Arbuckle Colorants and Opacifiers

Colorants and Opacifiers

Listed by commonest usage
Material Notes Color properties Sources

Iron (Fe): In slip: 1/2 - 8% are usual amounts. In glazes up to 15%

Found as a source of colors in red + Pb (lead) = amber red iron oxide (Fe2O3 has finer
clays. Begins to flux at low-fire + alkaline flux (Na, K, Li) = cooler particles than black iron)
temperatures. High amounts can tones black iron oxide (FeO)
increase fluxing in a base glaze, + Zn (zinc) = duller Fe colors crocus martis (purple-ish raw
and reduction can increase the + Ca (calcium) = bleached Fe and in low-fire sigs)
activity of iron in a glaze. May be colors rutile (Fe & Ti + impurities),
used to modify other colorants, In oxidation firing: buff, ochre, ilmenite (Fe & Ti in
e.g. to modulate cobalt blues or rust, browns, and blacks. In powdered or granular
copper colors. glazes 1-3% tans, 4-6% red form)
browns in most, but olive - ochre (yellow ochre)
Black oxide mix: 4% Fe+ 4% Co + yellow in high alkali glaze. 6-10% sienna (raw or burnt, Fe +
4% Mn or Cu (note: hi Co may deep browns (tin may help). Mn)
spit in firing and give blue halos Presence of barium (toxic) or umber (raw or burnt, Fe +
on kiln shelves, copper in strontium may produce iron more Mn than sienna)
reduction may give black areas a ambers similar to lead colors. iron chromate (Fe + Cr =
pink edge quality). taupe colors)
In reduction firing: small Barnard/Blackbird slip clay,
amounts of iron (.5 - 3%) in a Alberta Slip, Albany slip
glaze yield celadon greens, blue- (no longer mined, see
greens, olive, and grey-green Ceramics Mo. article Oct.
colors. 1-6% with calcium '88 for potential
phosphate (bone ash) = iron substitutes)
blues. Saturated iron (6% or Iron sulfate (soluble form –
more) in reduction or oxidation avoid skin contact)
glazes with Mg and P , Fe may
re-oxidize and form crystals
during slow cooling and give
"tomato" red, rust, persimmon
reds. High Fe also makes brown,
and black, e.g. temmoku, glazes.

Resources: Celadons: see v.27 no.1 (Dec. ’98)Studio Potter magazine, Robert Tichane’s Those Celadon
Blues, historic works: Ice and Blue Clouds. Cultures famous for celadons: Asian (China, Korea, Japan,
Vietnam, Thailand, etc.)

Copper (Cu): In slip: 2-8%. In glaze: rarely used above 5%. Excess may give metallic pewter.
Fluxes at low-fire temperatures + alkaline flux = alkaline copper carbonate (CuCO3
and highly soluble in glazes. May turquoise (cf. Egyptian paste greenish)
vaporize above cone 8 and fume turquoise and Islamic wares) black copper oxide (CuO)
adjacent ware. In raku post-firing + Ba (barium) in high amounts red copper oxide (note: red
reduction copper produces (30% +) = barium blue matts CuO does not mix well in
metallic copper penny flashes. (robin's egg) . High Ba is TOXIC: water and stays beaded
not for food wares. up on the surface).
2% Cu softens chrome greens in + Sr (strontium) colors similar to copper sulfate (CuSO4 pale
oxidation. "Tizzy" slip for cone 10 Ba, w/o toxicity. turquoise crystals,
reduction is about 8% Cu. + Zn (zinc) = intensified Cu soluble, avoid skin
colors. contact)
Oxidation: turquoise to greens.
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Material Notes Color properties Sources

+ Pb (lead) = transparent grass
green (possibly w/slight lustrous
surface) cf. T'ang Dynasty ware.
Copper increases the solubility
of Pb and may change a "safe"
lead glaze to one that leaches
Pb. Lead blisters in reduction
and is ONLY fired in oxidation.
Reduction: copper reds: plum,
oxblood, peach bloom, flambe,
etc.
Resources: Studio Potter magazine v.8 no.1 . Clay Times v.4 # 6 Nov/Dec. '98 Pt 1 and Jan./Feb. ‘99
v.5 no. 1 pt. 2 article on firing Cu reds by Pete Pinnell, Robert Tichane, Copper Red Glazes. Cultures
notes for copper reds: Asian ceramics. Alkaline turquoise copper colors: Egyptian and Middle-Eastern
ceramics. Colorant in transparent turquoise glazes.

Cobalt (Co): In slip .25 - 2%. In glazes .25 - 1%.

Strong colorant. Melts at low-fire + Mg (magnesium) = purple to cobalt carbonate (CoCO3
temperatures. Expensive. Stable lavenders lavender raw)
in all kiln atmospheres to usually + Pb (lead) = warm blues cobalt oxide (CoO black raw)
give a blue color. May be + alkaline fluxes (Na, K, Li) = May spot unless sieved
overbearing and need softening brilliant blue toward ultramarine well.
w/iron, nickel, manganese, etc.. + Zn (zinc) = intensified blue cobalt sulfate (CoSO4 lavender
High cobalt over-glaze colors + Ti (titanium) = green crystals raw) SOLUBLE.
(e.g. in majolica blue or black ) or Hazardous.
surfaces may spit during firing, Mixed with colorants:
leaving a halo on the kiln shelf + rutile or titanium = green
+ Cr (chrome) = teal
+ pink stain = purple
Cultures known for use of cobalt decoration: Chinese Ming dynasty, various SE Asian ceramic
traditions. Colorant in “Emily Purple” high-fire glaze.

Manganese (Mn): In slip 2-10%. Over 15% fluxes high-fire slips enough to vitrify.
In glaze 2-4% will dissolve in glazes. Over 4% in glaze can produce crystalline Mn on the glaze surface at high
temperatures. Over 20% = bronze metallic surface
Begins to melt at 1112ΕF. Brown + high alkaline fluxes (K, Na, Li) manganese oxide (MnO)
to plummy brown to purple and low alumina 1-3% MnO 2 = manganese dioxide (MnO2)
brown. May produce greens at violet. .25-.5 CoO will intensify manganese carbonate
high temperatures and in this color. (MnCO3).
reduction. Pinks. Mason’s very + alumina in a frit = pink stain
refractory 6020 pink stain is Mn- (e.g. Mason 6020 pink body
Al pink. Often used to modify stain)
cobalt colors. May blister if used + Pb (lead) = purple
in large amounts w/ sulfur + tin = “interesting coffee color”
present. May cause pinholing in according to Hamer.
glaze surface. All forms: skin
contact is not a signficant hazard
but highly TOXIC if inhaled,
moderately toxic if ingested.
(See Hamer on Mn).

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Material Notes Color properties Sources

Chrome (Cr): In slip .50 - 2%. Excess (> 6%?) black breaking to green. In glazes .25 - 2%.
Powerful, refractory colorant. + Zn (zinc) = brown chrome oxide (Cr2 O3 green
Remains undissolved and give + Pb (lead) at low temp. (010 - raw).Chrome oxide has
opaque, dense color in glazes. 04) = red, orange (Otto's texture slight skin contact,
Usual color is opaque John Deere is a famous green to orange inhalation, and ingestion
tractor green. scaley sculpture glaze), w/high toxicity.
Na + Pb = yellow. iron chromate (FeCrO4 brown-
Colorant in popular “Mean + alkaline flux & small amounts greys)
Green” or “Reeve Green” of Cr (chrome) = chartreuse potassium bichromate or
highfire glaze. + at least 5% Sn (tin) and small dichromate (bright
amounts. of Cr (0.5%) = chrome- orange crystals raw,
Cr is colorant in the highly toxic tin pink, even up to high fire soluble in water, highly
(Pb+Cr) orange sculpture glaze temps. Above cone 6 Cr may TOXIC if absorbed,
Otto’s texture. Fumes very toxic. fume adjacent tin-glazed pieces inhaled, or swallowed,
and pink them. olive drab)
Possible allergic reactions. Fumes Cr-Sn pink used to make many lead chromate (TOXIC).
toxic. pink stains. Beware using
these in Zn bases.
Cr + Co combinations are used in
many blue-green, teal, etc.
stains. Beware using these
w/Zn bases.

Rutile (Ti + Fe): In slip 2-6%. In glaze 4-25%

Refractory mineral that is mostly In reduction glazes may produce granular rutile (produces
Ti plus up to 15% iron and blues and pearly colors in the specking)
sometimes traces of Cr (chrome) pink-purple-blue range powdered form, light or dark
and/or V (vanadium). Used to As a wash on top of glazes (less or more Fe) forms.
produce modified iron colors, (refractory – mix w/flux) Tan, grey-brown to dark
such as tan or yellow in oxidation produces buff-golden crystalline brown raw.
to blues in reduction. Produces effect, esp. in high-fire.
broken or mottled colors in On top of majolica glaze at
glazes, crystallization (matt and lowfire temperatures, rusty
opaque). Pearly in a salt-glaze orange.
slip. Used w/cobalt for greens or May give Cr-Sn pinking or halos
steel greys, or w/chrome for if the particular batch of rutile
yellower greens. Used for matt has slight Cr impurities. Varies.
oranges in high fire. Darkens a
glaze more than Ti. If using as
wash, add flux, e.g. over
temmoku to produce a golden
crystalline surface, test 50% TiO2
+ 50% Gerstley Borate.

Ilmenite (Fe +Ti)

Mineral that contains iron and Colors similar to rutile, but more powdered ilmenite
titanium oxides. 51% FeO• 49% iron. Granular ilmenite - granular ilmenite
TiO2. Available in powdered or produces black specking Black in raw state.
granular form. Granular form
used to make black-brown
specks in clay or glazes. Varies in
composition.
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Material Notes Color properties Sources

Nickel (Ni): In slip 1-6%. In glazes 1-4%.

Refractory colorant. Above 2% ½ -4% + Zn in reduction = yellow, nickel oxide (NiO green raw,
may matt a glaze surface. Colors purple, or blue Ni2O3 black raw)
are uncertain and hard to repeat. 2% + high Ba = brown in glaze nickel carbonate (NiCO3)
Used to modify Co toward blue- 1% + high alkaline glaze @ cone
greys. Small amounts of nickel in 1-3 = blue
glazes (below 1%) usually + high calcium = tan-purple
produce greys. With zinc and
other ingredients in certain
ratios, purples or yellows may be
produced.

Mason nickel yellow-green green

is refractory.

Vanadium (V): In slip 5-20% vanadium stain. In glazes 5-10% vanadium stain.
Expensive. Weak colorant best Warm yellow in commercial vanadium pentoxide (V2O5)
made into yellow w/Sn or Zr or stains. commercial stains
blue stain w/Zr. Works at all
temps. and atmospheres. Stains
tend to be refractory.

Praseodymium (Pr): In slip 5-20% Pr stain. In glazes 5-10% Pr stain.

Fritted with zirconium and silica Yellow (sometimes toward a Commercial stains
to make yellow stains that are cool yellow-green yellow) in
stable over a wide temperature commercial stains
range (to cone 10) and in
oxidation or reduction.
Unaffected by glaze composition.
Color may be bright, light value
yellow toward yellow-greenish. A
weak colorant.

Cadmium (Cd) and Selenium (Se):

Poisonous. Used for low-fire Orange and yellow colors Cd most stable sources in stains.
reds. Heavy metals w/the toxicity colors, w/Se bright reds. New ”inclusion” stains by
of lead. Fugitive if fired too high are a zirconium-
(above 010 – 06) or too slowly. encapsulated cadmium
Cool rapidly to preserve colors. and/or selenium that is
Weak resistance to food acids. stabilized. These stains
May fume in firing. Not for food give bright color up to
ware. New "inclusion" stains high temperatures.
have made more stable red and Encapsulation reduces
orange stains. Toxic as raw toxicity, but the mfg. do
materials. Treat like lead. not guarantee food
safety. Do not ball mill
encapsulated stains.

Erbium: 8-10 % in glazes

This is a lanthanide rare earth Transparent pink. Erbium oxide (Er2O3) (pink
oxide (from Wikipedia.org: The powder)
lanthanide (or lanthanoid) series
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Material Notes Color properties Sources

comprises the 15 elements with atomic
numbers 57 through 71, from lanthanum
to lutetium. The lanthanide series is
named after lanthanum.). Produces
pale, translucent pink. Has
application in glass coloring, as
an amplifier in fiber optics, and in
lasers for medical and dental use.
The Erbium ion has a very narrow
absorption band coloring erbium
salts pink. It is used in decorative
glassware to neutralize
discoloring impurities such as
ferric ions and produce a neutral
gray shade. David Pier has
researched this colorant in glazes
and says, “Erbium oxide’s density
means it is absolutely essential
that you use CMC gum. Erbium
oxide gives its best pink color at
concentrations of 8-10%, but it is
difficult to get more than 8% to
fully dissolve in the melt. It has
given a more lavender color in
the presence of iron traces in
reduction.”

Uranium (U):
Largely unavailable. Used for + Pb (lead) = yellow, red, or uranium oxide
low-temp. reds, oranges, and orange sodium urinate
yellows (e.g. famous Fiesta Ware + alkaline flux (Na, K, Li) = lemon
"radio-active orange"). Oxidation yellow
only. Fugitive over cone 010.

Antimony (Sb):
Seldom used, except + Pb to Yellow with lead (Naples yellow) antimony oxide (Sb2O3).
make Naples yellow, or w/rutile Unstable above cone 2
and Ti for yellow body stain.
TOXIC. Used in the brick industry
to bleach red clay surface to buff
color.

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Opacifiers
A base glaze is generally thought of as an un-colored coating of completely melted glass. Depending on the
materials and amounts, it may be gloss and transparent. Many satin glazes are a bit frosty due to crystal
formation causing the matt surface and also breaking up the light refraction, and refractory matts are often
translucent or opaque due to unmelted particles suspended in the glaze. Some glazes, like Chun or Jun glazes,
are frosty due to trapped bubbles in the glaze. Use of minerals (like bone ash) that release gas during firing in a
viscous glaze melt encourages this frostiness from trapped bubbles.

Adding certain materials to a transparent gloss glaze will make it opaque either through the suspension of intern
particles in the glaze (e.g. tin) or by encouraging the formation of crystals (e.g. titanium). Tin and zirconium
oxide make white opaques that can then be further colored if desired. Titanium (and ilmenite and rutile, which
are high in Ti) makes a more ivory-colored opaque, and will cause crystalline formation in susceptible glazes.
Slow cooling promotes crystal growth in glazes.

Particle size influences the amount of opacity from a material: smaller particles produce more opacity. Most
commercial opacifiers are available in small particle size. Screening an opaque glaze well to disperse the
opacifier thoroughly helps. Some manufacturers of frits melt opacifiers in with commercial frits for better
dispersion.
Materi Notes Color properties Sources
al

Tin (Sn): up to 10% in glazes

Historic opacifier. Increases Usually white, very opaque. tin oxide (SnO)
surface tension, so high Sn +5% Sn + small amounts of chrome-tin pink stains
glazes may tend to crawl where CrO or Cr fuming = pink. Use
thick. An inert opacifier that of 4% SnO or less +
remains suspended in the glaze. zirconium opacifier will make
Unaffected by cooling rate. a dense white w/o Cr-Sn
Expensive. pinking issues.

Zirconium (ZrO2) : 5-12% in glazes

Modern opacifier, often used in White, opaque All below are brand names for
the form of zirconium silicate zirconium opacifiers:
(ZrSiO4). Produces harder glaze Zircopax: all temps., 12-15% =
than Sn or Ti. Less strong dense white
opacity than tin (general rule: 1 Ultrox: all temps., stronger than
Sn = 1.5 Zr opacifier) because Zircopax. 6% = white
it’s more soluble in glaze. Superpax: stronger than Zircopax
Produces a more translucent Opax: best at lower temps
white than tin, and a slightly
shinier surface. Acts as both an
inert particle suspended in the
glaze and a re-crystallized
opacifier. Refractory, often used
in kiln wash. Low coefficient of
expansion: counters crazing.
Increases glaze viscosity, surface
tension, and > 10% mechanical
hardness. Best results in glazes
high in Ca and low in boron.

Titanium (Ti)
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Causes re-crystallizion during + Co = green crystalline titanium dioxide (TiO2)

cooling to produce matts, W/Cu reds = toward purples.
broken or mottled color. Slow 2% added to glaze can give
cooling needed for crystal microcrystalline formations
formation. Usually an antique & interesting colors.
white, yellowish-buff color. 1 TiO2 + 1 Gerstley borate
Refractory. If using as wash, add (by vol) used as a “patina”
flux, e.g. over temmoku to over fired terra sigillata is
produce a pale golden ivory to light yellow.
crystalline surface, test 50%
TiO2 + 50% Gerstley Borate.
Bibliography:
Ceramic Industry magazine for ceramic manufacturing, materials handbook online:
http://www.ceramicindustry.com/
Ceramics Spectrum, Hopper, Robin. Radnor, PA, Chilton Book Co., 1984. Excellent book on glazes and color
development. Helpful chart listing by color (and how you can obtain that).
Clay and Glazes for the Potter, Daniel Rhodes. Chilton Book Co, 1973. A classic, especially for high-fire
materials.ISBN 0-8019-5633-1
Glazes for the Craft Potter, Harry Fraser, A & C Black, The American Ceramic Society, 1973, 1979, 1998
Illustrated Dictionary of Practical Pottery. Fournier, Robert. Van Nostrand Reinhold.
The Potters Dictionary of Materials and Techniques. Hamer, Frank. 3rd ed. Univ. of PA Press, Phila. PA.

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