Traffic signs

Traffic control device is the medium used for communicating between traffic engineer and
road users. Unlike other modes of transportation, there is no control on the drivers using the road.
Here traffic control devices comes to the help of the traffic engineer. The major types of traffic
control devices used are- traffic signs, road markings , traffic signals and parking control. This
chapter discusses traffic control signs. Different types of traffic signs are regulatory signs, warning
signs and informatory signs.

Requirements
The requirements of traffic control devices are listed below:
 The control device should fulfill a need : Each device must have a specific purpose for the
safe and efficient operation of traffic flow. The superfluous devices should not be used.
 It should command attention from the road users: This affects the design of signs. For
commanding attention, proper visibility should be there. Also the sign should be distinctive
and clear. The sign should be placed in such a way that the driver requires no extra effort to
see the sign.
 It should convey a clear, simple meaning: Clarity and simplicity of message is essential for
the driver to properly understand the meaning in short time. The use of color, shape and
legend as codes becomes important in this regard. The legend should be kept short and
simple so that even a less educated driver could understand the message in less time.
 Road users must respect the signs: Respect is commanded only when the drivers are
conditioned to expect that all devices carry meaningful and important messages. Overuse,
misuse and confusing messages of devices tends the drivers to ignore them.
 The control device should provide adequate time for proper response from the road users:
This is again related to the design aspect of traffic control devices. The sign boards should be
placed at a distance such that the driver could see it and gets sufficient time to respond to
the situation. For example, the STOP sign which is always placed at the stop line of the
intersection should be visible for at least one safe stopping sight distance away from the
stop line.

Communication tools
A number of mechanisms are used by the traffic engineer to communicate with the road user. These
mechanisms recognize certain human limitations, particularly eyesight. Messages are conveyed through the
following elements.
1. Color: It is the first and most easily noticed characteristics of a device. Usage of different colors for
different signs are important. The most commonly used colors are red, green, yellow, black, blue, and
brown . These are used to code certain devices and to reinforce specific messages. Consistent use of
colors helps the drivers to identify the presence of sign board ahead.
2. Shape : It is the second element discerned by the driver next to the color of the device. The categories
of shapes normally used are circular, triangular, rectangular, and diamond shape. Two exceptional
shapes used in traffic signs are octagonal shape for STOP sign and use of inverted triangle for GIVE
WAY (YIELD) sign. Diamond shape signs are not generally used in India.
3. Legend : This is the last element of a device that the drive comprehends. This is an important aspect in
the case of traffic signs. For the easy understanding by the driver, the legend should be short, simple
and specific so that it does not divert the attention of the driver. Symbols are normally used as legends

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 so that even a person unable to read the language will be able to understand that. There is no need of it
in the case of traffic signals and road markings.
4. Pattern: It is normally used in the application of road markings, complementing traffic signs. Generally
solid, double solid and dotted lines are used. Each pattern conveys different type of meaning. The
frequent and consistent use of pattern to convey information is recommended so that the drivers get
accustomed to the different types of markings and can instantly recognize them

Types of traffic signs

There are several hundreds of traffic signs available covering wide variety of traffic
situations. They can be classified into three main categories.
Regulatory signs: These signs require the driver to obey the signs for the safety of other road
users.
Warning signs:These signs are for the safety of oneself who is driving and advice the drivers to
obey these signs.
Informative signs: These signs provide information to the driver about the facilities available
ahead, and the route and distance to reach the specific destinations

In addition special type of traffic sign namely work zone signs are also available. These type
of signs are used to give warning to the road users when some construction work is going on the
road. They are placed only for short duration and will be removed soon after the work is over and
when the road is brought back to its normal condition. The first three signs will be discussed in detail
below.

Regulatory signs
These signs are also called mandatory signs because it is mandatory that the drivers must
obey these signs. If the driver fails to obey them, the control agency has the right to take legal action
against the driver. These signs are primarily meant for the safety of other road users. These signs
have generally black legend on a white background. They are circular in shape with red borders. The
regulatory signs can be further classified into:

Right of way series: These include two unique signs that assign the right of way to the selected
approaches of an intersection. They are the STOP sign and GIVE WAY sign For example, when one
minor road and major road meets at an intersection, preference should be given to the vehicles
passing through the major road. Hence the give way sign board will be placed on the minor road to
inform the driver on the minor road that he should give way for the vehicles on the major road. In
case two major roads are meeting, then the traffic engineer decides based on the traffic on which
approach the sign board has to be placed. Stop sign is another example of regulatory signs that
comes in right of way series which requires the driver to stop the vehicle at the stop line.

Speed series: Number of speed signs may be used to limit the speed of the vehicle on the road. They
include typical speed limit signs, truck speed, minimum speed signs etc. Speed limit signs are placed
to limit the speed of the vehicle to a particular speed for many reasons. Separate truck speed limits
are applied on high speed roadways where heavy commercial vehicles must be limited to slower
speeds than passenger cars for safety reasons. Minimum speed limits are applied on high speed
roads like expressways, freeways etc. where safety is again a predominant reason. Very slow
vehicles may present hazard to themselves and other vehicles also.

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Movement series: They contain a number of signs that affect specific vehicle maneuvers. These
include turn signs, alignment signs, exclusion signs, one way signs etc. Turn signs include turn
prohibitions and lane use control signs. Lane use signs make use of arrows to specify the movements
which all vehicles in the lane must take. Turn signs are used to safely accommodate turns in
unsignalized intersections.

Parking series: They include parking signs which indicate not only parking prohibitions or
restrictions, but also indicate places where parking is permitted, the type of vehicle to be parked,
duration for parking etc.

Pedestrian series: They include both legend and symbol signs. These signs are meant for the safety
of pedestrians and include signs indicating pedestrian only roads, pedestrian crossing sites etc.

Miscellaneous: Wide variety of signs that are included in this category are: a "KEEP OF MEDIAN"
sign, signs indicating road closures, signs restricting vehicles carrying hazardous cargo or substances,
signs indicating vehicle weight limitations etc.

Some examples of the regulatory signs are shown in figure 1. They include a stop sign, give way sign,
signs for no entry, sign indicating prohibition for right turn, vehicle width limit sign, speed limit sign
etc.

Figure 1: Examples of regulatory signs ( stop sign, give way sign, signs for no entry, sign indicating
prohibition for right turn, vehicle width limit sign, speed limit sign)
Warning signs
Warning signs or cautionary signs give information to the driver about the impending road
condition. They advice the driver to obey the rules. These signs are meant for the own safety of
drivers. They call for extra vigilance from the part of drivers. The color convention used for this type
of signs is that the legend will be black in color with a white background. The shape used is upward
triangular or diamond shape with red borders. Some of the examples for this type of signs are given
in fig 1 and includes right hand curve sign board, signs for narrow road, sign indicating railway track
ahead etc.

Figure 1: Examples of cautionary signs ( right hand curve sign board, signs for narrow road, sign

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indicating railway track ahead)

Informative signs
Informative signs also called guide signs, are provided to assist the drivers to reach their
desired destinations. These are predominantly meant for the drivers who are unfamiliar to the place.
The guide signs are redundant for the users who are accustomed to the location.
Some of the examples for these type of signs are route markers, destination signs, mile
posts, service information, recreational and cultural interest area signing etc. Route markers are
used to identify numbered highways. They have designs that are distinctive and unique. They are
written black letters on yellow background. Destination signs are used to indicate the direction to
the critical destination points, and to mark important intersections. Distance in kilometers are
sometimes marked to the right side of the destination. They are, in general, rectangular with the
long dimension in the horizontal direction. They are color coded as white letters with green
background.

Mile posts are provided to inform the driver about the progress along a route to reach his
destination. Service guide signs give information to the driver regarding various services such as
food, fuel, medical assistance etc. They are written with white letters on blue background.
Information on historic, recreational and other cultural area is given on white letters with brown
background. In the figure 1 we can see some examples for informative signs which include route
markers, destination signs, mile posts, service center information etc..

Figure 1: Examples of informative signs (route markers, destination signs, mile posts, service center
information etc)

Road markings
The essential purpose of road markings is to guide and control traffic on a highway. They
supplement the function of traffic signs. The markings serve as a psychological barrier and signify the
delineation of traffic path and its lateral clearance from traffic hazards for the safe movement of
traffic. Hence they are very important to ensure the safe, smooth and harmonious flow of traffic.
Various types of road markings like longitudinal markings, transverse markings, object markings and
special markings to warn the driver about the hazardous locations in the road.

Classification
The road markings are defined as lines, patterns, words or other devices, except signs, set
into applied or attached to the carriageway or kerbs or to objects within or adjacent to the
carriageway, for controlling, warning, guiding and informing the users. The road markings are
classified as longitudinal markings, transverse markings, object markings, word messages, marking
for parking, marking at hazardous locations etc.

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Longitudinal markings
Longitudinal markings are placed along the direction of traffic on the roadway surface, for
the purpose of indicating to the driver, his proper position on the roadway. Some of the guiding
principles in longitudinal markings are also discussed below.
Longitudinal markings are provided for separating traffic flow in the same direction and the
predominant color used is white. Yellow color is used to separate the traffic flow in opposite
direction and also to separate the pavement edges. The lines can be either broken, solid or double
solid. Broken lines are permissive in character and allows crossing with discretion, if traffic situation
permits. Solid lines are restrictive in character and does not allow crossing except for entry or exit
from a side road or premises or to avoid a stationary obstruction. Double solid lines indicate severity
in restrictions and should not be crossed except in case of emergency. There can also be a
combination of solid and broken lines. In such a case, a solid line may be crossed with discretion, if
the broken line of the combination is nearer to the direction of travel. Vehicles from the opposite
directions are not permitted to cross the line. Different types of longitudinal markings are center
line, traffic lanes, no passing zone, warning lines, border or edge lines, bus lane markings, cycle lane
markings.

Center line
Center line separates the opposing streams of traffic and facilitates their movements.
Usually no center line is provided for roads having width less than 5 m and for roads having more
than four lanes. The center line may be marked with either single broken line, single solid line,
double broken line, or double solid line depending upon the road and traffic requirements. On urban
roads with less than four lanes, the center line may be single broken line segments of 3 m long and
150 mm wide. The broken lines are placed with 4.5 m gaps (figure 1).

Figure 1: Center line marking for a two lane road

On curves and near intersections, gap shall be reduced to 3 meters. On undivided urban roads with
at least two traffic lanes in each direction, the center line marking may be a single solid line of 150
mm wide as in figure 2, or double solid line of 100 mm wide separated by a space of 100 mm as
shown in figure 3.

Figure 2: Center line and lane marking for a four lane road

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 Figure 3: Double solid line for a two lane road
The center barrier line marking for four lane road is shown in figure 4.

Figure 4: Center barrier line marking for four lane road

Traffic lane lines
The subdivision of wide carriageway into separate lanes on either side of the carriage way
helps the driver to go straight and also curbs the meandering tendency of the driver. At
intersections, these traffic lane lines will eliminate confusion and facilitates turning movements.
Thus traffic lane markings help in increasing the capacity of the road in addition ensuring more
safety. The traffic lane lines are normally single broken lines of 100 mm width. Some examples are
shown in figure 1 and figure 2.

Figure 1: Lane marking for a four lane road with solid barrier line

Figure 2: Traffic lane marking for a four lane road with broken center line

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Warning lines
Warning lines warn the drivers about the obstruction approaches. They are marked on
horizontal and vertical curves where the visibility is greater than prohibitory criteria specified for no
overtaking zones. They are broken lines with 6 m length and 3 m gap. A minimum of seven line
segments should be provided. A typical example is shown in figure 3

Figure 3: Warning line marking for a two lane road

Stop line
Stop line indicates the position beyond which the vehicles should not proceed when
required to stop by control devices like signals or by traffic police. They should be placed either
parallel to the intersecting roadway or at right angles to the direction of approaching vehicles. An
example for a stop line marking is shown in figure 1.

Figure 1: Stop line marking near an intersection

Pedestrian crossings
Pedestrian crossings are provided at places where the conflict between vehicular and
pedestrian traffic is severe. The site should be selected that there is less inconvenience to the
pedestrians and also the vehicles are not interrupted too much. At intersections, the pedestrian
crossings should be preceded by a stop line at a distance of 2 to 3m for unsignalized intersections
and at a distance of one meter for signalized intersections. Most commonly used pattern for
pedestrian crossing is Zebra crossing consisting of equally spaced white strips of 500 mm wide. A
typical example of an intersection illustrating pedestrian crossings is shown in figure 2.

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 Figure 2: Pedestrian marking near an intersection
Directional arrows
In addition to the warning lines on approaching lanes, directional arrows should be used to
guide the drivers in advance over the correct lane to be taken while approaching busy intersections.
Because of the low angle at which the markings are viewed by the drivers, the arrows should be
elongated in the direction of traffic for adequate visibility. The dimensions of these arrows are also
very important. A typical example of a directional arrow is shown in figure 3.

Figure 3: Directional arrow marking

Channelization
One of the most effective and efficient methods of controlling the traffic on a highway is the
adoption of high intersection geometric design standards. Channelization is an integral part of at
grade intersections and is used to separate turning movements from through movements where this
is considered advisable and hence helps reduce the intensity and frequency of loss of life and
property due to accidents to a large extent. Proper Channelization increases capacity, improves
safety, provides maximum convenience, and instils driver confidence.

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Definitions and Important Terms
1. Channelization - It is the separation or regulation of conflicting traffic movements into
definite paths of travel by traffic islands or pavement marking to facilitate the safe and
orderly movements of both vehicles and pedestrians.
2. Conflict - It is defined as the demand for the same highway space by two or more users of
the highway. Conflicts are classified into mainly three types:
(a) Crossing conflicts
(b) Diverging conflicts
(c) Merging conflicts
3. Angle of Intersection - The angle of intersection is that formed by the centerlines of the
intersecting streets. Where the angle of intersection departs significantly (more than
approximately ) from right angles, the intersection is referred to as a skewed
intersection. Fig. 1 shows the angle made between the center lines of the major and minor
legs.

Figure 1: Angle of Intersection

4. Refuge Areas - The area which is used to give refuge to the pedestrians crossing a street (the
open area between two medians) is known as a refuge area.

Objectives
The use of Channelization is often creative and innovative, providing for vehicle path separation
and distinct and thus in general making traffic flow safer, smoother, simpler and efficient. The main
objectives of Channelization can be summarized as follows:

1) Separation of maneuver areas: The drivers should be presented with only one decision at a time
to reduce confusion and the influence of operations caused due to the overlapping of maneuver
areas.
2) Reduce excessively large paved areas: The spread of the paved area can be considerably reduced
by the construction of raised islands and medians where these are considered safe and
necessary.
3) Control of maneuver angle:The intensity of accidents can be reduced to a large extent by
providing small angles for merging, diverging and weaving (at low relative speeds) and
approximately right angles for crossing (at high relative speeds). The maneuver angle can be
easily controlled by constructing islands of appropriate shapes and sizes.
4) Favor predominant turning movements: Channelization is also directed for giving preference to
turning movements at an intersection where the proportion of such traffic is high.
5) Control of speed: Channelization is also used for supporting stop or speed regulations by
removing differentials in speed for merging, diverging, weaving and crossing by using the
bending and funneling techniques.

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6) Protection and storage of turning and crossing vehicles: To shadow slow or stopped vehicles
from other traffic flows.
7) Blockage of prohibited movements: Proper Channelization also helps maintain traffic regulations
by making prohibited movements impossible or inconvenient.
8) Provide space for traffic control devices: To provide space for traffic control devices when the
ideal location for the same is within the intersection area.
9) Segregation of non-homogeneous flows: Channelization provides separate channels for turning
and through, fast and slow, and opposite direction traffic.
10) Protection of pedestrians and reduction of crossing distances between refuges: Non-traversable
and wide medians provide a refuge for pedestrians crossing a street.

Consider for example the T-intersection shown in Figs. 1, 2, and 3. In Fig. 1, the intersection has
no special Channelization for helping drivers in avoiding conflicts between movements. In Fig. 2, a
passing lane for through vehicles in the eastbound direction and a westbound right-turn lane has
been added, which helps in separating the turning traffic from the through ones. In Fig. 3, the use of
lanes is further clarified due to the addition of channelizing islands.

Figure 1: Illustration of T-intersection Channelization, (a)Intersection with no Channelization

Figure 2: Illustration of T-intersection Channelization, (b)Intersection with right-turn and passing

lane

Figure 3: Illustration of T-intersection Channelization, (c)Fully channelized intersection

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Rotary intersections
Rotary intersections or round abouts are special form of at-grade intersections laid out for
the movement of traffic in one direction around a central traffic island. Essentially all the major
conflicts at an intersection namely the collision between through and right-turn movements are
converted into milder conflicts namely merging and diverging. The vehicles entering the rotary are
gently forced to move in a clockwise direction in orderly fashion. They then weave out of the rotary
to the desired direction..

Advantages and disadvantages

The key advantages of a rotary intersection are listed below:
1) Traffic flow is regulated to only one direction of movement, thus eliminating severe conflicts
between crossing movements.
2) All the vehicles entering the rotary are gently forced to reduce the speed and continue to move
at slower speed. Thus, none of the vehicles need to be stopped,unlike in a signalized
intersection.
3) Because of lower speed of negotiation and elimination of severe conflicts, accidents and their
severity are much less in rotaries.
4) Rotaries are self governing and do not need practically any control by police or traffic signals.
5) They are ideally suited for moderate traffic, especially with irregular geometry, or intersections
with more than three or four approaches.

Although rotaries offer some distinct advantages, there are few specific limitations for rotaries
which are listed below.
1) All the vehicles are forced to slow down and negotiate the intersection. Therefore, the
cumulative delay will be much higher than channelized intersection.
2) Even when there is relatively low traffic, the vehicles are forced to reduce their speed.
3) Rotaries require large area of relatively flat land making them costly at urban areas.
4) The vehicles do not usually stop at a rotary. They accelerate and exit the rotary at relatively high
speed. Therefore, they are not suitable when there is high pedestrian movements.

Guidelines for the selection

Because of the above limitation, rotaries are not suitable for every location. There are few guidelines
that help in deciding the suitability of a rotary. They are listed below.
1) Rotaries are suitable when the traffic entering from all the four approaches are relatively equal.
2) A total volume of about 3000 vehicles per hour can be considered as the upper limiting case and
a volume of 500 vehicles per hour is the lower limit.
3) A rotary is very beneficial when the proportion of the right-turn traffic is very high; typically if it
is more than 30 percent.
4) Rotaries are suitable when there are more than four approaches or if there is no separate lanes
available for right-turn traffic. Rotaries are ideally suited if the intersection geometry is complex.

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Traffic operations in a rotary
As noted earlier, the traffic operations at a rotary are three; diverging, merging and weaving. All
the other conflicts are converted into these three less severe conflicts.
1) Diverging: It is a traffic operation when the vehicles moving in one direction is separated into
different streams according to their destinations.
2) Merging: Merging is the opposite of diverging. Merging is referred to as the process of joining
the traffic coming from different approaches and going to a common destination into a single
stream.
3) Weaving: Weaving is the combined movement of both merging and diverging movements in the
same direction.
These movements are shown in figure 1.

Figure 1: Traffic operations in a rotary

It can be observed that movements from each direction split into three; left, straight, and right turn.

Design elements
The design elements include design speed, radius at entry, exit and the central island,
weaving length and width, entry and exit widths. In addition the capacity of the rotary can also be
determined by using some empirical formula. A typical rotary and the important design elements are
shown in figure 1

Figure 1: Design elements of a rotary

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Design speed
All the vehicles are required to reduce their speed at a rotary. Therefore, the design speed of
a rotary will be much lower than the roads leading to it. Although it is possible to design roundabout
without much speed reduction, the geometry may lead to very large size incurring huge cost of
construction. The normal practice is to keep the design speed as 30 and 40 kmph for urban and rural
areas respectively.

Entry, exit and island radius

The radius at the entry depends on various factors like design speed, super-elevation, and
coefficient of friction. The entry to the rotary is not straight, but a small curvature is introduced. This
will force the driver to reduce the speed. The entry radius of about 20 and 25 meters is ideal for an
urban and rural design respectively.
The exit radius should be higher than the entry radius and the radius of the rotary island so
that the vehicles will discharge from the rotary at a higher rate. A general practice is to keep the exit
radius as 1.5 to 2 times the entry radius. However, if pedestrian movement is higher at the exit
approach, then the exit radius could be set as same as that of the entry radius.
The radius of the central island is governed by the design speed, and the radius of the entry
curve. The radius of the central island, in practice, is given a slightly higher radius so that the
movement of the traffic already in the rotary will have priority. The radius of the central island which
is about 1.3 times that of the entry curve is adequate for all practical purposes.

Width of the rotary

The entry width and exit width of the rotary is governed by the traffic entering and leaving
the intersection and the width of the approaching road. The width of the carriageway at entry and
exit will be lower than the width of the carriageway at the approaches to enable reduction of speed.
IRC suggests that a two lane road of 7 m width should be kept as 7 m for urban roads and 6.5 m for
rural roads. Further, a three lane road of 10.5 m is to be reduced to 7 m and 7.5 m respectively for
urban and rural roads.
The width of the weaving section should be higher than the width at entry and exit.
Normally this will be one lane more than the average entry and exit width. Thus weaving width is
given as,

(1)

where is the width of the carriageway at the entry and is the carriageway width at exit.
Weaving length determines how smoothly the traffic can merge and diverge. It is decided
based on many factors such as weaving width, proportion of weaving traffic to the non-weaving
traffic etc. This can be best achieved by making the ratio of weaving length to the weaving width
very high. A ratio of 4 is the minimum value suggested by IRC. Very large weaving length is also
dangerous, as it may encourage over-speeding.

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Capacity

The capacity of rotary is determined by the capacity of each weaving section. Transportation
road research lab (TRL) proposed the following empirical formula to find the capacity of the weaving
section.

(1)

where is the average entry and exit width, i.e, , is the weaving width, is the length

of weaving, and is the proportion of weaving traffic to the non-weaving traffic. Figure 1 shows
four types of movements at a weaving section, and are the non-weaving traffic and and
are the weaving traffic.

Figure 1: Weaving operation in a rotary

Therefore,

(2)

This capacity formula is valid only if the following conditions are satisfied.
1) Weaving width at the rotary is in between 6 and 18 meters.
2) The ratio of average width of the carriage way at entry and exit to the weaving width is in the
range of 0.4 to 1.
3) The ratio of weaving width to weaving length of the roundabout is in between 0.12 and 0.4.
4) The proportion of weaving traffic to non-weaving traffic in the rotary is in the range of 0.4 and 1.
5) The weaving length available at the intersection is in between 18 and 90 m.

Numerical example
The width of a carriage way approaching an intersection is given as 15 m. The entry and exit width at
the rotary is 10 m. The traffic approaching the intersection from the four sides is shown in the
figure 1 below.

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 Figure 1: Traffic approaching the rotary
Find the capacity of the rotary using the given data.

Solution:
The traffic from the four approaches negotiating through the roundabout is illustrated in figure 2.

Figure 2: Traffic negotiating a rotary

Weaving width is calculated as, w = = 13.5 m

Weaving length, l is calculated as = 4 w = 54 m

The proportion of weaving traffic to the non-weaving traffic in all the four approaches is found out
first.
It is clear from equation,that the highest proportion of weaving traffic to non-weaving traffic will
give the minimum capacity. Let the proportion of weaving traffic to the non-weaving traffic in West-

North direction be denoted as , in North-East direction as , in the East-South direction

as , and finally in the South-West direction as .

The weaving traffic movements in the East-South direction is shown in figure 3. Then using
equation,

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 = = =0.783

= = =0.718

= = =0.674

= = =0.6099

Thus the proportion of weaving traffic to non-weaving traffic is highest in the East-South direction.

Figure 3: Traffic weaving in East-South direction

Therefore, the capacity of the rotary will be capacity of this weaving section. From equation,

(1)

Traffic signals
Traffic signals are one of the most effective and flexible active control of traffic and is widely
used in several cities world wide. The conflicts arising from movements of traffic in different
directions is addressed by time sharing principle. The advantages of traffic signal includes an orderly
movement of traffic, an increased capacity of the intersection and requires only simple geometric
design. However, the disadvantages of the signalized intersection are large stopped delays, and
complexity in the design and implementation. Although the overall delay may be lesser than a rotary
for a high volume, a user may experience relatively high stopped delay.

Definitions and notations

A number of definitions and notations need to be understood in signal design. They are discussed
below:
 Cycle: A signal cycle is one complete rotation through all of the indications provided.
 Cycle length: Cycle length is the time in seconds that it takes a signal to complete one full
cycle of indications. It indicates the time interval between the starting of of green for one
approach till the next time the green starts. It is denoted by .
 Interval: Thus it indicates the change from one stage to another. There are two types of
intervals - change interval and clearance interval. Change interval is also called the yellow
time indicates the interval between the green and red signal indications for an
approach. Clearance interval is also called all red and is provided after each yellow interval

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 indicating a period during which all signal faces show red and is used for clearing off the
vehicles in the intersection.
 Green interval: It is the green indication for a particular movement or set of movements and
is denoted by . This is the actual duration the green light of a traffic signal is turned on.
 Red interval: It is the red indication for a particular movement or set of movements and is

denoted by . This is the actual duration the red light of a traffic signal is turned on.
 Phase: A phase is the green interval plus the change and clearance intervals that follow it.
Thus, during green interval, non conflicting movements are assigned into each phase. It
allows a set of movements to flow and safely halt the flow before the phase of another set
of movements start.
 Lost time: It indicates the time during which the intersection is not effectively utilized for
any movement. For example, when the signal for an approach turns from red to green, the
driver of the vehicle which is in the front of the queue, will take some time to perceive the
signal (usually called as reaction time) and some time will be lost before vehicle actually
moves and gains speed.

Phase design
The signal design procedure involves six major steps. They include: (1) phase design,
(2) determination of amber time and clearance time, (3) determination of cycle length,
(4) apportioning of green time, (5) pedestrian crossing requirements, and (6) performance
evaluation of the design obtained in the previous steps. The objective of phase design is to separate
the conflicting movements in an intersection into various phases, so that movements in a phase
should have no conflicts. If all the movements are to be separated with no conflicts, then a large
number of phases are required. In such a situation, the objective is to design phases with minimum
conflicts or with less severe conflicts.
There is no precise methodology for the design of phases. This is often guided by the
geometry of the intersection, the flow pattern especially the turning movements, and the relative
magnitudes of flow. Therefore, a trial and error procedure is often adopted. However, phase design
is very important because it affects the further design steps. Further, it is easier to change the cycle
time and green time when flow pattern changes, where as a drastic change in the flow pattern may
cause considerable confusion to the drivers. To illustrate various phase plan options, consider a four
legged intersection with through traffic and right turns. Left turn is ignored. See Figure 1.

Figure 1: Four legged intersection

The first issue is to decide how many phases are required. It is possible to have two, three, four or
even more number of phases.
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Two phase signals
Two phase system is usually adopted if through traffic is significant compared to the turning
movements. For example in Figure 2, non-conflicting through traffic 3 and 4 are grouped in a single
phase and non-conflicting through traffic 1 and 2 are grouped in the second phase.

Figure 2: Movements in two phase signal system

However, in the first phase flow 7 and 8 offer some conflicts and are called permitted right
turns. Needless to say that such phasing is possible only if the turning movements are relatively low.
On the other hand, if the turning movements are significant, then a four phase system is usually
adopted.
Four phase signals
There are at least three possible phasing options. For example, figure 3 shows the most
simple and trivial phase plan.

Figure 3: Movements in four phase signal system

where, flow from each approach is put into a single phase avoiding all conflicts. This type of phase
plan is ideally suited in urban areas where the turning movements are comparable with through
movements and when through traffic and turning traffic need to share same lane. This phase plan
could be very inefficient when turning movements are relatively low.

Cycle time
Cycle time is the time taken by a signal to complete one full cycle of iterations. i.e. one
complete rotation through all signal indications. It is denoted by . The way in which the vehicles
depart from an intersection when the green signal is initiated will be discussed now.
Figure 1 illustrates a group of N vehicles at a signalized intersection, waiting for the green signal.
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 Figure 1: Group of vehicles at a signalized intersection waiting for green signal
As the signal is initiated, the time interval between two vehicles, referred as headway,
crossing the curb line is noted. The first headway is the time interval between the initiation of the
green signal and the instant vehicle crossing the curb line. The second headway is the time interval
between the first and the second vehicle crossing the curb line. Successive headways are then
plotted as in figure 2.

Figure 2: Headways departing signal

The first headway will be relatively longer since it includes the reaction time of the driver
and the time necessary to accelerate. The second headway will be comparatively lower because the
second driver can overlap his/her reaction time with that of the first driver's. After few vehicles, the
headway will become constant. This constant headway which characterizes all headways beginning
with the fourth or fifth vehicle, is defined as the saturation headway, and is denoted as . This is
the headway that can be achieved by a stable moving platoon of vehicles passing through a green
indication. If every vehicles require seconds of green time, and if the signal were always green,
then vehicles per hour would pass the intersection. Therefore,

(1)

where is the saturation flow rate in vehicles per hour of green time per lane, is the
saturation headway in seconds. As noted earlier, the headway will be more than h particularly for
the first few vehicles. The difference between the actual headway and h for the vehicle and is

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denoted as shown in figure 2. These differences for the first few vehicles can be added to get
start up lost time, which is given by,

(2)

The green time required to clear N vehicles can be found out as,
(3)

where is the time required to clear N vehicles through signal, is the start-up lost time, and
is the saturation headway in seconds.

Effective green time

Effective green time is the actual time available for the vehicles to cross the intersection. It is
the sum of actual green time ( ) plus the yellow minus the applicable lost times. This lost time is

the sum of start-up lost time ( ) and clearance lost time ( ) denoted as . Thus effective
green time can be written as,
(4)

Lane capacity
The ratio of effective green time to the cycle length ( )is defined as green ratio. We know
that saturation flow rate is the number of vehicles that can be moved in one lane in one hour
assuming the signal to be green always. Then the capacity of a lane can be computed as,

(5)

where is the capacity of lane in vehicle per hour, is the saturation flow rate in vehicle per
hour per lane, is the cycle time in seconds.

Numerical example
Let the cycle time of an intersection is 60 seconds, the green time for a phase is 27 seconds, and the
corresponding yellow time is 4 seconds. If the saturation headway is 2.4 seconds per vehicle, the
start-up lost time is 2 seconds per phase, and the clearance lost time is 1 second per phase, find the
capacity of the movement per lane?
Solution

Total lost time, = 2+1 = 3 seconds. From equation 4 effective green time, = 27+4-3 = 28

seconds. From equation 1 saturation flow rate, = 1500 veh per hr. Capacity of
the given phase can be found out from equation 5 as = 700 veh per hr per lane.

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