-rigid wing connected to
a fuselage so that the wing is not in position for flight until the aircraft is in motion
g) Weight-shift-control - A powered aircraft with a framed pivoting wing and a fuselage
controllable only in pitch and roll by the pilot's ability to change the aircraft's center of gravity
with respect to the wing
h) Rocket -An aircraft propelled by ejected expanding gases generated in the engine from self-
contained propellants and not dependent on the intake of outside substances

1.2 Categories of an Airplane

a. Normal Category – It is limited to airplanes that have a seating configuration, excluding pilot
seats, of nine or less, a maximum certificated takeoff weight of 12,500 pounds or less, and
intended for nonacrobatic operation.
b. Utility Category – It is the same type and size of airplane, but approved for "limited acrobatic
operations" - this may include intentional spins, as well as the "commercial maneuvers" with
higher bank angles (greater than 60 degrees, up to 90 degrees).
c. Acrobatic Category – It is the same type and size of airplane, but approved for acrobatics
without any restrictions "other than those shown to be necessary as a result of required flight
tests" -- basically "airplanes that can go upside-down".

1.3 Forces Acting on Flight

There are 4 forces acting on flight which are namely lift, weight, thrust and drag.
a. Lift – It is generated by the motion of the airplane through the air. It is perpendicular to the
flight direction.
b. Weight – It is a force that is always directed toward the center of the Earth.
c. Thrust – It is produced through the help of a propulsion system in order to overcome drag.
d. Drag – The resistance of the surrounding air as the aircraft moves.

1.4 Primary Controls of the Aircraft

There are 3 primary controls of an aircraft which namely are the aileron, elevator, and rudder.
1.4.1 Axis of Rotation
a. Aileron – Longitudinal
b. Elevator – Lateral
c. Rudder – Vertical

1.4.2 Movement

a. Aileron – Roll
b. Elevator – Pitch
c. Rudder – Yaw
1.4.3 Type of Stability

a. Aileron – Lateral
b. Elevator – Longitudinal
c. Rudder – Directional

1.5. Aircraft Stability

An aircraft is stable if it returns to its initial equilibrium flight conditions when it is
perturbed.

1.5.1. Types of Stability

Static Stability - An aircraft is in a state of equilibrium when the sum of all the forces
acting on the aircraft and all the moments is equal to zero. An aircraft in equilibrium
experiences no accelerations, and the aircraft continues in a steady condition of flight. A gust
of wind or a deflection of the controls disturbs the equilibrium, and the aircraft experiences
acceleration due to the unbalance of moment or force.

The three types of static stability are defined by the character of movement following
some disturbance from equilibrium:

Positive static stability exists when the disturbed object tends to return to
equilibrium.

Neutral static stability exists when the disturbed object has neither tendency, but
remains in equilibrium in the direction of disturbance.

Negative static stability, or “static instability”, exists when the disturbed object
tends to continue in the direction of disturbance.

Dynamic Stability

While static stability deals with the tendency of a displaced body to return to
equilibrium, dynamic stability deals with the resulting motion with time. If an object is disturbed
from equilibrium, the time history of the resulting motion defines the dynamic stability of the
object. In general, an object demonstrates positive dynamic stability if the amplitude of motion
decreases with time. If the amplitude of motion increases with time, the object is said to
possess dynamic instability.

Any aircraft must demonstrate the required degrees of static and dynamic stability. If
an aircraft were designed with static instability and a rapid rate of dynamic instability, the
aircraft would be very difficult, if not impossible, to fly. Usually, positive dynamic stability is
required in an aircraft design to prevent objectionable continued oscillations of the aircraft.

1.5.2. Stability Conditions

Longitudinal stability
 The longitudinal axis is an imaginary line running from the nose to the tail of the
aircraft, motion about this axis is called roll, and it is controlled by the ailerons
 Longitudinal stability is the tendency of an aircraft to return to the trimmed angle
of attack
 Accomplished through elevators and rudders
 Contributors:
o Straight wings (negative)
o Wing Sweep (positive)
o Fuselage (negative)
o Horizontal stabilizer (largest positive)
 Aerodynamic center aft of C.G. is a stabilizing moment
 Aerodynamic center forward of C.G. is a de-stabilizing moment
 Lateral stability
 The lateral axis is an imaginary line running from wing tip to wing tip, movement
about this axis causes the nose of the aircraft to raise or lower, and is caused by
moving the elevators
 Lateral stability is the tendency of an aircraft to resist roll
 Dihedral Effect:
 Dihedral is evident when an aircraft rolls, creating a side-slip (assume no rudder).
o One of the wings is lower than the other and this creates a difference in the
angle of attack experienced by each wing.
o The lower wing has an increase in angle of attack which causes it to create
more lift and therefore rise while the opposite is true for the higher wing.
 The net result is the aircraft rolling away from the side-slip, thus resisting
roll and attempting to bring the wings back to level.
o Use of the rudder will smoothen the turn and overcome these forces as well as
others, such as adverse yaw.
 Swept Wing Effect:
o Side-slips create more direct relative wind to the upwind swept wing which
creates a roll back toward wings level.

Vertical Stability
 The vertical axis is an imaginary line running from the top of the plane to the
bottom of the plane, rotation about this axis is called "yaw" and is controlled by
the rudder
 Tendency to resist yawing
 Yawing moment
 Accomplished through rudders

Directional stability
 Stability around the vertical axis
 Vertical tail accomplishes this
 You must have more surface area behind the CG than in front of it
 Dutch Roll:
o Coupling of the lateral and directional axes causes Dutch roll
o Dutch roll is a combined yawing-rolling motion of the aircraft and may be
considered only a nuisance unless allowed to progress to large bank angles
o Large rolling and yawing motions can become dangerous unless properly
damped
o Side-slip disturbance will cause the aircraft to roll
o The bank angle, in turn, causes side-slip in the opposite direction
o While not unstable, this continual trade-off of side-slip and angle of bank is
uncomfortable
o Dutch roll may be excited by rough air or by lateral-directional over
controlling
o Once induced, it is damped by normal aircraft stability
o Poor Dutch roll characteristics may make the aircraft susceptible to pilot
induced oscillations (PIO)
o Lateral-directional PIO is most common when the pilot chases line-up in the
landing configuration

1.6. Major Components on an Airplane

Fuselage
The fuselage is the main part of the aircraft, located centrally to the entire aircraft. It's the
area where the passengers and baggage are typically held and the part of the plane to which the
wings and empennage are attached. It's basically a large, hollow tube that tapers at the back.

Wings
The wings are attached to the fuselage on either side. The wings are the source of lift for the
aircraft. They are attached near the top of the fuselage on high-wing aircraft like Cessna's 162 and
at the bottom of the fuselage on low-wing aircraft, such as the Terrafugia Transition. The front of
the wing is called the leading edge and the back of the wing is called the trailing edge.

The wing is held together and supported by metal spars, ribs, and stringers and covered by a fabric,
aluminum, or composite shell. On the rear part of the wing (the trailing edge), you can find the
aileron and flaps, which change the shape of the wing to create more or less lift for different phases
of flight.

Aileron: The aileron is found near the tip of the wing on the trailing edge. It's a rectangular-shaped
airfoil that rises to disturb the airflow over the wing. Ailerons are used to turn the airplane. They
work by disrupting the airflow over the wing, which creates more lift on one wing than the other.

Flaps: Flaps are smaller airfoils found on the rear part of the wing nearest to the fuselage. Flaps
can be extended to increase the wing surface area, creating more lift for takeoff and landing. There
are different types of flaps; designs vary by aircraft. Some types include plain flap, slotted flap, split
flap, Fowler flap, and the slotted Fowler flap.

Empennage
The empennage consists of the vertical stabilizer (the "tail" of the airplane) and the horizontal
stabilizer or stabilator.

Rudder: The rudder is a movable piece of the vertical stabilizer that allows the airplane to turn left
or right about the airplane's vertical axis when activated. The rudder is connected to the foot pedals
in the cockpit of the airplane.
Elevator: The elevator is located on the rear part of the horizontal stabilizer. It moves up and down
in order to make the airplane's nose move up or down. The elevator is connected to the yoke. If you
were to pull back on the yoke in the cockpit, the elevator would be moved upward, forcing the
horizontal stabilizer to go down and the aircraft's nose to go up.
Stabilator: A stabilator is similar to a horizontal stabilizer but doesn't include an elevator. The
stabilator is one large piece of material with an anti-servo tab that doubles as a trim tab.
Trim Tab: Trim tabs are small rectangle-shaped pieces of material on the trailing edge of the
horizontal stabilizer. They're meant to be moved gradually, as set by the pilot, to ease control
pressure and make the aircraft easier to handle.

Powerplant
The powerplant consists of the engine and all engine components, the propeller, and electrical
system. It can be located on the front of the aircraft fuselage or toward the rear of the airplane. In
multi-engine aircraft, the engines are typically located under the wings on each side.

Landing Gear
The landing gear on most aircraft consists of wheels and struts. Some aircraft have skis or
floats in order to land on snow or water, respectively. A typical single-engine land airplane will have
either tricycle landing gear or conventional landing gear. Tricycle gear means that there are two
main wheels with a nose wheel in front. On aircraft with conventional gear, there are two main
wheels with a single wheel in back, under the tail. Aircraft with conventional type gear are often
called tailwheel airplanes or taildraggers.

Most airplanes are also steered on the ground with the use of a tricycle type landing gear
configuration.

1.7. Structural Stresses acting on an Airplane

Aircraft structural members are designed to carry a load or to resist stress. In designing an aircraft,
every square inch of wing and fuselage, every rib, spar, and even each metal fitting must be
considered in relation to the physical characteristics of the material of which it is made. Every part of
the aircraft must be planned to carry the load to be imposed upon it.
The determination of such loads is called stress analysis. Although planning the design is not the
function of the aircraft technician, it is, nevertheless, important that the technician understand and
appreciate the stresses involved in order to avoid changes in the original design through improper
repairs. The term “stress” is often used interchangeably with the word “strain.” While related, they
are not the same thing. External loads or forces cause stress. Stress is a material’s internal
resistance, or counterforce, that opposes deformation. The degree of deformation of a material is
strain. When a material is subjected to a load or force, that material is deformed, regardless of how
strong the material is or how light the load is.

There are five major stresses to which all aircraft are subjected:

 Tension
 Compression
 Torsion
 Shear
 Bending

Tension is the stress that resists a force that tends to pull something apart. The engine pulls the
aircraft forward, but air resistance tries to hold it back. The result is tension, which stretches the
aircraft. The tensile strength of a material is measured in pounds per square inch (psi) and is
calculated by dividing the load (in pounds) required to pull the material apart by its cross-sectional
area (in square inches).

Compression is the stress that resists a crushing force. The compressive strength of a material is
also measured in psi. Compression is the stress that tends to shorten or squeeze aircraft parts.

Torsion is the stress that produces twisting. While moving the aircraft forward, the engine also
tends to twist it to one side, but other aircraft components hold it on course. Thus, torsion is
created. The torsion strength of a material is its resistance to twisting or torque.

Shear is the stress that resists the force tending to cause one layer of a material to slide over an
adjacent layer. Two riveted plates in tension subject the rivets to a shearing force. Usually, the
shearing strength of a material is either equal to or less than its tensile or compressive strength.
Aircraft parts, especially screws, bolts, and rivets, are often subject to a shearing force.

Bending stress is a combination of compression and tension. The rod in has been shortened
(compressed) on the inside of the bend and stretched on the outside of the bend. A single member
of the structure may be subjected to a combination of stresses. In most cases, the structural
members are designed to carry end loads rather than side loads. They are designed to be subjected
to tension or compression rather than bending.

Strength or resistance to the external loads imposed during operation may be the principal
requirement in certain structures. However, there are numerous other characteristics in addition to
designing to control the five major stresses that engineers must consider. For example, cowling,
fairings, and similar parts may not be subject to significant loads requiring a high degree of
strength. However, these parts must have streamlined shapes to meet aerodynamic requirements,
such as reducing drag or directing airflow.

1.8. Aircraft Structure Zoning System

Zoning of large aircraft is specified by the Air Transport Association of America in the ATA-100
Specification.

A zone is identified by one of three indicators, depending upon whether it is a major zone, major
sub-zone, or simply a zone.

Major zones are identified by three digit numbers as follows:

Major Zone Area

No.
100 Lower half of the fuselage to the rear pressure bulkhead (below the main cabin deck).
200 Upper half of the fuselage to the rear pressure bulkhead.
300 Empennage, including fuselage aft of the rear pressure bulkhead.
400 Power plants and struts or pylons.
500 Left wing.
600 Right wing.
700 Landing gear and landing gear doors.
800 Doors.
900 Reserved for uncommon differences between aircraft types not covered by standard
series numbers.

The standard series is from 100 to 800 and the special series numbers are in the 900 bracket.

2. Fuselage Section
2.1 Definition and Usage
Fuselage (from the French fuselé "spindle-shaped"), which is the main body of an
airplane, is a long hollow tube that holds all the parts of an airplane together. The fuselage is hollow to
reduce weight and to house the crew, passengers, and cargo. The fuselage must be designed with
enough strength to withstand the torques produced by the deflections of the primary control surfaces.
It serves to position control and stabilization surfaces in specific relationships to lifting surfaces,
required for airplane stability and maneuverability.

2.2 Types of Fuselage

A. Truss Type – This type is consisting of
light gauge steel tubes which form a frame triangular shape
to give the most rigid of geometric forms. Each tube carries
a specific load, the magnitude of which depends on whether
the aircraft is airborne or on the ground.

This type of fuselage is commonly found on the first few

generations of aircraft. They are strong, moderately easy to
manufacture, but did not necessarily implement the concept
of aerodynamic.

B. Monocoque Contruction – ‘Monocoque’

is a French word meaning ‘single shell’. This design relies on
skin or shell to carry all the bending and shear stresses. All
the loads are taken by a stressed skin with just light internal
frames or formers to give the required shape. The exterior
surface of the fuselage is also the primary structure

To be a ‘true’ Monocoque the structure would have no

apertures at all.

Although it practicaly can carry more load, the drawback of

this type is that it may require maitenance more compared
to the other designs, as the sturcture needs to be reinforced
in order to maintain the structural integrity.

C. Semi - monocoque -
refers to a stressed shell structure that is
similar to a true monocoque, but which
derives at least some of its strength from
conventional reinforcement.

In a semi-monocoque system, the primary

loads are taken by the longerons, which
usually extend across several points of
support, holding the bulkheads and frames/formers. The semi-monocoque design is robust to absorb
damage and free to accommodate more crew, passengers and cargo.

2.3 Parts
a. Bulkhead - Bulkheads are provided at points of introduction of concentrated forces
such as those from the wings, tail surfaces, and landing gear. Unlike frames, the bulkhead structure is
quite substantial and serves to distribute the applied load into the fuselage skins. Bulkheads divide the
cabin into multiple areas. Bulkheads used to provide partition between an unpressurized and
pressurized portion of the airplane is called pressure bulkheads

b. Frames or Formers - primarily serve to maintain the shape of the fuselage and to
reduce the column length of the stringers to prevent general instability of the structure. Frames which
serve merely to maintain the shape of the fuselage are called simple frames. Intermediate frames are
frames which serve to act as anchorage for medium-weight equipment or control systems.

c. Longerons - are of larger cross-section when compared to stringers. On large

modern airplane, longerons often carry larger loads than stringers and also help to transfer skin loads
to internal structure.

d. Stringers - Stringers run in the longitudinal direction of the airplane and are
primarily responsible for transferring the aerodynamic loads acting on the skin onto the
frames/formers. Stringers are more numerous and lighter in weight than longerons. They have rigidity,
but are chiefly used for giving shape and allowing attachment of the skin.

e. Skin – The largest single item of the fuselage structure. It is also the
most critical structure since it carries all of the primary loads due to fuselage bending, shear, torsion,
and cabin pressure.

f. Strut - a rod or bar forming part of a framework and designed to resist compression.
Bracing struts and wires of many kinds were extensively used in early aircraft to stiffen and strengthen,
and sometimes even to form, the main functional airframe.

3. Wing Section
3.1 Definition & Usage
A wing is a type of fin that produces lift, while moving through air or some other fluid. As
such, wings have streamlined cross-sections that are subject to aerodynamic forces and act as an
airfoils.
The word "wing" from the Old Norse “vængr” for many centuries referred mainly to the
foremost limbs of birds (in addition to the architectural aisle). But in recent centuries the word's
meaning has extended to include lift producing appendages of insects, bats, pterosaurs,
boomerangs, some sail boats and aircraft, or the inverted airfoil on a race car that generates a
downward force to increase traction.
3.2 How Does an Airplane Generate Lift?
The popular explanation of lift. Students of physics and aerodynamics are taught that
airplanes fly as a result of Bernoulli's principle, which says that if air speeds up the pressure is
lowered. Thus a wing generates lift because the air goes faster over the top creating a region of
low pressure, and thus lift.
3.3 Classifications of Wings
 Biplane
two wing planes of similar size, stacked one above the other. The biplane is inherently
lighter and stronger than a monoplane and was the most common configuration until
the 1930s. The very first Wright Flyer I was a biplane.

Advantages:

 Having multiple wings means that the same aircraft can produce more lift for the same
wingspan, as they have a greater wing area.

 The biplanes have lesser wing loading, which results in shorter to/or landing and lower
stall speeds.

 The shorter wingspan results in reduced roll inertia and roll damping, which results in
better roll rates in the biplane . This improved maneuverability was the reason for the
surge in biplane designs during WWI.

Disadvantages:

 Due to interference effects, the bi- and tri- planes actually require higher wing area to
produce the required lift. Also, the drag is also higher than the monoplane, which gets
more pronounced as the speed increases.

 The main reason for the use of biplanes was that they provided the required strength
for the type of airfoils used. As high strength materials became available, this
mattered less and the aerodynamic disadvantage of the biplane designs came into
fore.

 Monoplane
a fixed-wing aircraft with a single main wing plane, in contrast to a biplane or
other multiplane, each of which has multiple planes.
Advantages:
 Low cost in production
 carries all structural forces internally.
Disadvantages:
 Internal bracing allows it to fly slower with a lower-powered engine

3.3.1 Definition of Terms

 Gap
a break or hole in an object or between two objects.

 Span Ratio
The aspect ratio of a wing is the ratio of its span to its mean chord. It is equal to the
square of the wingspan divided by the wing area.
 Stagger
The leading edge of the upper wing is forward of the lower wing's leading edge.
Negative stagger thus means an upper wing farther aft than the lower wing.
 Decalage
The difference between the angles of incidence of the upper and lower wings of a
biplane. A biplane has positive decalage if the angle of incidence of the upper wing is
greater than that of the lower wing and negative decalage when the lower wing has the
greater angle.
3.4 Types of Wings
Cantilever Wing - A wing that uses no external struts or bracing. All support is obtained from the wing
itself. The wing spars are built in such a way that they carry all the torsion and bending loads.
Semi-cantilever Wing - The semi-cantilever usually has one, or perhaps two, supporting wires or struts
attached to each wing and the fuselage. The externally braced wing is typical of the biplane (two wings
placed one above the other) with its struts and flying and landing wiresSemicantilever wings obtain its
strength from its internal wing design and from external support and bracing from struts and wires.

3.5 Parts of Wings

Spar(s) — the spanwise (running from root to tip) bar(s), the basis of the wing’s strength and structure
Ribs — the components that run from front-to-back on the wing, defining the shape of the wing; each
rib is, in essence, a cross-section of the wing
Skin — the covering (of the spar and ribs) that forms the surface of the wing; this may be fabric,
metal, composite, etc.

Aileron - An aileron (French for "little wing" or "fin") is a hinged flight control surface usually forming
part of the trailing edge of each wing of a fixed-wing aircraft. Ailerons are used in pairs to control the
aircraft in roll (or movement around the aircraft's longitudinal axis), which normally results in a change
in flight path due to the tilting of the lift vector. Movement around this axis is called 'rolling' or
'banking'.
Spoiler - In aeronautics, a spoiler (sometimes called a lift spoiler or lift dumper) is a device intended to
intentionally reduce the lift component of an airfoil in a controlled way. Most often, spoilers are plates
on the top surface of a wing that can be extended upward into the airflow to spoil it. By so doing, the
spoiler creates a controlled stall over the portion of the wing behind it, greatly reducing the lift of that
wing section. Spoilers differ from airbrakes in that airbrakes are designed to increase drag without
affecting lift, while spoilers reduce lift as well as increasing drag.
Flaps - are a kind of high-lift device used to increase the lift of an aircraft wing at a given airspeed.
Flaps are usually mounted on the wing trailing edges of a fixed-wing aircraft. Flaps are used for extra
lift on takeoff. Flaps also cause an increase in drag in mid-flight, so they are retracted when not
needed.
Flaperon - A flaperon (a portmanteau of flap and aileron) on an aircraft's wing is a type of control
surface that combines the functions of both flaps and ailerons. Some smaller kitplanes have flaperons
for reasons of simplicity of manufacture, while some large commercial aircraft may have a flaperon
between the flaps and aileron.
3.6 Wing Planforms
The wing planform is the silhouette of the wing when viewed from above or below.
Aspect ratio - The aspect ratio is the span divided by the mean or average chord. It is a measure of
how long and slender the wing appears when seen from above or below.
 Low aspect ratio: short and stubby wing. More efficient structurally and higher instantaneous
roll rate. They tend to be used by fighter aircraft, such as the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter, and
by very high-speed aircraft including the North American X-15.
 Moderate aspect ratio: general-purpose wing, very widely used, for example on the Douglas
DC-3 transport.
 High aspect ratio: long and slender wing. More efficient aerodynamically, having less induced
drag. They tend to be used by high-altitude subsonic aircraft such as airliners like the
Bombardier Dash 8 and by high-performance sailplanes such as the Glaser-Dirks DG-500.

Low aspect ratio Moderate aspect ratio High aspect ratio

Chord variation along span - the wing chord may be varied along the span of the wing, for both
structural and aerodynamic reasons.
 Constant chord: parallel leading & trailing edges. Simplest to make, and common where low
cost is important, such as on the Piper J-3 Cub but inefficient as the outer section generates
little lift while adding both weight and drag. Sometimes known as the Hershey Bar wing in
North America due to its similarity in shape to a chocolate bar.
 Tapered: wing narrows towards the tip. Structurally and aerodynamically more efficient than a
constant chord wing, and easier to make than the elliptical type.
 Trapezoidal: a tapered wing with straight leading and trailing edges: may be unswept or
swept.The straight tapered wing is one of the most common wing planforms, as seen on the
Messerschmitt Bf 109.
 Inverse tapered: wing is widest near the tip. Structurally inefficient, leading to high weight.
Flown experimentally on the XF-91 Thunderceptor in an attempt to overcome the stall problems
of swept wings.
 Compound tapered: taper reverses towards the root. Typically braced to maintain stiffness.
Used on the Westland Lysander army cooperation aircraft to increase visibility for the crew.
 Constant chord with tapered outer section: common variant seen for example on many Cessna
types.
Constant chord Tapered Reverse tapered Compound tapered Constant chord,
(Trapezoidal) tapered outer

 Elliptical - leading and trailing edges are curved such that the chord length varies elliptically
with respect to span. Theoretically the most efficient, but difficult to make. Famously used on
the Supermarine Spitfire. (Note that in aerodynamics theory, the term "elliptical" describes the
optimal lift distribution over a wing and not its shape).
 Semi-elliptical: only the leading or trailing edge is elliptical with the other being straight, as with
the elliptical trailing edges of the Seversky P-35.

 Circular: approximately circular planform. The Vought XF5U used large propellers near the tips
which Vought claimed dissipated its wingtip vortices and had an integral tail plane for stability.
 Flying saucer: circular flying wing. Inherently unstable, as the Avrocar demonstrated.
 Disc wing: a variant in which the entire disc rotates.Popular on toys such as the Frisbee.
 Flat annular wing: the circle has a hole in, forming a closed wing. The Lee-Richards annular
monoplanes flew shortly before the First World War.

 Delta: triangular planform with swept leading edge and straight trailing edge. Offers the
advantages of a swept wing, with good structural efficiency and low frontal area. Disadvantages
are the low wing loading and high wetted area needed to obtain aerodynamic stability. Variants
are:
 Tailless delta: a classic high-speed design, used for example in the Dassault Mirage III series.
 Tailed delta: adds a conventional tailplane, to improve handling. Used on the Mikoyan-Gurevich
MiG-21.
 Cropped delta: wing tips are cut off. This helps avoid tip drag at high angles of attack. The
Fairey Delta 1 also had a tail. At the extreme, merges into the "tapered swept" configuration.
 Compound delta or double delta: inner section has a (usually) steeper leading edge sweep as
on the Saab Draken. This improves the lift at high angles of attack and delays or prevents
stalling. By contrast, the Saab Viggen has an inner section of reduced sweep to avoid
interference from its canard foreplane.
 Ogival delta: a smoothly blended "wineglass" double-curve encompassing the leading edges
and tip of a cropped compound delta. Seen in tailless form on the Concorde supersonic
transports.

Wing sweep - Wings may be swept back, or occasionally forwards, for a variety of reasons. A
small degree of sweep is sometimes used to adjust the centre of lift when the wing cannot be
attached in the ideal position for some reason, such as a pilot's visibility from the cockpit. Other
uses are described below.
 Straight: extends at right angles to the line of flight. The most structurally-efficient wing, it
has been common for low-speed designs since the very first days of the Wright Flyer.
 Swept back (aka "swept wing"): The wing sweeps rearwards from the root to the tip. In
early tailless examples, such as the Dunne aircraft, this allowed the outer wing section to
act like a conventional empennage (tail) to provide aerodynamic stability. At transonic
speeds swept wings have lower drag, but can handle badly in or near a stall and require
high stiffness to avoid aeroelasticity at high speeds. Common on high-subsonic and early
supersonic designs such as the Hawker Hunter.
 Forward swept: the wing angles forward from the root. Benefits are similar to backwards
sweep, also it avoids the stall problems and has reduced tip losses allowing a smaller wing,
but requires even greater stiffness to avoid aeroelastic flutter as on the Sukhoi Su-47. The
HFB 320 Hansa Jet used forward sweep to prevent the wing spar passing through the cabin.
Small shoulder-wing aircraft may use forward sweep to maintain a correct CoG.
 Some types of variable geometry vary the wing sweep during flight:

 Swing-wing: also called "variable sweep wing". The left and right hand wings vary their
sweep together, usually backwards. Seen in a few types of military aircraft, such as the
General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark.
 Oblique wing: a single full-span wing pivots about its midpoint, so that one side sweeps
back and the other side sweeps forward. Flown on the NASA AD-1 research aircraft.
Straight Swept Forward swept Variable sweep Variable-geometry
(swing-wing) oblique wing

Sweep variation along span - The angle of a swept wing may also be varied, or cranked,
along the span:
 Crescent: wing outer section is swept less sharply than the inner section, to obtain a
best compromise between transonic shock delay and spanwise flow control. Used on the
Handley Page Victor.
 Cranked arrow: aerodynamically identical to the compound delta, but with the trailing
edge also kinked inwards. Trialled experimentally on the General Dynamics F-16XL.
 M-wing: the inner wing section sweeps forward, and the outer section sweeps
backwards. Allows the wing to be highly swept while minimising the undesirable effects
of aeroelastic bending. Periodically studied, but never used on an aircraft.
 W-wing: A reversed M-wing. Proposed for the Blohm & Voss P.188 but studied even less
than the M-wing and in the end never used.

Crescent Cranked arrow M-wing W-wing

Asymmetrical - On a few asymmetrical aircraft the left and right hand sides are not mirror-images of
each other:
 Asymmetric layout: the Blohm & Voss BV 141 had separate fuselage and crew nacelle offset on
either side to give the crew a good field of view.
 Asymmetric span: on several Italian fighters such as the Ansaldo SVA, one wing was slightly
longer than the other to help counteract engine torque.
 Oblique wing: one wing sweeps forward and the other back. The NASA AD-1 had a full-span
wing structure with variable sweep.

Asymmetrical Torque counteraction Variable-geometry

by asymmetric span oblique wing

3.7 WING CONFIGURATIONS

The wing configuration of a fixed-wing aircraft (including both gliders and powered
aeroplanes or airplanes) is its arrangement of lifting and related surfaces. Aircraft designs are
often classified by their wing configuration. For example, the Supermarine Spitfire is a
conventional low wing cantilever monoplane of straight elliptical plan form with moderate aspect
ratio and slight dihedral. Many variations have been tried. Sometimes the distinction between
them is blurred, for example the wings of many modern combat aircraft may be described either
as cropped compound deltas with (forwards or backwards) swept trailing edge, or as sharply
tapered swept wings with large leading edge root extensions (or LERX). Some are therefore
duplicated here under more than one heading. This is particularly so for variable geometry and
combined (closed) wing types.

3.8 AIRFOIL GEOMETRY

A cut through the wing perpendicular to the leading and trailing edges will show the cross-
section of the wing. This cross-section is called an airfoil, and it has some geometry definitions of
its own as shown at the lower right. The straight line drawn from the leading to trailing edges of
the airfoil is called the chord line. The chord line cuts the airfoil into an upper surface and a lower
surface. If we plot the points that lie halfway between the upper and lower surfaces, we obtain a
curve called the mean camber line.

3.8.1 PARTS OF AN AIRFOIL

*Chord is a distance between the leading and trailing edges measured along the chord line;

*Chord line is a straight line joining the leading and trailing edges of an aerofoil;

*Leading edge is a part of an aerofoil (edge) that hits the air particles first;

*Lower surface is the surface of an aerofoil between the leading and trailing edges, on the lower
surface;

*Mean camber line is a line joining the leading and trailing edges of an aerofoil, equidistant from
the upper and lower surfaces;

*Maximum camber is the maximum distance of the mean camber line from the chord line;

*Maximum thickness is the maximum distance of the lower surface from the upper surface.

*Trailing edge is a part from an aerofoil (edge) that hits the air particles last;

*Upper surface is the surface of an aerofoil between the leading and trailing edges, on the upper
surface

3.9 WING GEOMETRY

This slide gives technical definitions of a wing's geometry, which is one of the chief factors
affecting airplane lift and drag.The terminology used here is used throughout the airplane industry
today and was mostly known to the Wright brothers in 1900. Actual aircraft wings are complex
three-dimensional objects, but we will start with some simple definitions. The figure shows a wing
viewed from three directions; the upper left shows the view from the top looking down on the
wing, the lower left shows the view from the front looking at the wing leading edge, and the right
shows a side view from the left looking in towards the centerline. The side view shows an airfoil
shape with the leading edge to the left. This airfoil is a modern, thick airfoil, which is slightly
different from the thin airfoils used by the Wrights and shown below. The terminology, however, is
the same.
3.9.1 DEFINITION
*Chord - is the imaginary straight line joining the leading and trailing edges of an airfoil.
The chord length is the distance between the trailing edge and the point on the leading edge
where the chord intersects the leading edge
*Span - of an aircraft is always measured in a straight line, from wingtip to wingtip,
independently of wing shape or sweep.
*Taper Ratio - is the wing span divided by the average chord (b/cav) ratio of the chord at the tip
to the chord at the root (Ct /Cr) angle between the line of 25% chord points and the longitudinal
axis. Ratio of lift to drag.
*Aerodynamic Chord - The aerodynamic chord is an imaginary line between the trailing and
leading edge of the wing, and that line has a different length along the wing. The mean
aerodynamic chord is the average length of that line.
*Mean Aerodynamic Chord - The chord length is the distance between the trailing edge and
the point on the leading edge where the chord intersects the leading edge.
*Area - the chord length varies along the span. The wing area, A, is the projected area of the
planform and is bounded by the leading and trailing edges and the wing tips.
*Aspect Ratio - is the ratio of its span to its mean chord. It is equal to the square of the
wingspan divided by the wing area. Thus, a long, narrow wing has a high aspect ratio, whereas a
short, wide wing has a low aspect ratio.
*Average Chord – the length of the wing chord when wing area is divided by wing span.

Empennage
4.1 Definition and Usage

The empennage, also known as the tail or tail assembly, is a structure at the
rear of an aircraft that provides stability during flight. The term derives from the French
language word empenner which means "to feather an arrow".
The empennage main purpose is to give stability to the airplane through its design,
fixed and moving parts.

4.2 Parts of an Empennage

 Horizontal Stabilizer – the front, fixed section of a horizontal tail section. The
horizontal stabilizer is used to prevent the airplane from pitching up or down.
 Elevator – the rear section of a horizontal tail section and are usually hinged to the
horizontal stabilizer. The elevator is a movable airfoil that controls the up-and-down
motion of the aircraft's nose.
 Vertical Stabilizer – the front section of the vertical tail section and is used to
prevent the aircraft from yawing back and forth.
 Rudder - the rear section of the vertical structure. It is a movable airfoil that is
used to turn the aircraft.
* Sometimes the fixed stabilizer and separate movable elevators are replaced by a
single moving horizontal tail known as a Stabilator.

4.3 Empennage Configuration

Tailplanes
The tailplane comprises the tail-mounted fixed horizontal stabiliser and
movable elevator. Besides its planform, it is characterised by:
 Number of tailplanes - from 0 (tailless or canard) to 3 (Roe triplane)
 Location of tailplane - mounted high, mid or low on the fuselage, fin
or tail booms.
 Fixed stabiliser and movable elevator surfaces, or a single
combined stabilator or flying tail.
Fins
The fin comprises the fixed vertical stabiliser and rudder. Besides its profile, it
is characterised by:
 Number of fins - usually one or two.
 Location of fins - on the fuselage (over or under), tailplane, tail
booms or wings
V and X Tails
An alternative to the fin-and-tailplane approach is provided by the V-tail and X-
tail designs. Here, the tail surfaces are set at diagonal angles, with each surface contributing
to both pitch and yaw. The control surfaces, sometimes called ruddervators, act
differentially to provide yaw control (in place of the rudder) and act together to provide
pitch control (in place of the elevator).
 4.4 Canard Configuration
Outboard Tail
An outboard tail is split in two, with each half mounted on a short boom just behind
and outboard of each wing tip. It comprises outboard horizontal stabilizers (OHS) and may
or may not include additional boom-mounted vertical stabilizers (fins). In this position, the
tail surfaces interact constructively with the wingtip vortices and, with careful design, can
significantly reduce drag to improve efficiency, without adding unduly to the structural loads
on the wing.

Tailless Aircraft
A tailless aircraft (often tail-less) traditionally has all its horizontal control
surfaces on its main wing surface. It has no horizontal stabiliser - either tailplane
or canard foreplane (nor does it have a second wing in tandemarrangement). A 'tailless'
type usually still has a vertical stabilising fin (vertical stabiliser) and control surface (rudder).
However, NASA adopted the 'tailless' description for the novel X-36 research aircraft which
has a canard foreplane but no vertical fin.
The most successful tailless configuration has been the tailless delta, especially for
combat aircraft.

5.3 PROPELLER

Thrust is the force that move the aircraft through the air. Thrust is generated by the
propulsion system of the aircraft. There are different types of propulsion systems develop
thrust in different ways, although it usually generated through some application of Newton's
Third Law. Propeller is one of the propulsion system. The purpose of the propeller is to move
the aircraft through the air. The propeller consist of two or more blades connected together by
a hub. The hub serves to attach the blades to the engine shaft. .
 The blades are made in the shape of an airfoil like wing of an aircraft.
When the engine rotates the propeller blades, the blades produce lift.
This lift is called thrust and moves the aircraft forward. most aircraft
have propellers that pull the aircraft through the air. These are
called tractor propellers. Some aircraft have propellers that push the
aircraft. These are called pusher propellers.

Leading Edge of the airfoil is the cutting edge that slices into the air.
As the leading edge cuts the air, air flows over the blade face and the
cambe side.

Blade Face is the surface of the propeller blade that corresponds

to the lower surface of an airfoil or flat side, we called Blade Face.

Blade Back / Thrust Face is the curved surface of the airfoil.

Blade Shank (Root) is the section of the blade nearest the hub.

Blade Tip is the outer end of the blade fartest from the hub.
Plane of Rotation is an imaginary plane perpendicular to the shaft. It
is the plane that contains the circle in which the blades rotate.

Blade Angle is formed between the face of an element and

the plane of rotation. The blade angle throughout the length
of the blade is not the same. The reason for placing the blade
element sections at different angles is because the various
sections of the blade travel at different speed. Each element
must be designed as part of the blade to operate at its own
best angle of attack to create thrust when revolving at its
best design speed
 Relative Wind is the air that strikes and pass over the airfoil as the airfoil is driven through
the air.

Angle of Attack is the angle between the chord of the element and the relative wind. The
best efficiency of the propeller is obtained at an angle of attack around 2 to 4 degrees.

Blade Path is the path of the direction of the blade element moves.

Pitch refers to the distance a spiral threaded object moves forward in one revolution. As a
wood screw moves forward when turned in wood, same with the propeller move forward when
turn in the air.

Geometric Pitch is the theoritical distance a propeller

would advance in one revolution.

Effective Pitch is the actual distance a propeller advances in one revolution in the air. The
effective pitch is always shorter than geometric pitch due to the air is a fluid and always slip.

5.4 FORCES ACING ON A PROPELLER

1. Thrust is the air force on the propeller which is parallel to the directionof advance and
induce bending stress in the propeller.
2. Centrifugal force is caused by rotation of the propeller and tends to throw the blade
out from the center.
3. Torsion or Twisting forces in the blade itself, caused by the resultant of air forces
which tend to twist the blades toward a lower blade angle.

6. Landing Gear Section

6.1 Definition and Usage

Landing gear is a structure which installed on the aircraft for the purpose to support the weight
of the aircraft whiles it on the ground and also allows the aircraft to land safely. Landing gear also
provides mobility to the aircraft on ground or water. Aircrafts require landing gear for taxiing, takeoff,
and landing. Initially aircrafts used skids as its landing gear. Times after times, wheels were attached
to the skids. Since that time, various arrangements have been used for wheels and structures to
connect them to the airplane. It was also formerly called alighting gear by some manufacturers

6.1.1 Landing Gear for Snow Operations

Skis - When an airplane needs to land on surfaces covered by snow, the landing gear usually
consists of skis or a combination of wheels and skis.
6.1.2 Landing Gear for Water Operations
Floatplane - is a type of seaplane, with one or more slender pontoons (known as "floats")
mounted under the fuselage to provide buoyancy.
Flying Boat - has a lower fuselage possessing the shape of a boat hull giving it buoyancy,
usually with a "step" near the center of gravity to allow the aircraft to more easily break free of the
water's surface for takeoff. Additional landing gear is often present, typically comprising wing-mounted
floats.
Amphibious Aircraft - is an aircraft that can take off and land on both land and water. An
amphibious aircraft has landing gear for both land and water-based operation.

6.2 Landing Gear Designs

6.2.1 Fixed Landing Gear

A landing gear that is always in the extended position and cannot be retracted. It is designed to
simplify design and operation

Advantages:
 Always deployed
 Low cost
Disadvantages:
 Creates constant drag, mitigated by the use of a cover called a fairing

6.2.2 Retractable Landing Gear

A design that streamlines the airplane by retracting the landing gear inside the aircraft’s
structure during cruising flight. Retractable landing gear systems may be operated either hydraulically
or electrically or may employ a combination of the two systems.

Advantages:
 The primary benefits of being able to retract the landing gear are increased climb performance
and higher cruise airspeeds due to the resulting decrease in drag
Disadvantages:
 Increased weight
 Increased cost
 Limited to high performance aircraft

6.3 Landing Gear Configurations

There are several types of landing gear which often being used on aircraft. There are 6 most
common type of landing gear used which are:

Tricycle - Tricycle gear is the most popular landing gear

arrangements. The tricycle undercarriage includes two main gears just aft of
the center of gravity and a smaller auxiliary gear near the nose. This
arrangement is instead a stable design because of the location of the main
gear with respect to the center of gravity.

Quadricycle - Quadricycle gear are also very similar to the

tricycle arrangement except there are four main gear roughly equal
in size and mounted along the fuselage. Like tricycle gear, the
quadricycle undercarriage also requires a very flat attitude during
takeoff and landing. This arrangement is also very sensitive to roll,
crosswinds, and proper alignment with the runway. The most
significant advantage of quadricycle gear is that the plane's floor can
be very close to the ground for easier loading and unloading of cargo.

Conventional - Conventional landing gear consists of two

wheels forward of the aircraft's center of gravity and a third small wheel
at the tail. This type of landing gear is most often seen in older general
aviation airplanes. The two main wheels are fastened to the fuselage by
struts.
 Unconventional - Aircraft that must land on
water are fitted with skids rather than wheels. These
skids are the unconventional landing gears for the
aircraft. Some planes had interchangeable skids and
wheels so that the plane could be used to land both on
land and on water. Other than skids, skis and floats are
also unconventional gears.

Tandem - The tandem landing gear is used for very large aircraft. The main landing gear is in
two sets that are located one behind the other on the fuselage. The tandem landing gear allows the
use of a highly flexible wing, but it may also require the use of small wheels on the tips of the wings to
keep the wings from scraping the ground.

Bogie - When more than two wheels are attached to a landing gear
strut, the attaching mechanism is known as a bogie.
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