Fire Prevention and Protection Measures

Fire is normally a result of fuel & oxygen(oxidation reaction) coming together in suitable
proportion and with the source of heat/ignition source.
Substance undergoes a chemical change (oxidation) by combination with oxygen , its usually
liberates certain amount of heat, the process of oxidation accompanied by evolution of heat is
called combustion.
Fire cause deaths of persons due to
 flames &
 poisonous toxic gases (suffocation or lack of O2 called Asphyxiation)
Several preventive, protective and fighting aspect and human safety aspect should be considered
at :-  Design  Operations stages of the plan
 Construction
The physics and the chemistry of fire
Flammability limits: Vapor-air mixtures will ignite and burn only over a well specified range of
compositions. This specifies the percentage composition of the flammable mixture called
Flammability limits.
Lower explosive/Flammable limit (LEL): The lowest percentage concentration of in air that a
mixture of the material, if ignited, will form flame/explode. The mixture will not burn when the
composition is lower than the lower flammable limit (LFL). the mixture is too lean for combustion.
Upper flammability/explosive limit (UFL): The highest percentage concentration in air that a
mixture of the material, if ignited, will form fire/ explode. The mixture is also not combustible
when the composition is too rich than above the upper flammable limit (UFL). Above the UEL the
mixture is too “rich” to explode.
Ignition temperature: the temperature at which combustion can take place.
Flash point: The temperature at which a liquid produces sufficient vapor that if heat source is present,
they will ignite momentary.
Auto-Ignition temperature: Whether a liquid, solid or gaseous, the minimum temperature required to
ignite or self sustain combustion in air.

Flammable and combustible liquids: depends on flash point and vapor pressure (the partial
pressure of the vapor produced at the surface of a liquid at given temperature) /boiling point.

Flammable liquids (w/c is more dangerous): -

 Flash point < 38 0C
 Vapor pressure < 2.7 atm at 38 0C
Combustible liquids
 Flash point > 38 0C
 Vapor Mixtures
These mixture limits are computed using the Le Chatelier equation:

Where
• LFLi is the lower flammable limit for component i (in volume %) of component i in fuel and air,
• Yi is the mole fraction of component i on a combustible basis, and n is the number of combustible species.

Ignition of combustible gas/vapor occur in two ways

Energy for ignition by local source at a point in a mixture: External source of ignition in bulk
mixture.
Bulk gas mixture is heated up its ignition temperature: No external source of ignition else the
mixture reaches autoignition temp.
Combustion process in different state
• If a combustible liquid or solid is heated it evolves vapor flammable mixture further
heating ignition point combustion.
Elements or Components of fire (The fire Tetrahedron)
1. Fuel: - the presence of combustible material
Solids: Plastics, Wood, Fibers, Gases: Acetylene, Propane, CO, Hydrogen
Liquids: Gasoline, Acetone, Ether, Pentane
2. Heat (ignition): - the presence of heating medium
- spark -hot surface - arc
 3. Oxidizer (oxygen): - usually from the atmospheric air, and some chemical compound
Gases: Oxygen, Fluorine, Chlorine Solids: Metal Peroxides, Ammonium Nitrite.
Liquids: Hydrogen Peroxide, Nitric Acid, Perchloric Acid.
4. Chemical Chain Reaction: is activation of single molecule cause many molecules to
undergo activation.
Potential source of ignition
• Flames (burners, furnaces, heaters) • Lightning
• Hot work ( welding, cutting, grinding) • Self heating
• Friction or impact • Chemical energy
• Smoking • Electrical equipment /installations etc
Appearance of fire
Smoke – non Glowing vapor gas Ash
combustible
Flue gas Glowing fire
Product of combustion
fire gases – off gases Heat Implosion
(CO2 , NOX , SOX )
Smoke Collapse of container
Flame
Explosion

Fire spread and growth

• By direct burning • By heat transfer - Radiation - conduction
• By travel of burning material - convection
Flash over: -
powerful behavior of fire
Very fast propagate based on the conditions
Mostly happened a fire occurred in an enclosed system = High heat generation
= High temperature generation
= Material became flammable
Fire classification
Class “A”: Fire involves materials normally of organic nature. Ordinary combustible materials
Eg. wood, paper, cloth, …etc. fires leaves an ash residue and burn with a whitish to grayish smoke.
Class “B”: Fire involves flammable liquids (liquefied solids), flammable gases. E.g. oil, grease,
gasoline, paint thinner, solvents, petroleum products. The smoke is black due to the presence of
large amount of unburned carbon particles.
Class “C”: Fire involves energized electrical equipment’s. Fire gives off bluish-white flashes from
arcing. Normally once the equipment’s are de-energized the fire will cease or became a class “A”
or class “B” fire. E.g. Electrical appliance, circuit breaker, outlets
Class “D”: Metal Fire involves like Mg, Na, Li, K. Metal fires that burn brightly and give off a
white- powder smoke and continue to burn in the absence of oxygen

Fire protection and prevention

1. Passive prevention & protection
Comprises measures which are taken in order to prevent a fire occurring & to limit its spread.
- elimination of fires (sources of ign.) - storage tank layout
- fire spread limitation - fire proof doors, wall, glass window
- fire protective insulation (paints)

2. Active protections (Portable Fire Extinguisher)

- Starvation = Removal of O2 supply - Cooling = the heat ignition.
- Smothering = Removal of fuel - Interruption = of chemical chain reaction
Fire extinguishing agents:
Water (class “A” agent):- remove heat, best on Class A fires
Carbon dioxide (class “BC” Agent): displace oxygen reducing its conc. to below the
level which is capable of supporting combustion
Dry chemicals:
Ordinary dry chemical powder (Class “BC” agent): Siliconized Sodium Bicarbonates.
Airborne powder interrupts the chemical chain reaction.
Multipurpose dry chemical powder (Class “ABC” Agents): Siliconized ammonium phosphate.
Performs as above, plus the powder melts when in contact a hot surface, sealing the oxygen away
from the fuel.
Foam (Class “AB” agent): - Water based detergent floats on the surface of burning liquids,
excluding oxygen from the fuel. Excellent cooling qualities, same as water.
Dry powder (Class “D” Agent): - Only for Class “D”, metal fires. Low velocity, sodium
bicarbonate or sand. Attempts to smother fire, however, some metal fires will continue to burn
with no apparent source of oxygen.
PKP or purple K powder (Class “BCD” agent): - Potassium bicarbonate dyed purple to
distinguish it from other agents. Primarily for Class “D” fires, smothering. It will work on Class
“B” and “C” fires as well (interrupting)

Safety and explosion hazard

Explosion: is a rapid expansion of gases resulting (caused) in a rapidly moving pressure or
shock wave.
Shock wave due to:- Expansion of gases by reaction
- Stoichiometric (change in number of moles)
- Thermal effects
The major distinction between fires and explosions is the rate of energy release.
- Fires release energy slowly, whereas explosions release energy rapidly, typically on the
order of microseconds.
- Fires can also result from explosions, and explosions can result from fires
Note: Controlled explosions can be very useful. For example, explosions regularly occur in
internal combustion engines
Types of explosion
Based on the speed of shock wave
1. Detonations: If the speed of wave moves faster than the speed of sound in unreacted
medium. Occurred by two mechanisms
1. Thermal mechanism: - gas temperature increased by rxn leading to self-acceleration of the
rxn rate.
2. Chain branching mechanism: - increase in number of reactive free radicals (lead to high
reaction rate by an elementary reaction),
2. Deflagration: If the pressure/ blast moves at a speed less than the speed of sound in unreacted
medium. Reaction or flame propagation depends upon – molecular or turbulent diffusion then
the energy release rate, relatively slow flame and pressure front movement.
Based on confinement
1. Confined explosion: explosion occurring within a confined space (vessel or building). Confined
explosion depends on:
– Vessel size and shape - Vessel fractional fill – Ignition source
– Fuel air mixture ratio - Temperature, pressure, turbulence
2. Unconfined explosion: occurs in the open: - usually the result of a flammable gas spill, gas is
dispersed and mixed with air, contact with ignition source. Rarer than confined, explosive material
diluted below LFL/LEL by wind dispersion. Very distractive since large quantities of gas and large
areas will be involved.
Based on other process
Vapor cloud explosions (VCE) : Most dangerous, most frequent and destructive Explosions.
Sudden release of large quantities of flammable vapor , when a vessel containing superheated and
pressurized liquid ruptures.
Parameters affecting VCE
• Quantity of material released • Probability of ignition of cloud
• Fraction of material vaporize • Probability of explosion rather than fire.
Control of VCE
• prevent the release of material
• The process condition which minimize flashing if vessels or pipelines are ruptured
• Install automated block valves to shut down the system when spill is incipient (in early stage)
Boiling liquid expansion vapor explosion (BLEVE): Occurs when a tank containing a liquid
held above its atmospheric boiling point rupture leading to vaporization of large fraction of tank
contents. BLEVE happen mostly fire adjacent to tank containing liquid, fire heated the wall of the
tank and increase liquid the temperature and pressure; then loss mechanical strength, rupture,
explosively vaporizing contents. Release of large quantity of material; flammable VCE, may be
toxic material.
Dust explosion: Industrial dusts like wood, coal, food (starch, flour, sugar ), chemicals (drugs,
dyestuffs) , plastics, metals (Li, Mg, Al..)
Dusts are formed by two methods:
1. Condensation from vapors of materials which condenses to form solid directly.
2. By mechanical size reduction of solid materials (most common)
Occurrence of dust explosion
 Dust explosions occur only if flammable dust is dispersed in air.
 Initial explosion can cause secondary explosion; primary explosion sends shock wave
through the plant stirring up additional dust leading to secondary explosion-leap frog.
Factor affecting dust explosion
Chemical composition: - nature of the dust particles/suspended. Groups such as COOH, OH,
NH2, NO2 are higher dust explosion capacity. Volatile mater in the dust tends to enhance dust
explosion e.g. coal mining.
Oxygen concentration: - Dust explosion increase with oxygen concentration ( refer elements of
fire).
Particle size: -dust explosibility strongly affected by particle size
– Dust with particle size > 500µm unlikely for explosion
– Dust with particle size < 50-75µm enhance explosion
Moisture content: - Greater than 30% moisture content unlikely to lead explosion
Explosion hazards
• Blast effect: - Overpressures, collapse of the nearby containers, damage to structure, equipment,
and vehicles, propagation of other explosions.
• Fragmentation effect: - impact of pieces against personnel, equipment and structures
- Dispersion of burning, hot, combustible or corrosive materials
• Heat effect: -dispersion of the materials (may be also toxic), injury to personnel
General causes of explosions: -
 Afterburning of confined combustion products
 Delayed combustion in a cold firing chamber
 Ignition of hydrogen produced by battery charging.
 Warming a cryogenic liquid in a closed system
 Ignition of sensitive gases such as acetylene
Contact between water or moisture and water-sensitive materials such as Molten Sodium, or
Potassium , or Lithium: concentrated acid or alkalis: or similar substances. Inadvertent activation
by electric current, heat, electromagnetic radiation, lightning or other static electricity.