Manual PDF

English manual 5/15/00 3:29 PM Page 1
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
1. PLEASE READ FIRST.......................................................................5

2. WELCOME.........................................................................................6
3. F-16 DIAGRAM & SPECIFICATIONS............................................8
3.1 F-16 Diagram
3.2 F-16 Diagram Key
3.3 F-16 Specifications
4. THE FLIGHT MODEL BY TOM LOW ...........................................14
5. INSTALLATION & SETUP ..............................................................18
5.1 System Requirements
5.2 Installation
5.3 3D Graphics Cards
5.4 Flight Sticks, Controllers and Joysticks
6. INSTANT ACTION & FLIGHT KEYS.............................................21
6.1 Instant Action
6.2 Basic Flight Keys
7. COCKPIT VIEWS..............................................................................24
7.1 Field of View
7.2 Cockpit Views
8. KEY SUMMARY................................................................................27
8.1 Aircraft Controls
8.2 Weapon/Countermeasure Controls
8.3 Wingmen Controls
8.4 Cockpit System Controls
8.5 Display Controls
8.6 Camera Controls
8.7 Object View Controls
8.8 Game Controls
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CONTENTS
9. CAMERA CONTROLS......................................................................33
9.1 Camera Views
9.2 Camera Key Controls
10. GETTING STARTED ........................................................................35
10.1 The Main Menu
10.2 PC Setup
10.3 Play Options
11. FLIGHT OPTIONS ...........................................................................39
11.1 Training Missions
11.2 Campaign Missions (Single Player)
11.3 Multiplayer
12. STARTING A CAMPAIGN ..............................................................44
12.1 The Campaign Interface
12.2 Briefing
12.3 Mission Map
12.4 Waypoints
12.5 Weapons & Fuel
12.6 Debriefing
12.7 Status
13. THE AGGRESSOR UNIT: A BRIEF HISTORY.............................50
14. CAMPAIGN OVERVIEW .................................................................56
14.1 Morocco
14.2 Ethiopia
14.3 Kenya/Tanzania - The Rift Valley
14.4 Madagascar
15. MULTIPLAYER OPTIONS...............................................................59
15.1 Protocols
15.2 Hosting a Multiplayer Mission Game
15.3 Hosting a Multiplayer Instant Action Game
15.4 Joining a Multiplayer Game
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CONTENTS
16. F-16 COCKPIT SYSTEMS ................................................................62

16.1 The Cockpit
16.2 The Head Up Display (HUD)
16.3 The Multifunction Display (MFD)
16.4 Threat Warning Indicator
16.5 Bitching Betty
17. BASIC FLIGHT .................................................................................105
17.1 Introduction to Flight Controls
17.2 Control Surfaces
17.3 Takeoff
17.4 Manoeuvring
17.5 Navigation
17.6 Landing
18. FLIGHT PHYSICS BY TOM LOW..................................................120
18.1 The Atmosphere
18.2 The Motions of the Aircraft
18.3 The Forces Acting on the Aircraft
18.4 The Moments Acting on the Aircraft
18.5 Stall
19. BASIC COMBAT...............................................................................130
19.1 Weapon Summary
19.2 Air-to-air Combat
19.3 Air-to-ground Combat
19.4 Weapon Selection and Related HUD Summary
19.5 Countermeasures: Chaff & Flares
20. WINGMEN ........................................................................................141
20.1 Wingmen Key Controls
21. ADVANCED MANOEUVRES ..........................................................143
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CONTENTS
22. SPECIFICATIONS ............................................................................154

22.1 Weapons
22.2 Enemy Weapons
22.3 Aircraft
22.4 Helicopters
22.5 Land Vehicles
22.6 Ships
23. THE HISTORY & DEVELOPMENT OF THE F-16
BY BILL SWEETMAN.......................................................................176
24. ACRONYMS ......................................................................................191
25. F-16: AGGRESSOR CREDITS..........................................................193
26. INDEX ................................................................................................195
4
PLEASE READ FIRST
1. PLEASE READ FIRST

© 1998 General Simulations Incorporated Ltd.
All rights reserved.
Copyright Notice
This computer program and documentation are protected by National
and International Copyright Laws. Reproduction, copying, hiring and
public performance are prohibited without the express permission of
Virgin Interactive and General Simulations Incorporated. All rights of
the author and the publisher are reserved world wide.
Epilepsy Warning
A small percentage of individuals may experience epileptic seizures
when exposed to certain light patterns or flashing lights. This may
occur even when there is no prior history of epilepsy. Symptoms may
include dizziness, altered vision, loss of awareness, muscle twitches,
disorientation and any involuntary movement. If you experience any
of these symptoms while playing this or any other game stop
immediately and consult your doctor before resuming play.
Comments
If you have any comments relating to the F-16: Aggressor package,
positive or negative, we would welcome the feedback. This helps us in
providing a higher quality of service in the future with products that
feature more of the elements that you prefer. Any opinions or
criticisms should be sent to Bob Virtek at General Simulations
Incorporated, Boyd House, Upper Park Road, Victoria Park,
Manchester M14 5RH.
5
WELCOME
2. WELCOME
First and foremost, thank you for investing in F-16: Aggressor. As a
project it has proved to be challenging, stimulating and ultimately
rewarding. We hope that Aggressor retains all of these qualities, as
they are integral to our intention to deliver a product combining
maximum accuracy and realism with the adrenaline of pure
excitement. In this fashion, F-16: Aggressor has ignored conventional
flight-sim taboos by incorporating, as its primary objective, authentic-
ity and playability.
Many of you will be aware of accepted flight simulation protocol.

However some of you will be new to the genre and we have
endeavoured to create a simulation that is accessible to novices and
veterans alike. We have the advantage of having what we believe to be
the only F-16C flight model that accurately depicts the real aircraft's
fly by wire system and the aerial manoeuvrability which this permits.
Aggressor reacts exactly as the real F-16 does, constantly adjusting the
flight surfaces in response to the pilot's actions. This was vital to the
project. Too many products claim a perfect flight model, only to be
subsequently improved upon in the next version of the game.
Aggressor's flight model cannot be improved upon! It is already as
accurate as the US military will allow.
Aggressor's 3D world contains over 900 billion square metres of fully

texture-mapped terrain, which is mapped to 1 km2 resolution. The
four areas of Africa depicted in Aggressor are geographically very
different and have been extensively rendered. Various times of day
and weather conditions are simulated, with atmospheric clouds and
drifting mists adding to the diversity of the visual experience.
The Kingdom of Morocco, in the far north-west of Africa, features an

Atlantic seaboard to the west and the Atlas Mountain range. The
remaining three arenas are situated in sub-Saharan Africa: Ethiopia,
6
WELCOME
to the south-east, is also mountainous, boasting the sacred green

waters of Lake Tana, 6000 feet above sea level. Kenya and Tanzania,
further south, lie within the Great Rift Valley and share a border
which passes close by the famous Serengeti Plain, Lake Natron, the
world's largest soda lake (yes, it is red!) and the snow-capped peaks of
Kilimanjaro, Africa's highest mountain. Most southern of all the
campaign arenas is the island of Madagascar, lying in the Indian
Ocean, off the east coast of Mozambique, famed for its red earth and
unique wildlife, in particular the indigenous Prancing Lemur.
F-16: Aggressor’s cockpit has been designed to exactly reproduce that

of a real F-16C block 50/52 with every possible feature being linked
into Aggressor's flight computer, which then responds to all flight
conditions. A completely original, digitally recorded music score,
Doppler sound effects, 3D sound and real time voice samples,
underpin the whole of the F-16: Aggressor package.
It only remains to be said that we hope you enjoy F-16: Aggressor. We

have worked to create a simulation that is intuitive and enjoyable to
play while retaining a degree of accuracy usually found only in
military simulators, and to this end we feel we have succeeded. We
hope that after playing F-16: Aggressor you will agree.
Phil Allsopp, MD
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F-16 DIAGRAM & SPECIFICATIONS
3.1 F-16 DIAGRAM
Courtesy of Lockheed Martin TAS
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3.2 F-16 DIAGRAM KEY

1. Pitot head/air data probe
2. Glass fibre radome
3. Planar radar scanner
4. Scanner tracking mechanism & ILS glidescope aerial
5. Forward avionics equipment bay
6. Digital pulse-doppler multi-mode radar electronics
equipment bay
7. Fixed geometry air intake
8. Nosewheel (aft retracting)
9. Frameless bubble canopy
10. Gun gas suppression muzzle aperture
11. Cannon barrels
12. Rotary cannon
13. Ammunition drum
14. Fuel tank bay access panel
15. TACAN aerial
16. Universal air refuelling receptacle (UARSSI)
17. Underwing fuel tank
18. Leading edge manoeuvre flap - honeycomb construction
19. Leading-edge flap drive shaft and rotary actuators
20. Port flaperon
21. Fixed portion of trailing edge
22. Runway arrester hook
23. Multi-spar wing panel construction
24. Port navigation light
25. Port radar warning antenna
26. VHF/IFF aerial
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27. Port position light

28. Wing root attachment fishplates
29. Afterburning turbofan engine
30. Fuel jettison chamber
31. Port hydraulic reservoir
32. Flight control system electronic accumulators
33. Fin root attachment fittings
34. Dynamic pressure sensor
35. Anti-collision light
36. Multi-spar fin construction
37. Tail navigation light
38. Variable area afterburner nozzle flaps
39. Split trailing-edge airbrake
40. Corrugated aluminium sub-structure
41. Port all-moving tailplane
42. Static dischargers
43. Retraction/breaker strut
44. Inboard wing pylon
45. Chaff/flare dispenser
46. Forward position light
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3.3 F-16 SPECIFICATIONS

Lockheed (General Dynamics) F-16C Fighting Falcon
Wing
SPAN ......................31 feet 0 inches (9.45 metres) without tip-mounted
................................AAMs 32 feet 9.75 inches (10 metres) with tip-
................................mounted AAMs
ASPECT RATIO ....3.09
AREA ......................300.00 square feet (28.87 square metres)
Fuselage and tail

LENGTH ................49 feet 4 inches (15.03 metres)
HEIGHT ................16 feet 8.5 inches
TAILPLANE SPAN 18 feet 3.75 inches (5.58 metres)
WHEEL TRACK ....7 feet 9 inches (2.36 metres)
WHEEL BASE ........13 feet 1.5 inches (4 metres)
Powerplant
1 Pratt & Whitney F100-P-220 turbofan rated at 23,450 lb st (104.31kN)
with afterburning
OR
1 General Electric F100-GE-100 turbofan rated at 27,000 1b st
(122.77kN) with afterburning
Weights
EMPTY....................19,100 lb (8663 kg)
TYPICAL COMBAT
TAKEOFF ..............21,585 lb (9,791 kg)
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MAXIMUM
TAKEOFF ..............25,071 lb (11,372 kg) for and air-to-air mission with
................................out droptanks
OR ..........................42,300 lb (19,187 kg) with maximum external load
Fuel and Load

INTERNAL FUEL ..6,972 lb (3,162 kg)
EXTERNAL FUEL..up to 6,760 lb (3,066 kg) in three 300 -, 370-, 450-
................................and 600- US gallons (1136-, 1400-, 1703-,
................................2271- litres) droptanks
MAXIMUM
ORDINANCE ........15,200 lb (6894 kg)
Speed
MAXIMUM
LEVEL SPEED........'Clean' at 40,000 feet (12190 metres)
................................more than 1,146 kt (1,320 mph; 2124 km/h)
AT SEA LEVEL ......795 kt (915 mph; 1472 km/h)
Range
FERRY RANGE......more than 2100Nm (2418 miles; 3891 km)
................................with droptanks
COMBAT
RADIUS..................295 Nm (340 miles; 547 km) on a hi-lo-hi mission
................................with 6 454kg (1000 lb) bombs
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Performance
MAXIMUM RATE
OF CLIMB AT
SEA LEVEL ............more than 50,000 feet 15,240 metres) per minute
SERVICE
CEILING ................more than 50,000 feet (15,240 metres)
TAKEOFF RUN ....2500 feet (762 metres) at MTOW
TYPICAL
LANDING RUN ....2500 feet (762 metres) at normal landing weight.
G limits +9 -3
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THE FLIGHT MODEL
4. THE FLIGHT MODEL

by Tom Low
What is it that sets this flight model apart from what has been seen to
date in the computer game market? Simply, it is the attention to detail,
and a commitment on the part of the flight dynamics developers not
to be satisfied with anything less than the highest level of realism
and accuracy.
The developers of the real-time flight dynamics engine used in this

product have focused their efforts over the past seven years on the
development of the highest fidelity flight dynamics models. These
models have been used by the US Air Force, major Defence
Contractors and by companies throughout the U.S., specialising in
military simulations for the U.S. Defence department.
The creative force responsible for the development of this F-16 model
is both an aeronautical engineer, and a licensed pilot with over 2600
hours in various types of aircraft. The company was formed with the
sole purpose of raising the standards of PC based simulation to a level
of realism, to date found only in the most advanced military and air-
line training simulators.
The F-16 model contained in this product is unique in the PC game

market, in that it incorporates a full non-linear aerodynamic model,
including transonic and supersonic effects, with a six degree of
freedom dynamic model, and an explicit and complete model of the
fly-by-wire flight control system (FLCS). In the simulator, as in the
actual aircraft, this system processes and interprets the control stick
and pedal inputs based on a complex control law which ultimately
determines the angles of the control surfaces; the flaperons, elevons,
and rudder.
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THE FLIGHT MODEL
Unlike most conventional aircraft, the F-16 was designed with

"relaxed static stability", which means that without the use of a high
speed computer continuously adjusting the positions of the control
surfaces, the plane would be uncontrollable. This allows the plane to
turn more quickly than its conventionally controlled counterparts. The
use of this sophisticated control technique allows the designers to
tailor the aircraft's handling characteristics in almost any manner
they please. The F-16 was designed to respond very differently in
different phases of flight. Lower the landing gear, and almost every
handling parameter, from the roll sensitivity, to the interpretation of
control stick pitch commands change. Each change is faithfully
reproduced in this simulation.
The flight control system also monitors the pilot's performance,

effectively preventing the pilot from losing control of the aircraft.
Angle of attack limiting, G load limiting, roll rate limiting, and rudder
authority limiters are all provided, according to exactly the same
"schedule" or function contained in the F-16 FLCS.
To reproduce this behaviour, the flight model designers began by

studying the block diagram of the actual F-16 FLCS control system.
Each mode was carefully reproduced, and like the real F-16, the FLCS
system software in this flight model interprets the commands from
your joystick, and taken with other simulation variables calculated by
the aerodynamic model, such as angle of attack (AoA) and the roll,
pitch and yaw rates, determines the actual deflection of controls
surfaces. These surface positions feed into the non-linear aerodynamic
model, which calculates the moments, forces, accelerations,
velocities, and ultimately the position and orientation of the
simulated aircraft.
This, together with a comprehensive atmospheric model, and a

similarly detailed treatment of the F100-PW-200 Turbine engine,
15
THE FLIGHT MODEL
landing gear dynamics, fuel management system, aerodynamics of

ground effect, and wind, results in a simulator which "hits all the
numbers", and behaves so much like the actual F-16, that aircraft
pilots who have flown our simulator can instantly sense a "feel" to the
model which comes closer to reproducing the sensations of flight than
any consumer product yet produced.
Try flying the F-16 at MCA (minimum controllable airspeed), and hit
full rudder; a sure way to enter a spin in a conventional aircraft. Even
though you press the rudder pedal fully, the rudder does not move,
and the plane does not respond. In fact, if the plane did begin to spin,
the rudder would automatically deflect to recover! NO other PC based
F-16 simulator has captured this level of fidelity and faithfulness to the
original design. Even in unusual flight situations, the flight model
responds properly, as the mathematical techniques employed allow
the computation of aerodynamic forces and moments for any angle of
attack and slip. This is a feature often not found on even the most
sophisticated military and commercial simulators!
A partial list of flight model features:-
• Continuously variable, independent left and right ABS wheel

brakes to allow realistic ground manoeuvring and to assist in cross
wind takeoffs and landings.
• Continuously variable speed brakes, with realistic actuation rates.
• Automatic and manual trailing edge flap (TEF) actuation, with

modelling of flap blow up at high speed.
• Rigorous undercarriage model (landing gear) allows one or more

landing gear to fail to lower, and includes realistic actuation rates.
• Modelling of transonic and supersonic effects such as wave drag,

buffet, and effects on stability.
16
THE FLIGHT MODEL
• High angle of attack modelling, including deep stall and spin.
• Extensive modelling of fly-by-wire system, including G-command,

angle of attack, and pitch rate mixing, rudder command, roll rate,
and angle of attack limiting, based on actual F-16 FLCS design.
• Flight tests data based aerodynamic and propulsion modelling

allows faithful reproduction of the F-16 flight envelope, including
acceleration and deceleration characteristics.
• Atmospheric model to 80,000 feet, including the effects of

changing sea level barometric pressure, temperature, lapse rate,
and humidity.
• Turbine powerplant simulation considers altitude, mach number,

afterburner, and throttle setting, and includes realistic spoolup
rate and fuel consumption modelling.
• Correct treatment of control surface positions during all phases

of flight.
• Modelling of ground effect changes to lift, drag, and

pitching moment.
• Supports modelling of meteorological effects such as windshear,

microburst induced down drafts etc.
• Modelling of fuel load imbalance.
17
INSTALLATION & SETUP
5. INSTALLATION & SET-UP

5.1 System Requirements
Minimum System Requirements
Pentium 133MHz, 32Mb RAM.
2MB DirectX compatible video card.
100% DirectX compatible sound card.
50 MB free hard drive space.
4 X CD-ROM drive.
Windows 95/98
GSI/Virgin Interactive suggest a Compact Installation if your
hardware specifications are significantly lower than the recommended
system requirements.
Recommended System Requirements

Pentium 200MHz or better, 32Mb RAM.
2MB DirectX compatible video card.
4Mb 3DFX Card.
100% DirectX compatible sound card.
350 MB free hard drive space.
8 X CD-ROM drive.
Windows 95/98
5.2 Installation
To install F-16: Aggressor to your machine, run the set-up program
found in the root directory of the CD. In order to play F-16: Aggressor
you must have DirectX5 installed on your computer. The F-16:
Aggressor set-up program will install Direct X5 if required.
18
To install F-16: Aggressor

Place the F-16: Aggressor CD into the CD drive of your computer.
The install program should detect the CD automatically and begin the
installation process. If not select the CD-ROM drive and double-click
the SETUP.EXE icon.
The install program will then guide you through the installation
process.
The default destination directory is C:\Program Files\General

Simulations Incorporated\F-16: AGGRESSOR. This can be altered if
desired.
You will be given a choice of different types of installation: Compact,

Typical, Full or Custom.
The type of installation you choose will be determined by the hard disk
space available. Custom Install provides options for game installation.
The install program will initiate the DirectX installation. It will

immediately cease installation if it detects that DirectX 5 is already
present. If DirectX 5 is not present on your machine it will install it in
the appropriate directory.
We recommend that you check the F-16: Aggressor readme file. The
readme file may contain necessary last minute alterations to this
document and other useful information.
F-16: Aggressor Should now be installed. If you have installed

DirectX5 you will have to restart your machine to ensure F-16:
Aggressor operates correctly.
19
Otherwise F-16: Aggressor may be played immediately.

F-16: Aggressor will appear on your Windows 'Start Menu' under
General Simulations Incorporated.
To uninstall F-16: Aggressor

To uninstall F-16: Aggressor open the Control Panel by selecting the
Windows 'Start' button, then choose 'Settings' and finally 'Control
Panel'. Choose Add/Remove Programs.
Select General Simulations Incorporated\F-16: Aggressor in the list

window and then select the Add/Remove function.
5.3 3D Graphics Cards

F-16: Aggressor will detect any 3D graphics cards and give relevant
options on the PC Setup page found in the Main Menu.
5.4 Flight Sticks, Controllers and Joysticks

F-16: Aggressor works with Windows 95 flight stick support. Any
controller that is supported in the Game Controllers dialog box, found
in the Control Panel, will work with this product. Your controller must
be configured/calibrated in the Control Panel before it will work with
F-16: Aggressor. Joysticks or flight controllers that have a HAT button
to control Views are supported by F-16: Aggressor. However the
joystick must be configured in Windows using the relevant product
drivers supplied by the manufacturer of the peripheral. This can be
achieved by calibrating the joystick in Game Controllers found in the
Control Panel.
20
INSTANT ACTION & FLIGHT KEYS
6. INSTANT ACTION & FLIGHT KEYS

6.1 Instant Action
If you're a die-hard pilot with hours of experience, who can't wait to
get airborne and let loose with your weapons, this is the section for
you. You won't learn the intricacies of flying the F-16 but you will be
able to get into a mission scenario quickly and experience most of the
aspects of being a pilot contracted to the F-16: Aggressor Unit. With
luck you may even survive!
Instant Action Selection

Select Single player from the Main Menu and choose Instant Action.
You will then be offered a number of options from the Instant Action
screen. The first page, Game Set Up, contains most of the Instant
Action parameters.
Each Campaign Theatre is available, Morocco, Ethiopia, The Rift

Valley and Madagascar. Time, Weather and Start Position are all
variable. You can decide if Weapons and Fuel will be Unlimited and if
Damage is On or Off. You can also choose the number of enemy
forces that you'll encounter and which category they will be i.e. Sea,
Air or Ground forces. There are two sliders on the Instant Action
Screen that control the enemy forces and as you alter the slider
position you will notice the mission background updating to reflect
this. The first slider, Max on Map, dictates the number of respective
enemy units present on the map at one time. The second slider, Total,
refers to the total amount of specific enemy units you will encounter
throughout the whole mission. There is also a Time Limit option.
The second page, Weapons & Fuel, is where you select your mission pay-
load. In Instant Action you are able to choose any weapon from the full
Aggressor arsenal whereas in the Campaign missions you are provided
with a mission specific choice. Once all the variables are decided just click Start.
21
6.2 BASIC FLIGHT KEYS

This section covers the basic keys you need to know to get airborne.
Use the rest of the manual or the Reference Card to get all the keys
and functions.
Aircraft Controls
Ailerons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . j l
Stabilators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . k i
Rudder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , .
Toggle Air brakes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B
Toggle Wheel brakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . W
0% Throttle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . q `
10..90% Throttle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . q 1 9
100 % Throttle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . q 0
Increase Throttle 1% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . +
(if 100% throttle then increase afterburner stage)
Decrease Throttle 1% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -
(if afterburner on then decrease afterburner stage)
Toggle Engine State (Off/On) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . q E

Toggle Flaps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . /
Toggle Landing Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G
Autopilot mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A
Auto Landing mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L
Decrease Afterburner Stage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z
Increase Afterburner Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . X
22
Cockpit System Controls
Navigation (NAV) HUD Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

CCIP Pre-Designate HUD Mode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
CCIP Post-Designate HUD Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Electro Optical (EO) HUD Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Missiles (MSLS) HUD Mode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Lead Computed Optical Sight (LCOS) HUD Mode . . . 6
Strafe (STRF) HUD Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Anti-Radiation Missile (ARM) HUD Mode . . . . . . . . . . 8
Dogfight (DGFT) HUD Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Landing (LND) HUD Mode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
MFD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V
Eject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s s
Weapon/Countermeasure Controls
Dispense Flare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F
Dispense Chaff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C
Fire Cannons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M
Fire Selected Weapon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Space
[Reverse] Forward cycle weapon selection . . . . . . . . . . . q +Enter
Game Controls
Pause Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P or Pause
Send Multiplayer ‘Talk/Chat’ Message . . . . . . . . . . . . . a M
23
COCKPIT VIEWS
7. COCKPIT VIEWS
One of the most important aspects in combat aircraft design is the
level of visibility offered to the pilot.
F-16: Aggressor overcomes the limited field of view, traditionally

offered by flight simulations, by having two different ways of viewing
the cockpit environment and the external scene. There are ten fixed
cockpit views that can be activated by the number keys on the
keyboard number pad (1-0). These directly focus on a magnified
rendition of the chosen instruments or view.
There is also a much more intuitive way of checking the entire cockpit
while retaining an increased awareness of external events. Click and
hold down the right mouse button. The mouse now controls the
pilot's view. Move the mouse in a way that corresponds to the
direction you wish to look. The cockpit camera moves so that every
cockpit instrument, including the HUD, is displayed at a resolution
that is functional. At the same time the entire pilot field of view is
accessible. This enables the pilot to simultaneously monitor both
outside events and the flight instruments and displays. This is very
useful in certain situations such as dogfights and aircraft escort,
where it is imperative that the pilot can monitor and respond quickly
to external developments, while maintaining control over the aircraft.
As soon as you release the mouse button the view will revert to its
original setting.
24
COCKPIT VIEWS
7.1 Field of View
260 horizontal
Pilot’s Field of View
25
COCKPIT VIEWS
7.2 Cockpit Views
Numpad 7 Numpad 8 Numpad 9

Threat Warning Main Instruments Artificial Horizon &
Indicator and HUD View Computer Readout

Left MFD Central Right MFD
Instruments Panel
Left Hand Side Full Cockpit View Right Hand Side

Cockpit View Cockpit View
Numpad 0 Full HUD View
Numpad + Increase HUD size

Numpad _ Decrease HUD size
Numpad * Restore default HUD size
26
CHAPTER HEADING
8. KEY SUMMARY
Square brackets around a phrase means optional.
[q] = shift can be held to change functionality.
(Usually reverse cycling direction)
8.1 Aircraft Controls

Ailerons ..............................................................................j l
Stabilators ...........................................................................k i
Rudder ................................................................................, .
Toggle Air brakes...............................................................B
Toggle Wheel brakes .........................................................W
Throttle 0% .......................................................................q `
Throttle 10..90% ................................................................q 1 9
Throttle 100% ....................................................................q 0
Increase Throttle 1%..........................................................+
(if 100% throttle then increase afterburner stage)
Decrease Throttle 1% ........................................................-
(if afterburner on then decrease afterburner stage)
Toggle Engine state (Off/On) ...........................................q E

Toggle Flaps ......................................................................./
Toggle Landing gear ..........................................................G
Autopilot mode ..................................................................A
Auto Landing mode ...........................................................L
Decrease Afterburner stage...............................................Z
Increase Afterburner stage................................................X
27
KEY SUMMARY
8.2 Weapon/Countermeasure Controls
Dispense Flare ...................................................................F

Dispense Chaff...................................................................C
Fire Cannons......................................................................M
Fire Selected weapon.........................................................Space
[Reverse] Forward cycle Weapon selection ......................q +Enter
Toggle ‘Target friendly’ Weapon safety mechanism.......q F
Force Reload (Instant Action Only)..................................a R
8.3 Wingmen Controls

‘Wingman Attack My Target’ ...........................................v ¡
‘Section Attack My Target’ ...............................................v ™
‘Formation Attack my Target’ ..........................................v £
‘Wingman Rejoin’ formation............................................v ¢
‘Line Abreast Right’ ..........................................................v ∞
‘Line Abreast Left’ .............................................................v §
‘Line Astern’ ......................................................................v ¶
‘Echelon Right’ ..................................................................v •
‘Echelon Left’ ....................................................................v ª
‘Close Up’ formation .........................................................v º
‘Spread Out’ formation......................................................v –
28
KEY SUMMARY
8.4 Cockpit System Controls
Navigation (NAV) HUD mode..........................................1

CCIP Pre-Designate HUD mode......................................2
CCIP Post-Designate HUD mode ....................................3
Electro Optical (EO) HUD mode .....................................4
Missiles (MSLS) HUD mode ............................................5
Lead Computed Optical Sight (LCOS) HUD mode .......6
Strafe (STRF) HUD mode.................................................7
Anti-Radiation Missile (ARM) HUD mode .....................8
Dogfight (DGFT) HUD mode ..........................................9
Landing (LND) HUD mode ..............................................0
[Reverse] Forward cycle available HUD modes ..............[q] H

[Reverse] Forward cycle selected Waypoint/Target
depending on HUD mode ................................................[qt
Cycle HUD colour .............................................................v H

[Decrease]Increase HUD unclutter level(1..4) ................[q] U
Increase HUD zoom .........................................................Numpad +
Decrease HUD zoom ........................................................NumPad -
Reset to default HUD zoom .............................................NumPad *
y
Reverse cycle Radar range.................................................
Forward cycle Radar range................................................f
Object identify (present target) .........................................I
Toggle True/indicated airspeed ........................................v A

Toggle Altimeter mode (barometric/radar) .....................J
29
KEY SUMMARY
MFD....................................................................................V
[Reverse]Forward cycle left MFD mode ..........................[q] Left
Square Bracket
[Reverse]Forward cycle right MFD mode.........................[q] Right
Square Bracket
Cycle MFD Colour .............................................................v M
Toggle Bitchin’ Betty system ............................................v B
Eject Warning.....................................................................s
Eject.....................................................................................s s
8.5 Display controls:

Cycle HUD colour .............................................................v H
Cycle MFD colour ..............................................................v M
Cycle ‘Notify Message’ colour...........................................v N
Toggle MFD superpositioning on screen ........................V
Clear ‘Notify Message’ list.................................................q A
30
KEY SUMMARY
8.6 Camera controls

Local player internal view..................................................¡
External world view............................................................™
External local view .............................................................£
Fly by view ..........................................................................¢
Chase view..........................................................................∞
Last weapon fired view ......................................................§
Present target view.............................................................¶
HUD only view ..................................................................ª
Increase, decrease camera zoom ......................................NumPad

.............................................................................................(+, -)
(in internal view)
Predefined cockpit views...................................................NumPad
.............................................................................................(1, 9)
(in external views)
Rotate camera around object ............................................NumPad
.............................................................................................(1, 9)
0 degree Y view..................................................................v i
180 degree Y view ..............................................................v k
270 degree Y view..............................................................v j
90 degree Y view ...............................................................v l
8.7 Object View Controls

Next object in type list .......................................................q N
Reverse cycle present object type (player, ground, air) ...q ,
Forward cycle present object type (player, ground, air) ..q .
View last weapon fired. (Missile/Bomb view) ................§
View present target ............................................................¶
31
KEY SUMMARY
8.8 Game Controls

Pause Game .......................................................................P or Pause
Send Multiplayer ‘Talk/Chat’ Message ............................a M
32
CAMERA CONTROLS
9. CAMERA CONTROLS
F-16: Aggressor has a number of different cameras operating con-
stantly during flight.
¡ ™
Local Player External World
Internal View View
£ ¢ ∞
External Local Fly By Chase
View View View
§ ¶
Last Weapon
Fired View Present Target
View
33
CAMERA CONTROLS
9.1 Camera Views

In order to change the camera angle in some of the external views use the
number pad keys to rotate the camera round the object in view or right
click and drag the mouse. To choose a specific view press the control key
and the specified cursor key.
9.2 Camera Key Controls

Local player internal view ..................................................................¡
External world view ............................................................................™
External local view..............................................................................£
Fly by view ..........................................................................................¢
Chase view ..........................................................................................∞
Last weapon fired view.......................................................................§
Present target view .............................................................................¶
HUD only view...................................................................................•
Increase, decrease camera zoom..............................NumPad (+,-)
(in internal view)

Predefined cockpit views...........................................NumPad (1..9)
(in external locked views)

Rotate camera around object ....................................NumPad (1..9)
0 degree view ...........................................................................v i
180 degree view .......................................................................v k
270 degree view .......................................................................v j
90 degree view.........................................................................v l
34
GETTING STARTED
10. GETTING STARTED
PC Setup
10.1 The Main Menu

F-16: Aggressor’s main menu allows you to access Single Player,
Multiplayer, Pilots, PC Setup, and the Game Introduction Sequence.
It also allows you to Exit to Windows.
PC Setup
10.2 PC Setup
'Graphics Device' allows you to choose between ‘Software’ and
‘Hardware’. ‘Hardware’ allows the selection of a 3D accelerator card to
render the game graphics. Choosing 'Software' will allow the F-16:
Aggressor engine to control the graphic information.
35
GETTING STARTED
'Resolution' and 'Detail' can both be altered to your taste, although as

with the 'Advanced Detail' options, increasing the level of detail will
use more of your machine’s memory and processing power.
Advanced Detail
This allows you to choose a variety of detail options by selecting the
relevant tick boxes:
Clouds;
Perspective Correction;
Sprite Smoothing;
Lens Flare;
Mip Mapping;
Ground Shadows;
Lights;
Roads;
Dithering in 8 bit;
Bilinear Filtering
Depth Cueing: Near, Medium or Far.
Sound
Within this screen you may choose both the music volume and the
sound FX volume. You may also decide to select either the 3D Sound
option and/or the High Quality Sound option. We advise that you
should only choose this option if you have either a 3D accelerated
sound card or a very powerful processor. If this is not the case, and
you do choose to select the 3D sound option, you may experience a
reduction in the speed of F-16: Aggressor. The High Quality Sound
option is also subject to the same suggestion.
36
GETTING STARTED
Multiplayer
This is the screen where the Multiplayer protocol is chosen.
Multiplayer can be run on IPX, TCP/IP or Serial. With both IPX and
TCP/IP the correct address must be used to ensure that F-16:
Aggressor links up successfully. The defaults are 26000 and 27000
for IPX and TCP/IP respectively. Using serial you must select the
correct port as well as the appropriate baud rate.
F-16: Aggressor over the Internet

1. Log on to your ISP (Internet Service Provider) using standard
Windows 95 Dial-Up Networking
2. Run F-16: Aggressor
3. Click on PC Setup
4. Select the Multiplayer tab
5. Select TCP/IP for your Protocol
6. Enter your IP Address of server in Addresses box
7. Click OK
8. Click Multiplayer
9. Start a Multiplayer game as normal
Note: On the Internet each machine is identified by an ‘IP Address’.

An IP Address is four numbers seperated by dots (i.e. 219.159.13.22).
Games played using TCP/IP over a LAN, in most cases, will not need
anything in these boxes, because F-16: Aggressor will search the LAN
for games.
10.3 Play Options

In order to enter either Single Player or Multiplayer, you must first
create a New Pilot.
37
GETTING STARTED
Choosing Single Player will enable you to access Training, Instant

Action or Campaign Missions modules.
Choosing Multiplayer will allow you to select either Multiplayer Missions

or Multiplayer Instant Action. (See Chapter 15, Multiplayer Options.)
Instant Action will plunge you in at the deep end with missiles and
tracer rounds filling the air around you. (See Chapter 6, Instant Action.)
The Training missions, based at our secret Madagascan Air Base, will
take you through the basics of flying the F-16 and familiarise you with
the controls.
The Campaign Missions module is where the main Campaign com-

mences. Whether you commit yourself is your choice.
The overall briefing: to fly and fight across an entire continent, using
your superior skill to succeed and prosper in this most dangerous
arena of international espionage.
The reward: live it!

Whichever module you choose you can always return to the briefing
screen by pressing Ctrl + Q. At the Main Menu there is an Exit option.
Selecting Exit will return you to Windows.
38
FLIGHT OPTIONS
11. FLIGHT OPTIONS

Once you've logged in as a Pilot you can choose any of the F-16:
Aggressor module options.
Instant Action (See Chapter 6)
Training Mission
Single Player Mission
Multiplayer
11.1 Training Missions

Select Single Player from the Main Menu and choose Training.
The F-16: Aggressor Training module contains five separate missions
to help you familiarise yourself with the controls, systems and
handling of the F-16. It is strongly recommended that you choose to
complete these concise but intensive training missions before
embarking on a full campaign. The Training Missions are based in
Madagascar at our Headquarters. In each training mission our flight
instructor will talk you through procedures you will regularly have to
undertake, so that you have a working knowledge of the aircraft's
capabilities. He might not be the most patient of people but he won't
let you down. Aircraft handling, navigation, weapons and combat
techniques are covered.
Training Mission 1. Takeoff

In this mission you are guided through the perfect takeoff procedure
and you get a chance to see how the aircraft responds by trying out
some turns and loops.
Training Mission 2. Waypoints

The second training mission takes you through the basic waypoint
navigation system of F-16: Aggressor. You'll have to use the HUD in
Navigational mode and follow the pipper that will indicate your
required heading.
39
FLIGHT OPTIONS
Training Mission 3. Escort a Plane

Aircraft Escort requires a clean takeoff and a mid-air rendezvous with
the plane you are escorting. You must confirm that this aircraft reaches
its destination safely. During this time you will have to use your radar
systems, firstly to watch for potentially lethal ground and aerial threats
and secondly in case you lose visual contact with the aircraft you
are escorting.
Training Mission 4. Targeting

This training mission is an exercise you will repeat many times if you
graduate to the deadly world of mercenary combat. As a fully-fledged
F-16 fighter pilot 'Locate and Destroy' will become second nature to
you. In this scenario you will engage the air-to-air weapons systems
and experience the exhilaration of aerial combat.
Training Mission 5. Landing

Every successful mission ends with a good landing, but this can be
one of the most daunting tasks to face as a new pilot. After navigating
to the designated waypoint you will be shown how to utilise the HUD
in landing mode. Your instructor will talk you through all the
necessary steps that lead to a well executed landing procedure.
Once you've successfully completed the training missions you can feel
confident about embarking on the main Campaign structure of F-16:
Aggressor. You'll still be a novice in the eyes of our unit, but use the
knowledge and experience you've gained in training to earn the sort of
cash and reputation that commands respect!
11.2 Campaign Missions (Single Player)

The Mission and Campaign structure of F-16: Aggressor is sequential.
In other words, each Single Player mission in a given Campaign must
be completed successfully before the next mission can be started.
After the first Campaign is completed the next Campaign begins. The
Campaigns are chronologically related and move in a specific
40
FLIGHT OPTIONS
direction. Your success rate in the Mission Objectives will determine

how the Campaign proceeds. There are four theatres of operation:
Morocco, Ethiopia, the Rift Valley incorporating Kenya and Tanzania,
and the island of Madagascar.
Creating A New Pilot
Creating A New Pilot
If you are playing F-16: Aggressor for the first time you will have to log
in as a new pilot.
At the Main Menu select Pilots.

Click on the Pilot Name field with your mouse and type in your name
or call sign.
Now type in a name for the game in the Game Name field and return
to the main menu.
Then select OK.
41
FLIGHT OPTIONS
F-16: Aggressor can accommadate an infinite amount of pilots who

may have a limitless amount of saved games.
Starting a New Game

To start a new game select Pilots from the main menu. Follow the
procedure for creating a new pilot. (See above). Now return to the
main menu. Select Single player on the main menu and then select
missions. You will now begin a new campaign starting at the first mission.
Saving a Game
If you wish to save a game choose Pilots from the Main Menu. In the
Name field select the desired Pilot name. Then select the desired
Game Name and press Save. Always remember to check your Pilot
Status before saving a Game. Death cannot be undone!
Loading a Saved Game

Loading a game could not be easier than with F-16: Aggressor. The
game will 'remember' which point any Pilot has reached in a
Campaign. Select the desired Pilot Name and Game Name from the
Pilot’s screen. Click on Load and then OK to load the game. Now
return to the main menu, select Single Player and choose Missions.
F-16: Aggressor will place you at the correct position in the Campaign.
You can then decide to repeat any missions you have already com-
pleted or embark upon the next one. You may wish to repeat a mis-
sion in which you have completed the primary objective but failed to
complete any secondary objectives. The more objectives you complete,
the more money you will receive in bonuses.
11.3 Multiplayer
Selecting Multiplayer from the Main Menu allows you to join an exist-
ing Multiplayer Game or host a new one. As mentioned, there are two
types of Multiplayer game available, Multiplayer Instant and
Multiplayer Mission. Instant is similar to the Instant Single Player
42
FLIGHT OPTIONS
version and can be played as a co-operative game or as a death match.

Multiplayer Mission is predominantly a co-operative game with
shared Mission Objectives.
See Chapter 15, Multiplayer Options, for more information.
43
STARTING A CAMPAIGN
12. STARTING A CAMPAIGN

12.1 The Campaign Interface
When you begin a Campaign you will encounter F-16: Aggressor's
Campaign Interface which appears at the start and finish of every
Mission. This displays intelligence information vital to the mission
you have chosen and allows you to make decisions about the mission
flight path and aircraft payload. You will follow the same routine at the
start of each mission using several screens that will become available
at that time.
12.2 Briefing
Briefing Page
44
STARTING A CAMPAIGN
Background
Here you will be given the background to the specific mission, rele-
vant intelligence reports and a situation update of the current
Campaign. The mission start location will also be provided here.
Objectives
This is where primary and any secondary mission objectives will be
listed. It is important to remember this information, or even take
notes, as the mission will be considered a failure if some or all of these
objectives are not met.
12.3 Mission Map

The map in F-16: Aggressor displays the immediate area and sur-
rounding terrain in which any mission takes place. The mission way-
points are marked, as are major towns, cities and strategic locations
such as air bases, munitions factories, oil rigs and oil refineries etc.
The map can be magnified or reduced using the plus and minus keys
on the interface. In order to scroll the map, left click on the display
with the mouse and drag in the desired direction.
12.4 Waypoints
Waypoints are provided for each mission. We advise you to use these
waypoints but if you wish to add or remove any of these it is possible
via the interface using the add/remove waypoint function.
45
STARTING A CAMPAIGN
Weapons and Fuel
12.5 Weapons and Fuel

This is the ordnance page. Here you allocate the weapon payload your
aircraft will be carrying on any given mission. The availability of cer-
tain weapons is dependant on general mission objectives and your
eventual choice should be upon mission specifics.
You must decide how much fuel will be required to complete the
current mission. Refer to the map and the mission background. Fuel
can be selected on the central pylon as the above picture shows. Extra
fuel pods may be selected but they will be positioned on the wing
pylons. These would normally carry weapons so you will have to
sacrifice firepower for fuel if you think the range of the mission
demands it.
46
STARTING A CAMPAIGN
The mission background should also provide a good indication of

the recommended payload. There are pre-set payloads available but
you are always advised to study weapon allocation closely.
Descriptions of weapon range, weight and effectiveness are provided

in both the interface and in Chapter 22.1 of this manual. The weapons
are split into their different categories e.g. air-to-air, air-to-ground.
To place them onto the F-16's wing pylons click on the boxes posi-
tioned by each pylon and select the desired weapon from the list pro-
vided. Scroll down the list to see the full arsenal. Some weapons can
only be placed on particular pylons and others, mainly bombs, can be
selected as cluster formations with two or three per pylon.
Some missions may require more weaponry than your F-16 is able to
carry. In this situation, you must return to your home base and land
to re-arm your aircraft. Once your aircraft has come to a halt on the
runway, turn off your engine and you will be presented with a menu.
Select the ‘Refuel and Rearm’ option and you will be returned to the
Ordnance Page to select your next weapons load.’
47
STARTING A CAMPAIGN
Status Page
12.6 Debriefing
The mission debriefing page contains a review of the last attempted
mission. The debriefing lists any confirmed kills, hostile or otherwise,
and the mission flight time. It will also display which mission
objectives were completed and your current pilot status. This page is
only accessible after the mission has been attempted, whatever
the outcome.
12.7 Status
This is your pilot history. It contains information such as the total
flight hours you've logged, number of missions flown, current
Campaign etc. It also lists accidental friendly kills, the number of
planes you've crashed, fines incurred because of this and your total earnings.
If you fail to complete the Mission Objectives or die trying you will be
allowed to reattempt the Mission.
48
STARTING A CAMPAIGN
If you have completed the Mission with a degree of success the game
will be saved automatically and you will be given the option of
attempting the next mission in the Campaign. Once you succeed in
achieving the primary mission objective you may still choose to 'Retry'
the Mission if you want to improve on your performance and thereby
earn more money.
Remember, bonuses are Performance Related!
49
THE AGGRESSOR UNIT: A BRIEF HISTORY
13. THE AGGRESSOR UNIT: A BRIEF HISTORY

Operation 'CATCH-DRAGON'
June 15th - 05.00 hours - 1999
The Atlantic Ocean close to the Lesser Antilles
A solitary F-16 took off from the USS Kitty Hawk. The scheduled mis-
sion was to patrol Venezuelan Coastal Air Space in order to deter
increased airborne drug trafficking.
Eight hundred miles away, in the Sierra de Perija mountains, Dario
Fosca, a local undercover operative settled into position on a steep
slope overlooking a vast private estate. The property belonged to
Efrain Maldonado, the unofficial chairman of one of the most ruthless
and advanced business corporations to emerge in the last two decades;
the Bernal Cartel. With a global network of buyers, advisors, couriers
and informants, Maldonado had amassed an estimated 18 billion dol-
lars from narcotic related activities. Unlike many of his peers, he had
invested in blue chip companies with zeal and foresight, taking a
particular interest in digital communications technology which now
allowed him to manipulate property markets, industry and media
enterprises on an international scale without forsaking his mountain
retreat. He would buy organisations at inflated prices, clear any debts,
reward the key players and then demand his return; unfaltering
obedience. It was this enormous and continually expanding power
base that had finally persuaded decision makers in the GUD (Global
Union of Democracies) to actively investigate methods of neutralising
Maldonado and his organisation. His status had been confirmed as a
threat of the highest priority.
The mayday call came exactly eight minutes after the F-16 had taken
off. Pre-arranged but still desperately convincing, Lieutenant Colonel
Reyas reported a complete loss of power. He then forced the aircraft
into a steep dive as he had been instructed, and levelled off 150 feet
50
above the Atlantic, breaking off radio contact with the USS Kitty Hawk
and disappearing from radar. He jettisoned a spare fuel pod and
smiled bleakly at the knowledge that this was supposed to be proof of
his 'accident'. A powerful Atlantic gust hit the aircraft like a massive
downdraft and Reyas fought to keep the fighter steady. Experienced as
he was, this was low; TOO damn low. He knew his orders, but knew
also that if he sneezed he wouldn't just be off radar; he'd be under
water. He pulled up to 400 feet, relaxed somewhat, and altered his
course to 218 degrees, heading through the Guadeloupe Passage and
directly into the Gulf of Venezuela.
Operation CATCH-DRAGON had been outlined over a year previously

but was shelved due to political opposition. Then a senior GUD
official was assassinated in reprisal for exposing and thus halting
Maldonado's expansion into South Africa. Five days after the funeral
the mission parameters were laid down and Lt. Col. Reyas was the
chosen pilot.
The F-16 was approaching a desolate part of the coastline and Reyas
began to pull up slowly following the rising terrain but being careful
to stay below radar. Six minutes later he was deep into the Bernal
plantations on the Sierra de Perija mountains. He knew he had
probably been spotted already but he was now travelling at Mach 1.5
and the likelihood of response at this speed was minimal. The HUD
showed ETA at 1min.23sec. He switched the HUD to CCIP post mode
and immediately the target designator box appeared. Thankfully the
operative illuminating the target was in place. He silently wished the
unknown man luck in his escape. Seconds later he began his target
approach run. Tracer suddenly erupted from the earth below but
Reyas left it behind as he lit the afterburner and accelerated into the
target zone. The tracer fire continued to flicker around the aircraft,
stippling the sky with sparks but Reyas held his bearing, plunging
forward towards the objective.
51
In the foliage above, Dario Fosca heard the approaching aircraft and
fought the impulse to turn and look. Instead he held the beam tight
on the target even as the F-16 screamed below his position, light
dancing through the air behind it. Then it vanished, over the ridge
1000 feet away on the eastern side of the mountains, the aircraft a
diminishing thunder, rolling away. In the surprised silence that
followed Fosca just had the time to wonder whether the pilot had for-
gotten to launch the weapon. Even as the thought occurred, the early
Colombian dawn ignited and destruction exploded beneath him. He
shielded his eyes instinctively against the blast of molten whiteness
and then slowly lowered his arm to gaze down at the twisted burning
havoc below that moments ago had been the Maldonado estate.
Fosca was a good person but also a realistic one. Normally he would
have recoiled at the scene before him. However for years he had been
witness to the cruelty and exploitation Maldonado's organisation had
visited on his own people, let alone the thousands of others affected
by his greed. So Dario Fosca simply stared, then turned and walked
away into the mountains behind him.
Twenty-five minutes later, in the Pacific Ocean an unobserved F-16

landed on the USS Aircraft Carrier Roosevelt. Across a continent, in
another ocean, Reyas landed a somewhat battered fighting Falcon on
the flight deck of another patrolling aircraft carrier and taxied toward
the hangar lift. Mission complete.
January 4th - 19.00 hours - 2002 - Somewhere in the Balkans

Ruby chewed relentlessly on the ribs she had 'acquired' earlier. She
only paused to watch Aja, the second Rhodesian Ridgeback, pace back
and forth almost in time to the anti-aircraft guns six miles away. Reyas
knew that those flak plumes would be bursting around his own unit
even as he watched the adopted plains dogs champ noisily on their
most recent kill.
52
The freeze-frame images of two and half years ago were beginning to
strobe before his eyes, invading reality. Despite an exterior of prac-
tised calm, all hell was raging beneath. Operation CATCH-DRAGON
had supposedly been a complete success. So when the reprisals came,
everyone was caught sleeping.
What little remained of Dario Fosca was discovered a month after the
operation by his colleagues. Identification made possible only by
dental records and the note, attached in an indescribable way to his
forehead detailing Fosca's involvement in the mission and his
subsequent punishment. One of the mission planners had been
executed in his Washington apartment and another still had a
$1 million contract on his head.
Unaware of all this Reyas had received the Bronze Star for bravery
above and beyond the call of duty. That was the only description
recorded on file.
The morning after the small reception, during which Reyas had
indulged a little too liberally, his wife Celeste had decided that she
would be the one to take their five year-old son to school. Reyas pulled
harder at his cigarette trying in vain to banish the thoughts and focus
on the present danger his unit was in, but the flashing images
possessed him. He was back at the house watching from the upstairs
balcony as Celeste climbed into the 4x4 they shared. As always in this
waking nightmare she waved up, smiling even as the engine turned
over. From here on it never changed. Shattered glass and splinters
were sandwiched between his torn face and the balcony tiles as a wave
of intense heat smashed into him. His eardrums had burst with the
blast so he watched the explosion, hearing the noise as though it were
far away - muffled with distance even as it took place directly in front
of him. The already incinerated vehicle twisted as it was powered into
the air by the bomb, before coming to rest on the passenger side in it's
own crater - liquid fire gushing from the windows and pouring over
53
ripped metal. It was endless, as was his silent scream of denial, while
a wheel rolled gently towards the house in flames. His mind refused
to ignore any detail in the unwanted stream of memory that was yet
perversely cherished.
The bone cracked and Ruby looked up, hackles raised as Reyas
shuddered back into the present. He took another pull of the cigarette,
body shaking, even as he tried to calm the dogs' nervous growling.
The ex-USAF pilot forced himself into action. He had been the intended
target of the car bomb and trading places was an eternal wish too late.
His wife and child were gone forever and the people responsible were
the Bernal Cartel. The organisation controlled by Efrain Maldonado
whose 'retirement' had been the main objective of Operation CATCH-
DRAGON. It transpired that the mission secrecy had been
compromised. Maldonaldo had been whisked away less than an hour
before his estate was laid waste. The underground-processing factory
had been destroyed but that was nothing to Maldonado. He was furious
and this was how he flexed his muscles. Eight months later Reyas was
out of the airforce deemed unfit for service. Tormented by anger and
guilt and fuelled by retribution. Unit Aggressor was for hire
within a year and its impact was unprecedented. A covert, independent
unit of highly trained, unaffiliated fighter pilots, with support and
ground crew, were ready to respond to any 'situation', for a price. Only
a handful of people knew that the Aggressor project was secretly funded
and co-ordinated by the United States Government and the Global
Union of Democracies (GUD) formerly the United Nations. Reluctant
to become embroiled in growing global unrest, they retained a need to
be influential so as to swing events in the direction they desired.
Aggressor was the perfect solution. The unit was independent and
therefore unaccountable. Intelligence was leaked to them, they took
the risks and nobody lost a vote.
Aggressor had been the brainchild of one Alex Croaker; a CIA chief of
station who'd been around too long and knew every dirty trick in the
book - chapters of which he had written single-handedly. Croaker had
54
approached Reyas weeks after leaving the airforce with the proposal
and he had accepted. After initialising the unit Croaker had distanced
himself from it as quickly as possible. He still controlled the flow of
information and funding to Aggressor but Reyas was the only person
who knew his true identity. To the group he was known only as
ICARUS and as such he effectively directed Aggressor's actions.
Reyas didn't trust ICARUS and suspected him of working to his own
independent agenda. He was also certain that few of the politicians,
aware of Aggressor's existence, had any real idea of the unit's actual
activities. In all honesty Reyas didn't really care one way or another.
As far as he was concerned Aggressor was simply a means to an end
and the abstract was revenge.
The cigarette finished Reyas stood and moved towards the hangar
doors. They were using an old airfield east of Kumanovo in Northern
Macedonia. ICARUS had required a warning to be delivered to a
certain faction north of the border. This done they would be pulling
out in the next five hours, over the Albanian border and thence by ship
across the Ionian Sea to the Port of El Djazair in Algeria.
In the dusk Reyas could just make out the aircraft orienting
themselves on the mobile ILS they were using. Both of them looked
in bad shape but Reyas knew both pilots well - Sydorsky and Moore -
and relaxed slightly. Each of them were time-served combat veterans
and could fly just about anything whatever the conditions. Reyas lit
another cigarette and strode back into the hangar watching the ground
crew prepare for departure. The crossing to Algiers would be a bitch
and he suspected ICARUS wanted them in North Africa for his own
reasons. No doubt he would discover soon enough……….
55
CAMPAIGN OVERVIEW
14. CAMPAIGN OVERVIEW

14.1 Morocco
For many years, the Moroccan authorities have suffered at the hands
of the Sa-hai People's Liberation Front (SPLF), a group dedicated to
overthrowing the government and taking control of the country.
Until recent years, the actions of this pressure group were little more
than a thorn in the side of the Moroccan authorities. However, the tide
was turning and with the revenue from illegal drug plantations
increasing, the SPLF had become a more powerful force in Morocco.
With their new found 'friends' abroad eager to supply arms and
equipment for a price, the SPLF quickly became much more than a
rag-tag band of ill-equipped shepherds. The Moroccan government
soon became alarmed as the SPLF masterminded a series of tactical
strikes around the country, hitting many sensitive military and
civilian targets.
Eager to crush the rebels, the united forces of Morocco attacked, trag-
ically ill informed of the firepower awaiting them. After many fierce
skirmishes, the Moroccans withdrew to count their losses, discovering
to their dismay that a large proportion of their armed forces had
been 'neutralised'.
Feeling their grip on the country diminishing and seeking a swift end
to the internal struggle that threatened the whole country's stability,
the government appealed for international intervention. None was
forthcoming but following a series of highly classified talks a contin-
gency plan was suggested and the terms were met. Aggressor would
be covertly implemented for an undisclosed sum; payment delivered
upon project completion. ICARUS will co-ordinate local intelligence.
56
CAMPAIGN OVERVIEW
14.2 Ethiopia
A series of massive earthquakes have ripped through the continent of
Africa, causing destruction of unprecedented proportions.
Ethiopia is struck particularly hard, with many thousands dying in the

resulting chaos. As the dust settles, survivors are amazed by the sight
of an enormous pyramidal structure rising out of the waters of Lake
Tana. It seems that a giant complex of buildings has lain hidden and
undisturbed for centuries until the action of the earthquake forced the
lakebed to the surface.
Rumours of a temple full of gold spread like wildfire and numerous

factions soon flock to the area in an attempt to take control of the pyramid.
Amidst political unrest and the upheaval generated by the natural
disaster, a rebel faction opposed to the government begins to gain
support. Seeing the pyramid as a source of funding to continue their
struggle, they seek military support from outside. Surprisingly
ICARUS secures a contract with the rebel faction and directs the
Aggressor unit to proceed. Meanwhile, just over the border, the
Sudanese forces begin to mobilise.
14.3 Kenya/Tanzania - The Rift Valley

The Aggressor Unit escape Ethiopia taking the gold as payment. Reyas
contacts ICARUS for an explanation of the confusion that had threatened
to destroy the last operation. ICARUS, it seems, has vanished and
Reyas is placed under the charge of a highly placed GUD official -
Code Name: ANANSI. Whispered rumours suggest that ICARUS had
intended to claim the Ethiopian gold himself and after failing to
achieve this has turned traitor and joined forces with Maldonado.
ANANSI is deeply troubled by the extent to which ICARUS has been

using Aggressor to further his own ends and wants to recall the unit
for a full debriefing.
57
CAMPAIGN OVERVIEW
However trouble has already broken out in nearby Tanzania and

ANANSI'S worse fears are realised. Maldonado's largest official
company in the region, The North African Oil Cartel, has discovered
large oil reserves in the protected Rift Valley conservation region. The
Tanzanian Government has refused permission for drilling and in
return Maldonado, with the help of ICARUS, has instigated a military
coup, the leaders of which will be handsomely paid once the oil fields
are established. Maldonado will benefit from the profit generated by
the oil reserves. More importantly it will provide him with a legitimate
foothold in central Africa's infrastructure; a goal he has sought for
years. Once this is achieved Maldonado will be in a perfect position to
exploit the instability, much of which his organisation has instigated,
that is already effecting the whole continent. This cannot be allowed
to happen and ANANSI instructs you to reverse the coup as quickly as
possible. Even were he to use legitimate forces through the normal
political channels it would be too late.
Aggressor will be up against Tanzania's armed forces that will be fur-

ther supplemented by the impressive forces of Maldonado's
Oil Cartel.
14.4 Madagascar
Fleeing from the repercussions of the Rift Valley campaign, the
Aggressor Unit soon realises that trouble looms in the future.
Maldonado and his North African Oil Cartel, have lost face in the eyes
of the world and vowed vengeance on the group. To this end they have
used their power and influence to raise an immense strike force to
send against the Aggressor base in Madagascar.
Initial analysis of intelligence reports confirms that the enemy will be

armed with the very latest in weapons technology - outgunned and out-
numbered, our only hope is that our extensive experience and the talent
of our troops can help win the day. ANANSI has promised Aggressor a
future role working for the GUD but first we must defend ourselves.
58
MULTIPLAYER OPTIONS
15. MULTIPLAYER OPTIONS

15.1 Protocols
When playing F-16: Aggressor as a Multiplayer game you must first
enter PC Setup and choose which protocol the Multiplayer game will
operate on. You have the option of choosing one of three protocols.
TCP/IP
This is the common protocol for games played over the Internet. F-16:
Aggressor has a default port number of 27000. All players wishing to
join an Internet game must check that this is the address they are using.
IPX
This is the preferred protocol when using a LAN or (local Area
Network). This too has a default port number which, in this case
is 26000.
Serial
This is the correct protocol if you are initiating a Multiplayer game
over computers that are linked by a serial cable. Check that both par-
ties are using an identical baud rate and that this is the maximum rate
available to both.
15.2 Hosting a Multiplayer Mission Game

Firstly select the mission you wish to host using the Next/Previous
mission icons. The background and objectives for any selected mis-
sion will come into view. It is probably wise to choose your payload at
this point, but you can do this any time before you 'Connect'. You are
responsible for defining the game parameters. These dictate the num-
ber of players allowed to enter to the game, the game name (this is
how it will appear to other users on the Network), and finally, whether
or not the game is password protected. If you select this option the
59
MULTIPLAYER OPTIONS
other players must be informed of the password in order to access the

game. Once these parameters are set you may then click on the
'Connect' icon.
This will take you to the F-16: Aggressor lobby screen. In the lobby you
can affiliate with either the mercenary squadron or the opposition
force, appropriate to the given mission selection. Click on the desired
squadron to make your choice. There is also a message panel on the
lobby screen so that anyone waiting to join the game can exchange
messages. Kick Player is also an available option. Should you, as host,
decide to remove a pilot who has logged on to the game, you can
highlight the offending pilot in the squadron list and select 'Kick
Player'. This will remove him from the game. 'Start' will initiate the
game and 'Disconnect' will abort it.
15.3 Hosting a Multiplayer Instant Action Game

When you select this variation of the Multiplayer game, the initial
screen you will access provides all the variable parameters contained
in the Instant Action module of F-16: Aggressor. As host you can
choose the area, time and weather conditions of the game. Weapons
and fuel may be either 'Unlimited' or as they in the Weapons and Fuel
screen. A player's Start Position can be either on the home runway or
in the air. You can even decide whether or not damage and ground
collision will affect the players in the game. The host may also choose
the type and number of enemy units present. You may not want any
enemy units if you are hosting a dedicated death match.
The number of players can be set as can the number of separate

squadrons or teams. There is also a Time limit which can be set. As
with the Multiplayer Mission games, you choose the name under
which the game will appear on the Internet.
You may also password protect the game.
60
MULTIPLAYER OPTIONS
15.4 Joining a Multiplayer Game

Upon choosing the Join Game option Aggressor's interface screen
will display any currently available games. It will only display those
games that share the protocol you have selected in the Multiplayer
page of PC Setup. Choosing a different protocol will provide a
different group of available games appropriate to that protocol. Once
you have highlighted a game you wish to join, the Objectives display
will become active. It is here that the details of the game you are about
to enter are listed. If the selected game is a Multiplayer Instant game
this will be acknowledged along with a description of the game’s
place, time and weather conditions e.g. Morocco, Morning, Clear.
There will also be a list of the aircraft and ground targets that are
present in the mission. If however the game you have selected is a
Multiplayer Mission game, the mission's background and objectives
will be displayed. After checking this screen for the mission description,
you can enter the Weapons and Fuel page. Here you may select
whatever payload you want for the forthcoming mission. When the
payload has been allocated you can then click on the 'Join Game' icon.
You will now enter the F-16: Aggressor lobby area. Messages to and
from other players may be sent or received here. If the game you are
joining is password protected you will need to enter the appropriate
password at this point. Now you can click on the 'Connect' icon. Once
connected you can select which squadron you wish to be affiliated
with. When the Host begins the game you will enter as a member of
your chosen squadron.
61
COCKPIT SYSTEMS
16. F-16 COCKPIT SYSTEMS
The Cockpit
62
COCKPIT SYSTEMS
Cockpit Diagram Key
1. Left Multifunction Display (MFD)

2. Right Multifunction Display (MFD)
3. Heads Up display (HUD)
4. Airspeed Indicator
5. Altimeter
6. Angle of Attack Indicator
7. Attitude Direction Indicator - Artificial Horizon
8. Vertical Velocity Indicator
9. Horizontal Situation Indicator
10. Threat Warning Indicator
11. Threat Warning Lights
12. Stand-by Attitude Indicator
13. Fuel Flow Indicator
14. Data Entry Display
15. Angle of Attack Indexer
16. Brake Indicators
17. Engine Oil Pressure
18. NOS POS
19. Engine RPM
20. Engine Temperature
21. Engine Stall Indicator
22. Engine Fire Indicator
23. Master Warning Indicator
24. Air Brake On Indicator
25. Auto Pilot On Indicator
26. TACAN
27. ECM
28. Low Altitude Warning
63
COCKPIT SYSTEMS
16.1 The Cockpit

The cockpit instruments communicate every aspect of the aircraft's
status and position to the pilot. Much of the data is repeated in vari-
ous formats so that the pilot has access to it in multiple ways. This is
to aid rather than confuse the pilot. Depending on circumstance some
information may be instantaneously available in one form, for exam-
ple presented via the HUD, while checking the relative cockpit gauge
would require the fractions of a second a fighter pilot can ill afford.
In combat that amount of time can easily prove fatal for either you or
your opponent. However if your aircraft is damaged one or more of
the cockpit systems could be down or at best unreliable. Therefore
independent instrument backup is vital.
The most comprehensive cockpit systems such as the HUD and

the MFD contain an extensive range of information and are
comprehensively covered in respective sections. Most of the other
instruments are self explanatory from their specific titles.
Left Multifunction Display (Left MFD)

Available via the cockpit or superimposed to the left of the HUD by
pressing V. See later section on MFD.
Right Multifunction Display (Right MFD)

Available via the cockpit or superimposed to the right of the HUD by
pressing V. See later section on MFD.
Heads Up Display (HUD)
Essential equipment for every aspect of flight, combat and weapon
release. See later section on HUD.
64
COCKPIT SYSTEMS
Angle of Attack (AoA) Indicator

An instrument which displays the AoA in degrees. See later chapters,
Flight Physics and Basic Flight.
Attitude Direction Indicator

A sperical display which indicates the aircrafts bank and pitch relative
to the earth. When landing this also displays the ILS bars. See Chapter
17, Basic Flight.
Vertical Velocity Indicator

Displays rate of climb and descent.
Horizontal Situation Indicator

The horizontal situation indicator is basically a very precise compass
which provides additional information on navigation.
The horizontal situation indicator guides the pilot to the selected

waypoint. Whichever waypoint is selected you must fly the plane so
that the needle is pointing in a directly vertical position. When this is
the case you will be heading towards the waypoint. The central portion
65
COCKPIT SYSTEMS
may be displaced to either the left or right of the main body of the
needle. This will indicate that although you are heading towards the
waypoint you not following the correct approach line. You will be
flying to either the left or right of the correct approach line respectively.
Waypoint heading is measured in degrees and waypoint distance is
measured in nautical miles.
Threat Warning Indicator

Available via the cockpit or superimposed to the left of the HUD by
pressing V. See later section.
Fuel Flow Indicator

Displays the burn rate or fuel consumption in lbs/per mins. The actu-
al amount of fuel remaining is displayed on the MFD in NAV mode.
Data Entry Display

Conveys information to the pilot such as target identification and
damaged systems.
Angle of Attack (AoA) Indexer

Instrument dedicated to landing. See Chapter 17, Basic Flight.
Master Warning Indicator

If any aircraft system is damaged this instrument will illuminate. The
specific system can then be identified on the MFD in Damage mode,
see later section on MFD.
NOS POS
Indicates the afterburner nozzle position, i.e. the degree to which it is
open or closed.
66
COCKPIT SYSTEMS - HUD
16.2 THE HEAD UP DISPLAY (HUD)

General Overview of the HUD
The Head Up Display from now on referred to as the HUD, is a

concept which has directed the development of military avionics
design and practice. This is particularly true when considering the
ever widening role of the modern jet fighter/bomber plane and the
pilots who fly them. Basically the HUD is a transparent screen, placed
directly in front of the pilot, which displays information relating to all
aspects of flight, navigation and battle. Thus vital information is
instantly available without the pilot having to look down at numerous
instruments and therefore be subject to distraction at critical
moments. Almost all the information a pilot needs to know while
airborne is available via the HUD.
However, the volume of data the HUD can display creates specific
problems. The amount of different information available to a pilot at
any given time is vast. This information will also relate to very
67
different scenarios, e.g. from takeoff and landing to laser guided

bombing. Rather than attempting to display all the information all the
time the HUD is split into different 'modes'. These modes relate
directly to specific circumstances that the pilot will encounter.
Therefore the HUD has different 'modes' which can be selected for
use in specific circumstances. These modes can be cycled through
easily and can, therefore, instantly communicate information relevant
to any given situation. The HUD is an interface for the aircraft's
computer system allowing the pilot to do specific tasks. If the correct
mode is not chosen, the pilot will not be able to perform certain
actions. When a pilot selects Navigation mode or 'NAV' mode, the
HUD will communicate navigational information such as
'Waypoints'. If the pilot then engages a hostile aircraft and suspects
that combat is imminent he can select missile (MSLS) mode. In this
mode the HUD will allow the pilot to arm an air-to-air missile e.g.
AIM-9 Sidewinder, if one is available. Selecting any missile to arm
would not be possible if for example the HUD was in landing (LND)
mode. In missile mode the HUD will then display the point at which
the hostile plane is in range and whether missile lock has been
achieved. The pilot is then able to fire when ready.
The HUD has become indispensable to the modern fighter pilot's

environment. However if the HUD system is not clearly understood
by the pilot then the data provided is useless. Therefore it is essential
that you should possess a clear understanding of the HUD's different
modes and in which situations to use them.
Information Common to All HUD Modes

The F-16 has ten separate HUD modes which are examined below.
This may seem daunting but each mode is tailored to a different,
specific situation, so choosing the correct one is straightforward.
Although each mode has special individual features some of the infor-
mation displayed is present in every mode. The common information
shared by all modes is detailed here.
68
Airspeed
The airspeed of the F-16 is measured in knots and this value is dis-
played in every HUD mode. There is also an airspeed 'tape' running
vertically down the HUD next to the airspeed indicator that measures
the speed in increments of ten. This is very helpful in rapidly deter-
mining whether the plane is actually decelerating or accelerating
without having to concentrate on the exact airspeed figures as the
ribbon appears to be moving either up or down respectively. By press-
ing 'Control + A', you can toggle the display to show either the 'True'
or 'Indicated' airspeed, signified by the letter T or I over the airspeed
bar. True airspeed is the actual speed of the aircraft over land.
Indicated airspeed is the value displayed on the instruments.
Indicated air speed is measured by pressure differentiation.
The F-16's computer uses this value and, by means of advanced
conversion tables, calculates the true airspeed.
Mach Meter
This is a separate measurement showing the speed of the aircraft in
terms of the speed of sound. The speed of sound is 1130 ft/per second
or 330 m/per second at standard temperature and pressure (STP)
which is 20°C/70°F and 1 Atmosphere respectively. In aviation this
speed is referred to as a Mach value e.g. Mach 1. At high altitudes
Mach 1 is achieved at lower airspeeds. This is because at higher
altitudes the speed of sound is reduced due to lower air temperatures
and reduced air density. For every 1°F reduction, the speed of sound
decreases by 1.1ft per second. Equally, reduced air density decreases
the speed of sound. Therefore the F-16 will achieve the speed of sound
at lower airspeeds. Also, the F-16’s top speed is faster at high altitude
because less dense air gives less drag to the airframe.
Engine Thrust /Afterburner

This displays the percentage of maximum engine RPM. At 50% the
engines are considered to be idling and at 100% they are at full thrust.
Using the afterburner significantly increases the boost of the engines
69
above 100% but this increases fuel consumption dramatically.

Therefore the afterburner is only used when necessary. The
afterburner has four levels of boost (1-4), four being the most powerful.
Altitude
The F-16's altitude can be displayed as two values, either the baro-
metric height (the height of the F-16 above Sea Level) or the radar
determined height which shows the actual distance between the F-16
and the ground terrain it is flying over. When you are engaged in low
flying manoeuvres it is vital that you are aware of the exact distance
between the aircraft and the immediate terrain. You may toggle
between these altimeter options using the J key. The altitude readout
is also accompanied by a vertical 'tape' display.
Velocity Vector Indicator

Also known as the Flight Path Indicator this is located usually in the
centre of the HUD in every mode. It indicates the direction the aircraft
is actually flying in. Basically you are in effect flying into whatever area
the velocity vector indicator is ‘covering’.
Pitch Ladder
The pitch ladder is always present and is a HUD representation of
aircraft pitch.
Bank Indicator
The bank indicator displays the degree of bank of the aircraft within a
180 degree range.
Heading Display
Located at the top of the HUD this displays the compass heading in
degrees. North is 0 degrees, East is at 90 degrees, South is at 180
degrees and West is at 270 degrees. Again there is a tape display
70
which is measured in increments of ten degrees. The tape is directly

below the heading display and above the heading indicator.
Waypoint Heading Indicator

The waypoint heading indicator, or carat, is positioned below the
compass tape. This marker indicates the exact direction of your cur-
rently selected waypoint. If the indicator is on the far left or right of
the compass tape the F-16 must be turned either to the left or right
respectively in order to line up with the waypoint.
Aircraft State Flags

At the top right of the HUD there is a list of letters that appear or
disappear as the external state of the aircraft is altered. These letters
are the initial letters of the aircraft's variable options. 'G' represents
the landing gear and this letter will appear when the landing gear
is down. Wheel brakes and air brakes are denoted as 'W' and 'A'
respectively when the brakes are 'on' or engaged. When the Flaps are
engaged an 'F' is displayed. The control keys for these aircraft options
are illustrated in the keyboard diagram.
HUD Mode Meter

Located at the bottom left of the HUD display, this simply displays
which mode the HUD is currently operating in, for instance NAV
(Navigation mode) or LND (Landing mode).
Mode Specific HUD Information

The rest of the information that the HUD displays is mode specific. It
is split between data relating to flight navigation and data which is
relevant to combat only. Therefore when a HUD mode is selected
such as NAV (Navigation) or LND (Landing), the waypoint identifier,
waypoint distance and wind speed become visible. When a combat
71
mode is selected i.e. MSLS, EO or ARM, specifics such as 'Weapon

selection' and 'Range to Target' become visible. The following
categories of information are only available in specific modes.
AoA Meter
Registers the angle of the wing in relation to the airflow through
which it is travelling. This is vital for landing and specific air manoeuvres
because if the angle of attack is too steep the plane is liable to stall (See
Flight Physics). It is displayed on the HUD in a variety of modes in
which AoA is relevant. However the AoA is always available by checking
the cockpit instrument panel which contains a gauge dedicated to
angle of attack.
G Meter
The force of gravity is measured in G's. When the F-16 performs
aggressive manoeuvres, at high speed, the resulting force vector is
added to the force of gravity. The F-16 fuselage and pilot then experience
a violent increase of force. The pilot is liable to suffer from blackout as
the effects of gravitational force are multiplied proportionally. The G
meter monitors the amount of G force exerted on both the pilot and
the plane at any given time.
Selected Weapon
This displays which weapon is currently selected or armed. When a
pilot decides to use a specific weapon, e.g. a guided bomb or an air-to-
air missile, the related HUD mode that will enable weapon launch,
must be chosen first. If the F-16 is carrying a relevant weapon that
armament is automatically selected. If there are no weapons in the
payload that are specific to a given mode the mode will be inaccessible.
If there is a choice of weapons, the pilot is able to cycle through the
alternatives by pressing ENTER. (SHIFT + ENTER steps backward
through the available weapons.)
72
Missile Range
Illustrates the range of a selected missile. This display has an attached
arrow that moves up and down the range scale. The arrow indicates
the position of a designated target in relation to the missile's range.
See the illustration of the HUD in MSLS mode, which appears later in
this chapter.
Missile Flight Time

This is the missile flight time measured in seconds. It refers to the
time lapse between a proposed missile launch and the subsequent
impact with a selected target. It appears directly under the missile
range meter. See the illustration of the HUD in MSLS mode, which
appears later in this chapter.
Target Range
This is the distance between your aircraft and the selected target, mea-
sured in nautical miles. It is positioned above the wind speed indicator
and below the aircraft state flags. See the illustration of the HUD in
MSLS mode, which appears later in this chapter.
Radar Range
Directly above the missile range meter is the radar range. This
displays the present maximum scan range of the F-16's targeting
system. See the illustration of the HUD in MSLS mode, which
appears later in this chapter.
Target Closure Speed

Measured in knots, this reading displays the closing speed between
the target and yourself. See the illustration of the HUD in MSLS
mode, which appears later in this chapter.
73
Missile Boresight
The missile boresight is a circular reference symbol to which the
target aspect carat and the target range circle are attached. It is only
available for air-to-air missiles. The symbol will change in size depending
on the range of the missile selected. See the illustration of the HUD
in MSLS mode, which appears later in this chapter.
Target Range Circle

Positioned within the missile boresight, this denotes the range to
target. It is only present when short range missiles such as the AIM-
9M Sidewinder are selected. This is because with short range missiles
an exact indication of target range is necessary. The circle unwinds
anticlockwise as the range to target decreases. When it reaches the
three o'clock position the designated target is in optimum range.
See the illustration of the HUD in MSLS mode, which appears later in
this chapter.
Target Aspect Carat

The aspect of a target is its heading, relative to your own position and
heading. It is only available for airborne targets. The target's aspect is
indicated by an arrow, which moves around the missile boresight.
If you imagine the arrow represents the wings of your enemy this will
provide a good indication of the direction the bandit is flying in
relation to your own position.
When the arrow is at the six o'clock position you are directly in line
with a target which is flying in the same direction as yourself i.e. away
from you. At the twelve o'clock position the arrow indicates that you
are in line with a target that is flying directly towards you. If the arrow
is at a point between the three and nine o'clock positions the target
will be crossing your path.
74
Target Aspect Carat
75
Wind Velocity Meter

Displays the current velocity of the wind relative to the aircraft's flight.
This data is particularly important for landing and takeoff procedures.
Waypoint Identifier
The waypoint identifier is present only when the HUD is in NAV
mode. It informs the pilot which waypoint the pipper is directing him
towards. The different waypoints may be cycled through by pressing
the TAB key (SHIFT + TAB reverses direction). If you fly to a waypoint
then the navigation system will automatically switch to the next way-
point if one is available.
Waypoint Distance
Similar in all aspects to the waypoint identifier, this informs the pilot
of the distance from the selected waypoint measured in nautical miles.
Pipper
The pipper consists of 2 parts, the relative approach line position,
represented by the position of the circle on the HUD and the approach
heading indicator, represented by the line emanating from the centre
of the pipper. The approach line is defined by the previous and
current waypoints. You are flying along the correct approach line
when the pipper is in the centre of the HUD and the heading indicator
points straight up. If you are not on the approach line, steering the
aircraft so that the line is always vertical will return you to the correct
approach line with the correct heading.
In this position the pipper will guide you along the best approach line,
according to the waypoints, whereas the compass carat and heading
indicator will guide you straight to the selected waypoint irrespective
of the approach line.
76
140 150
Compass
Waypoint
Heading
Waypoint Indicator
Pipper
Waypoint
D2.149 Heading
NAV 21 (degrees)
HUD Mode Distance to

Waypoint (Nm)
The Pipper
Specific HUD modes

The different HUD modes fall into two basic categories. Those that
are dedicated to flight and navigation and those that are dedicated
combat modes. Of the ten HUD modes two are concerned with flight
and navigation and the other eight are combat modes.
77
Flight and Navigation Modes

Navigation (NAV) HUD Mode
Thrust Level Afterburner Level Heading Carat Compass Heading

Compass Tape
Pipper Wind
Angle of Speed
Attack
G Level Altitude
Tape
Airspeed
Tape
Airspeed: Altitude:
T = True B =Barometric
I = Indicated R = Radar
Airspeed
Velocity Vector Indicator Altitude
Mach Waypoint
Meter Heading
Selected
Waypoint
HUD Mode Waypoint Distance
Navigation (NAV) HUD Mode
This mode is used to guide the pilot towards the selected pre-desig-
nated waypoints. When this mode is selected the TAB key cycles
through available waypoints. (Holding shift reverses the cycle direc-
tion.) The current waypoint number is indicated at the bottom right of
the HUD.
78
Landing (LND) HUD Mode
Aircraft
Pitch
State
Ladder
Flags
Vertical
Velocity
ILS
Scale
Bars
ILS Bars
Landing (LND) HUD Mode
Used specifically when landing, this mode provides information

dedicated to factors that will affect the landing procedure. This is the
only mode in which the HUD displays the ILS deviation bars that are
essential for a safe landing procedure. (See Chapter 17.6, Basic
Flight.) Landing mode is automatically selected when the landing gear
is lowered.
79
Combat Modes
The combat modes of the HUD are divided between the two different
areas of combat. There are three modes for air-to-air combat and five
modes dedicated to ground attack. In air-to-air combat the modes
basically relate to the use of missiles, cannon and a combination of the
two. With ground attack, two of the modes are for different types of
missile, two modes are for different bombs i.e. guided and unguided
and the last mode is used when firing rockets or cannon, both of these
weapons being unguided.
N.B. In all combat modes the HUD will display a large X symbol if you
attempt to use a weapon on a target that is either out of range or that
is too close to the F-16 for an effective launch.
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Air-to-air Combat
Missiles (MSLS) HUD Mode
Target Range Circle
Missile Target
Boresight Aspect
Carat
Radar
Target Range
Designator
Box Missile
(with Missile Range
Lock) Scale
Selected
Weapon
Bank Indicator
Used to arm and launch air-to-air missiles. When this mode is selected
the TAB key cycles through available targets (holding SHIFT reverses
the cycle direction). Additionally pressing ENTER cycles through
available air-to-air weapons (SHIFT + ENTER reverses cycle). All the
necessary information, related to missile launch, is present in
this mode.
81
Lead Computed Optical Sight (LCOS) HUD Mode
Projected Bullet
Flight
Path (Snake) Target In Range
Target Flight Path
Remaining Rounds
Lead Computed Optical Sight (LCOS) HUD Mode
The LCOS mode gives an optical trail that portrays the projected
bullet flight path of the F-16's internal cannon rounds. This avoids the
waste of precious ammunition as the pilot can gauge accurately when
a hostile plane will be in his sights. LCOS also superimposes a dashed
trail on the target displaying its previous flight path.
82
Dogfight (DGFT) HUD Mode
Projected
Bullet
Flight
Path
Selected
Missile
Dogfight (DGFT) HUD Mode
A combination of MSLS and LCOS, the DGFT mode is specifically

designed to help the pilot in close combat situations. It enables the
aiming and fiing of air-to-air missiles as well as providing a constant
projected bullet flight path for cannon firing.
83
Air-to ground Combat

Continuously Computed Impact Point (CCIP)
Pre-designate HUD Mode
Fuse
Arming
Limit
Bomb
Fall Line
Constantly
Computed
Impact
Point
Selected
Weapon
Continuously Computed Impact Point (CCIP) Pre-designate HUD Mode
This mode is used to aim 'dumb' air-to-ground weapons like unguided

bombs e.g. 2000lb iron bomb. The CCIP mode shows a 'bomb fall
line' and computed impact point. Pinpoint accuracy is required for
accurate delivery. The Fuse Arming Limit must be below the
Computed Impact Point at the time of weapon release. This is to
ensure that the aircraft is not damaged from bomb explosion
or debris.
84
Continuously Computed Impact Point (CCIP)

Post-designate HUD Mode
Designated
Target Box
Secondary
Aiming Box
Bomb
Steering
Selected Line
Weapon
Continuously Computed Impact Point (CCIP) Post-designate HUD Mode
Used only in conjunction with guided and laser guided bombs such as
the GBU-10. Here the HUD mode displays a vertical bomb 'steering
line'. A primary designated target box is displayed, along with a
secondary box, that represents the CCIP. Ensure the steering line
intersects the designated target box. The secondary box will appear to
climb the steering line. Hold down the fire button and when the two
boxes are aligned the selected weapon is automatically released
guaranteeing accurate delivery.
85
Electro Optical (EO) HUD Mode
Radar
Range
Target
Designator
Box
(Missile Lock) Missile
Range
Scale
Selected
Weapon
Electro Optical (EO) HUD Mode
This is the primary ground attack mode used for launching guided air-
to-ground missiles such as the AGM-65 Maverick. Electro Optical, as
a term, refers to the way in which the air-to-ground missile is guided.
All types of air-to-ground missile, with the exception of anti-radiation
missiles (see Chapter 19, Basic Combat) fall into this category. When
missile lock is achieved the missile crosshair, displayed on the HUD,
snaps onto the target designator box. Launch can be initiated at any
subsequent point providing the target is in range.
86
Anti-Radiation Missile (ARM) HUD Mode
Radar
Range
Target
Designator Missile
Box Range
(Missile Lock) Scale
Selected
Weapon
Anti-Radiation Missile (ARM) HUD Mode
Used only when launching an anti-radiation missile e.g. AGM-88

radar seeking missile. This mode duplicates the information provided
in EO that is required for a ground attack missile launch. Missile
launch will only be possible when a strong radar-emitting source,
such as a SAM radar site or a ship, is in the vicinity. Otherwise the
missile will be unable to lock on to a target, as it cannot detect targets
that are not emitting radar waves. These missiles can be used even if
the F-16's radar is damaged or switched off as they track radar sources
as opposed to using radar as guidance.
87
Strafe HUD Mode
Gun
Boresight
Cross
Designated
Target Box
Selected
Weapon
Strafe (STRF) HUD Mode
Used when firing either guns or rockets at ground targets. Though

STRF mode provides a target designator box, it is only a visual guide
to aid the pilot as there is no lock available with unguided rockets. Aim
to place the Gun Boresight Cross over the target designator box to
increase accuracy.
88
Variable HUD controls
HUD Mode
To cycle through the various HUD modes press H. (SHIFT + H to
reverse direction.) Alternatively choose a specific HUD mode using
the number keys 1- 0 across the top of the keyboard.
HUD Size (Zoom)

To increase or decrease the screen size of the HUD use the plus and
minus keys on the number pad. The * key on the number pad
restores default HUD size.
HUD Colour
The colour of the HUD can be altered so that it is clearer against the
background terrain or sky. To cycle through the available HUD
colours press Ctrl + H.
HUD Clutter / Unclutter

In order to make the HUD as clear as possible there is an option for
reducing the amount of information it displays in any mode. To do
this press the U key. There are four levels of 'Unclutter'. By pressing
the U key four times the HUD gradually reduces the information
displayed. (SHIFT + U reverses the process. Pressing U a fifth time
will return the HUD to its normal state.)
89
HUD Summary
Mode ....................................................................Name Use
NAV Navigation .................................................Waypoint

....................................................................navigation
LND Landing......................................................Landing
MSLS Missiles......................................................Air-to-air missile

....................................................................launch
LCOS Lead Computed Optical Sight..................Cannon fire
DGFT Dogfight.....................................................Air-to-air missile

....................................................................launch/cannon
....................................................................fire
CCIP CCIP Pre ...................................................Dumb/unguided

....................................................................bomb launch
CCIP CCIP Post ..................................................Guided bomb

....................................................................launch
EO Electro Optical...........................................Air-to-ground
....................................................................guided missile
....................................................................launch
ARM Anti Radiation Missile..............................Air-to-ground

....................................................................anti-radiation
....................................................................missile launch
STRF Strafe..........................................................Cannon/rocket
....................................................................fire at ground
....................................................................target
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COCKPIT SYSTEMS - MFD
16.3 The Multifunction Display (MFD)

The two multifunction displays can be used to access various
elements of the F-16's radar and computer systems. They are always
present in the cockpit and can be seen by using the cockpit views
denoted by keypad 4 and 6. (See Chapter 7, Cockpit Views.) This is the
best way to view them as it provides a clear, full screen of information.
However you will not always have time to toggle between views.
Therefore the MFD may also be superimposed upon the main screen
to the left and right of the HUD by pressing V. This also displays the
Threat Warning Indicator which appears above the left MFD.
The Multifunction Display does not intrude on the pilot's line of sight
and is invaluable in every combat situation. There are several different
modes available via the MFD and these are described below. In order
to cycle through these modes use the square bracket keys [] for the left
and right MFD respectively. SHIFT + [] reverses cycle.The current
mode of each MFD is shown in the top left corner.
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Navigation (NAV) MFD Mode
Mode Identifier
Flight
Flight Time Range
Remaining Current Time
Current Time
Flight Time
Flight Range Elapsed Time
Elapsed Time
Remaining
Waypoint
WaypointIdentifier
Identifier Waypoint Distance
Waypoint Distance
Waypoint
WaypointLatitude
Latitude Heading
Heading to to Waypoint
Waypoint
Waypoint
WaypointLongitude
Longditude Speed
Speed toto Waypoint
Waypoint
Desired Waypoint
Desired Waypoint Height ETA
ETA
Height
FuelRemaining
Fuel Remaining
Navigation (NAV) MFD Mode
The NAV or Navigation mode of the MFD supplies all the necessary
information for in-flight navigation. The on board computer con-
stantly monitors fuel consumption and predicts the amount of fuel
remaining and the amount of flight time remaining based on the
current fuel consumption of the aircraft. This of course is determined
by the percentage of throttle used. It is here that you witness just how
much fuel the afterburner uses. Try turning the afterburner up to
maximum and watch the remaining fuel gauge reduce significantly.
The NAV mode also gives all the relevant data regarding selected way-
points. Longitude, latitude and the desired approach height for the
selected waypoint are shown. So also are the waypoint distance,
heading, speed and ETA (Estimated Time of Arrival). Mission time
and current time displays are also included in NAV mode.
92
Damage (DMG) MFD Mode
Damage (DMG) MFD Mode
Damage mode monitors the integrity of the aircraft and its systems.
When a section of the display is illuminated that system is damaged
or destroyed.
93
ENG Engine
RDR Radar
AP Auto-Pilot
FUL Fuel
WPN Weapons
ECM Electronic Counter Measures
FCS Flight Control Systems
GUN Guns
IFF Identifier Friend/Foe
OXG Oxygen
EXP Expendables (Chaff/Flare)
ILS Instrument Landing System
LGR Landing Gear
RWR Radar Warning Reciever
SPB Speed Brake
94
Armaments (ARM) MFD Mode
Armaments (ARM) MFD Mode
Armament mode displays the F-16's weapon management system.

This shows the type, quantity and placement of the F-16's payload.
The display also indicates the number of rounds the internal cannon
has remaining as well as the number of chaff and flares.
95
Satellite (SAT) MFD Mode
Satellite (SAT) MFD Mode
The Satellite mode shows an aerial representation of the ground the

F-16 is flying over. This includes the mission waypoints, which are
joined by computed lines indicating the correct approach line.
96
Air-to-air Radar (JTIDS) MFD Mode
Joint-Tactical-Information Distribution System (JTIDS) MFD Mode
Joint-Tactical-Information Distribution System. JTIDS is the F-16's

air-to-air radar. It operates either by itself or in conjunction with
friendly AWACS aircraft that are in the area. If the F-16 is not
receiving support from an AWACS, the radar range is limited to 120°
field of view in front of the aircraft. If an AWACS is supplying
enhanced radar information to the F-16 it has a complete 360° radar
coverage. The radar range can be enlarged or reduced using the
Insert/Delete keys. The radar range varies between 5-80 Nm. It is
impossible for the F-16 to gain missile lock on a Friendly Aircraft as
long as the lock safety mechanism is engaged. This mechanism may
be toggled by pressing SHIFT +F.
97
JTIDS Symbols
Friendly Aircraft
Unknown Aircraft
Hostile Aircraft
Unassisted Radar
98
AWACS Assisted Radar
99
Ground Map (GM) MFD Mode
Ground Map (GM) MFD Mode
This is the primary air-to-ground radar mode of the F-16. The GM

mode consists of a 120° field of view forward of the F-16. In this mode
all ground targets that are in range are displayed. The pilot can then
cycle through the available targets using the TAB key (Shift + TAB
allows Reverse Cycle). Range can be altered using the INSERT and
DELETE buttons. The range of the radar is 5 Nm - 80 Nm. Once you
have target lock you can then choose to select the Fixed Target
Tracking mode or FTT on the Multifunction Display.
Symbols
Target Tracked Target Waypoint
100
Fixed Target Tracking (FTT) MFD Mode
Fixed Target Tracking (FTT) MFD Mode
Fixed Target Tracking is the F-16's second air-to-ground radar mode.

After the pilot has selected a target in GM mode he can then switch to
FTT. This strips the radar display of unnecessary information making
it easier for the pilot to read. FTT will then continually track the
ground target even if the target subsequently becomes mobile.
Symbols
Target Tracked Target Waypoint
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COCKPIT SYSTEMS - TWI
16.4 Threat Warning Indicator
Glideslope Deviation Bar
Aircraft Below Glideslope
Glideslope
Runway Threshold
B l Glid l
Threat Warning Indicator (TWI)
The F-16C has an ALR-64 radar-warning receiver that alerts the pilot
to other radar sources.
The Threat Warning Indicator is present in the cockpit but is also

displayed above the MFD, when the MFD is superimposed on each
side of the HUD by pressing the V key.
The F-16 has antennae on each side of the fuselage which detect radar
waves. These radar waves could be coming from either an enemy
plane or SAM sight or a missile that has been targeted at the F-16 and
has achieved missile 'lock'. As soon as the F-16's systems realise that
the aircraft is being illuminated by radar emissions the Threat
Warning Indicator alerts the pilot. It displays the direction and prior-
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COCKPIT SYSTEMS - TWI
ity of the threat. It also determines the origin of the radar waves and
uses different symbols to represent the different types of hostile unit.
When the F-16 has been locked onto, a warning sound is emitted
within the cockpit. This increases in pitch and frequency as the dan-
ger increases. If there are multiple threats present, the highest priority
is displayed as a multiple threat symbol. Initial priority is allocated to
any threat that has the capacity to launch against you. Higher priority
is given to threats that are recognised to be in firing mode.
Enlarged representations of air / ground radar symbols.
Aircraft (Doppler Radar) AAA Radar
Aircraft (Pulse Radar) SAM Radar
Ship Radar Missile (Radar Guided)
AWACS Missile (Infra Red Guided)
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COCKPIT SYSTEMS - BITCHING BETTY
16.5 Bitching Betty

The technical term for Betty is the voice warning reproducer. It is an
on board system that is linked to the F-16's instruments and monitors
the status of the aircraft. The Bitching Betty system alerts the pilot to
a variety of dangers and situations from missile lock to altitude and
fuel warnings. When the defence industry researched this system
pilots were exposed to a variety of alerts and their responses recorded.
The majority of pilots responded more rapidly to a female voice,
perhaps because pilots are generally male. Bitching Betty was born.
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BASIC FLIGHT
17. BASIC FLIGHT

17.1 Introduction to Flight Controls
The F-16 Falcon was the first fighter plane to be fitted with a side-stick
in place of the more conventional flight control column located
centrally between the pilot's legs. The side-stick barely moves but
relies on pressure which is being applied by the pilot. This is an
indication of the degree to which modern military aircraft now rely
upon computerised avionics to achieve increased performance
and reliability.
The General Dynamics F-16 design team was the first to eliminate
mechanical backups on the fly by wire system, trusting completely to
electronics. Briefly, this type of fly by wire aircraft is one that would be
unable to fly were it not for several on-board computers. These
constantly monitor the aircraft's flight status and adjust the control
surfaces of the plane in order to maximise performance. The comput-
ers respond to the pilot's hand and foot movements on the stick and
rudder pedals. They then alter the appropriate control surfaces so that
the plane executes the manoeuvre intended by the pilot. The fly by
wire system anticipates the pilot's actions and will not allow him to
attempt a manoeuvre that could result in a stall or cause the aircraft to
enter a spin.
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BASIC FLIGHT
17.2 Control Surfaces
The F-16 has three fundamental control surfaces: flaperons, tailplane

and rudder. These last two are referred to as stabilators.
Flaperons
The trailing edges of the wing have a set of inboard 'flaperons'. These
perform the dual role of flaps and ailerons. Moving the side stick left
or right will power these surfaces differentially, one moving up while
the other moves down. This will cause the aircraft to roll in the
chosen direction. They also operate automatically during landing and
takeoff to alter the shape of the wing and so generate increased lift at
lower speeds.
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BASIC FLIGHT
Flaperons control roll
Tailplane
The F-16's tailplane is 'all-flying' meaning that the complete control
surface moves either up or down. Pushing forward on the side-stick
moves both tailplane surfaces down together, which causes the
aircraft's nose to pitch downward. Pulling back on the side-stick
moves the tailplane up, bringing the nose back up and pitching the
plane upwards.
Tailplane controls pitch
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BASIC FLIGHT
Rudder
The rudder is co-ordinated by the F-16's computers in relation to the
other control surfaces. It is mainly used during takeoff and landing to
keep the aircraft straight. it is seldom used in flight because the
aircraft is kept in trim by the fly by wire system. This movement is
called ‘yaw’ and is described in the previous chapter.
Rudder controls yaw
17.3 Takeoff
Although you will already be airborne when you commence some of
your missions, in many you will start on the runway, so it is important
to practise your takeoff technique. Follow the training missions and
you should become familiar with the procedure.
First release the wheel brakes by pressing the W key. The W displayed
on the HUD in aircraft status flags will disappear. Increase your
throttle to maximum thrust by pressing SHIFT + 0. Check that your
afterburner is on full. The Z and X keys increase and decrease the
afterburner through its four stages and the HUD displays its current
setting. The F-16 will begin accelerating down the runway. Check the
airspeed indicator on the left of the HUD. When it reaches
approximately 100 knots you can begin to pull back on the stick. The
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BASIC FLIGHT
aircraft will now begin to pitch upwards as it continues to accelerate.

Do not pull back on the stick too much until you are airborne.
Carrying a typical combat payload the F-16 should become airborne at
about 140 knots. Constantly check the altitude readout on the right
hand side of the HUD. As soon as you become airborne and begin to
climb press the G key to retract the landing gear. You should do this
quickly for three reasons. Firstly the plane is much easier to handle
when the gear is up. Secondly if the gear remains down it will be
damaged extensively as your airspeed increases further and thirdly
your aircraft will accelerate a great deal quicker after it has been
‘cleaned up’. Continue to climb, changing your altimeter from
barometric (sea level reading) to radar (current terrain reading) and
level out at around 8000 ft. Reduce throttle to approximately 70%.
17.4 Manoeuvring
Try some easy turns to get a feel of the F-16's handling. Once you've
done this you can attempt some tighter turns and 360-degree rolls
moving on to steep climbing and diving manoeuvres. The F-16's fly by
wire system monitors the speed of the aircraft in relation to its aerial
aspect. At low speeds it automatically limits the angle of attack to 25
degrees so as to avoid the risk of stalling. Equally at high speeds the
control surfaces will not respond to commands that will place
excessive stress on either the F-16's airframe or its pilot. You will
notice immediately the effects of G-force. The fly by wire system will
allow you to put the aircraft through manoeuvres that will pull up to
9 G's but this amount will rapidly result in 'black out' and an
eventual loss of consciousness if sustained. This can be disastrous
especially at low altitude or in crowded airspace. The opposite of
blackout, 'redout' is experienced if the pilot pushes the side stick
forward, and therefore pitches the plane downward, aggressively. This
is negative G-force and can be more detrimental, especially to the
pilot. The F-16's FBW system will allow the aircraft to sustain up
to -3G but again if this level is continuous the pilot will quickly pass
out as the blood in his body rushes to his brain and pools there. All
fighter pilots wear G-suits which provide a much greater tolerance to
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BASIC FLIGHT
G. Due to the F-16’s ability to reach high ‘g’s very quickly, pilots have
their G-suits pressurised when they plug into the system at the start
of the flight. Also the F-16’s ejection seat is reclined at 35 degrees to
the vertical to provide even greater g-tolerance. It must be noted that
the F-16 is able to apply ‘g’ so quickly that preliminary indications are
short-circuited and loss of consciousness can occur instantaneously.
Pilots are aware of this although the USAF have lost a number of
pilots in these circumstances.
When executing a sustained turn you will experience a loss of speed.

This is because the FBW system alters the wing incidence to maintain
a constant altitude. This however increases aerodynamic drag and
slows the aircraft. Therefore, during long turns remember to increase
the throttle if you are not looking to bleed off speed. It is generally
accepted that carrying a typical combat payload the F-16's corner
velocity is approximately 500 knots. The corner velocity is the opti-
mum speed for turn rate and turn radius in comparison to the G lev-
els that are generated. Therefore it is the ideal benchmark speed for
tight manoeuvres. Although this speed provides maximised manoeu-
vring conditions it is still considered high by some for entering dog-
fight situations. You must decide what speed is appropriate in any
given scenario. However in combat speed is lift and if you loose speed
below 350 knots you would normally disengage, achieve zero ‘g’ on
your ‘g’ meter to ‘unload’ the aircraft and apply full power. When you
‘unload’ the aircraft thrust is then used exclusively to accelerate thus
providing lift.
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BASIC FLIGHT
17.5 Navigation: F-16: Aggressor Waypoint System

D1
D0
D3
Home
D2
Target D4
Area Destination
Waypoint Navigation
The NAV mode of the HUD provides the pilot with the essential
information required for accurate navigation. It is only in this mode
that you can cycle through the waypoints that inform your route. To
cycle though the waypoints press the TAB key. When you reach the
first waypoint, you must switch to NAV mode and then select the next
waypoint in the list. If the HUD is already in NAV mode, the flight
computer will automatically select the next waypoint in the list. If it is
not, then you will have to switch to NAV mode and select the next
waypoint manually using the TAB key. Otherwise the navigational
computer will not direct you to the second waypoint. A navigation
mode is also available in the MFD. This displays exact data readouts
on the chosen waypoint such as distance, ETA, compass heading etc.
Once you have selected another waypoint the heading indicator will
direct you towards it. Even should you subsequently choose a different
mode for the HUD to display, the heading indicator will still lead you
to the last selected waypoint.
The F-16: Aggressor waypoint system supports up to ten pre-set

waypoints. They are labelled D0, D1, D2, …, D9 (D signifying
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BASIC FLIGHT
destination). The system requires at least 2 waypoints to be set. The

waypoints are designed to be used sequentially. In other words you
start at the first waypoint and then follow them in order, until the final
waypoint is reached.
Should you find that you have flown significantly off course, it is not
always necessary to backtrack to the last waypoint. As long as there are
no specific mission objectives associated with the waypoint you have
missed you can head for the nearest forward waypoint. You may find
however that both aerial and ground threats are greatly increased
outside the waypoint zones. This is because the waypoints have been
specifically chosen to lead the pilot through the path of least resistance
to the target area. Advised by local intelligence reports the mission
waypoints will direct you away from threat-rich environments. If you
follow the waypoints, ground and aerial threats should be reduced.
Some of the missions you will undertake in F-16: Aggressor will

include the scrambled defence of your own base from possible enemy
advance. In these cases the first and last waypoint will overlay each
other. They will still be present in the mission but not apparent on
the map.
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BASIC FLIGHT
17.6 Landing
The Instrument Landing System, or ILS, will be your primary
guidance system when landing the F-16.
The ILS system on the F-16 responds to ILS beacons. These beacons
are common to most runways but operate on variable frequencies so
the F-16 will only be able to pick up 'friendly' ILS guidance.
Glideslope and Localiser Beam
The ILS, positioned near or on the runway, emits two beams to guide
you. One is horizontally oriented and is called the localiser. The other
is vertically oriented and this is called the glideslope. The localiser
helps you to line up with the runway centreline and the glideslope
projects the correct rate of descent. Together they form a guidance
cone that can be picked up at around 12Nm from the runway. The tip
of the cone is at the touchdown point on the runway. The ILS
deviation bars and vertical velocity scale, present on the HUD in
landing mode, respond to the ILS beacon on any friendly base.
A good approach is one of the most important elements of a success-

ful landing. The waypoint system in F-16: Aggressor will lead you to a
point twelve miles from the runway perpendicular to the ILS beacon.
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BASIC FLIGHT
The result is that as soon as you've reached the penultimate waypoint

and turned to orient on the final waypoint you will be directly in the
ILS cone. If you have deviated from the flight plan make sure you
rejoin it at the penultimate waypoint.
ILS Cone
Aim to enter your approach run at around 250 knots. Seven miles
from the beacon your altitude should be approximately 2,000ft, which
is the appropriate altitude for the ILS glideslope at this distance from
the runway. Reduce throttle so that your speed is between 120-160
knots. Use the airbrake if necessary but don't slow too much or you
risk stalling the aircraft. Lower the Landing Gear using the G key.
At this point the landing mode of the HUD will be automatically
activated. At the bottom of the HUD two ILS deviation bars can be
seen. These will have been active from the point that you entered the
ILS cone. If the bars are dashed then the ILS is not responding. This
means that you are either off course and must manoeuvre back into
the ILS cone or that your ILS system has been damaged. You can
check if the ILS symbol on the MFD Damage mode is illuminated. If
this is the case you will have the challenge of landing the F-16 with
only visual guidance (your eyes!). Hopefully it will be a bright, clear,
sunny day.
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BASIC FLIGHT
Assuming that the ILS system is working and you are on the correct
heading, towards the ILS beacon, the bars will have changed from
dashed to solid lines. If you are to the left of the runway centre line
then the localiser deviation bar (vertical line) will be displaced to the
right, and vice versa. If you find yourself in this situation, i.e. to the
left of the centreline, you will have to turn slightly to the right bringing
the ILS bar back to a central position. The ultimate aim is to keep this
bar in the centre.
When the aircraft is flying above the 'glideslope line' the glideslope
deviation bar will be displaced downwards, and if you are below the
Left of Localiser Centreline
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BASIC FLIGHT
opposite is true. Once more the aim is to keep the bar centralised.
When you are following the correct 'invisible wire' to touchdown the
deviation bars will form a cross.
As you approach the runway your speed should be about 150 knots,
with an AoA of 10 -15 degrees. The F-16 has two main Angle of Attack
displays. The AoA meter on the HUD which displays the AoA in
degree increments and the AoA indexer. This is a cockpit instrument
positioned to the left of the HUD and used as a visual reference guide.
There is also a symbol on the HUD relating to the aircraft's AoA as
well as an angle of attack 'tape display'. This last AoA display is only
accessible using the central instrument cockpit view (Number pad 5).
Right of Localiser Centreline
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BASIC FLIGHT
The optimum angle of attack is 13 degrees. When this is achieved the

central, affirmative symbol of the AoA indexer is illuminated. If you
Glideslope Deviation Bar: Below Glideslope
Glideslope Deviation Bar: Above Glideslope
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BASIC FLIGHT
Angle of Attack
are approaching the runaway too fast the AoA will be reduced and the
up arrow will be illuminated. If your approach flight is to slow your
AoA will be increased and the down arrow will illuminate. You should
aim to be descending at a rate of 500ft/min.You can gauge your exact
descent rate using the vertical velocity scale on the HUD in LND
mode. It is adjacent to the altitude tape and labelled with either B or R
depending on the altitude gauge setting (barometric/radar). Adjust
the rate of descent using the throttle and adjust your speed by raising
or lowering the nose of the plane. In the final few seconds before
touchdown it is more important to focus on the runway, conditions
allowing. Trust your eyes over the instruments because the information
they provide is rarely contradictory. As you descend through the last
50ft raise the nose of the aircraft a little. On touchdown immediately
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BASIC FLIGHT
throttle down, activate the wheel brakes and use the rudder
to steer.
One other option available is to utilise the automatic landing feature.

Incorporated into all modern F-16's, this allows the flight computer to
respond to the ILS data being received, guiding the aircraft to touch-
down. This system is initiated by pressing the L key when you are
within ten nautical miles of a friendly airbase.
All of the information relevant to flight, navigation and landing can

also be accessed via the ‘heads down’ instruments. Airspeed, altitude,
angle of attack etc. all have relative cockpit gauges. The most
important instrument concerned with waypoint navigation is the
Horizontal Situation Indicator, while ILS information is also available
on the Attitude Direction Indicator when landing.
(See Chapter 16, Cockpit Systems.)
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18. FLIGHT PHYSICS

by Tom Low
18.1 The Atmosphere

The characteristics of the Earth's atmosphere have a strong influence
on all aircrafts’ flight characteristics. As an aircraft climbs away from
the ground, the air that it must rely on for lift, and the air that its
engines need to burn fuel, changes in many ways. As we climb in altitude
from sea level to around 36,000 feet, the air typically cools and
becomes less dense and the speed of sound drops, as the pressure of
the atmosphere decreases. Above 36,000, the air temperature (and
thus the speed of sound) remains constant, as pressure and density
continue to drop. Aerodynamicists use tables which define the
"Standard Atmosphere" based on some average values for calculating
aircraft performance at different altitudes. The real atmosphere varies
from hour to hour as weather systems move about and the earth's sur-
face heats during the day. The mathematical model of the atmosphere
used in "F-16: Aggressor" updates values for all atmospheric parameters
with each new calculation of aircraft altitude, assuring accurate and
natural variations in the aerodynamic behaviour and performance.
18.2 The Motions of the Aircraft

The orientation (attitude) and rotations of the aircraft by convention
are expressed in terms of rotations about three orthogonal (perpen-
dicular) axis, and are termed pitch, roll, and yaw . A fourth parameter
and one of the most important concepts in aerodynamics is termed
Angle of Attack or AoA, and relates the attitude of the aircraft to its
direction of flight.
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FLIGHT PHYSICS
Angle of Attack
This is defined as the angle between the direction of the planes flight,
and an imaginary line through the middle of the aerodynamic surface,
such as a wing airfoil. You can also think of this as the angle at which
the air strikes and passes over the surface.
Roll
Motion about the roll axis is characterised by the dropping of one
wing, and the lifting of the other from the perspective of the pilot. In
the F-16, roll motion is commanded by the pilot through lateral or
sideways pressure on the sidestick. This pressure is sensed by
electrical sensors in the stick, which tell the control computer to rotate
the flaperons on the wing trailing edge and the stabilator at the tail
of the plane in opposite directions - one up and one down. This causes
an imbalance of forces between the port and starboard wings, resulting
in a rolling motion. The amount of movement is determined by the
control computer based on a number of factors, including airspeed,
altitude, stores configuration (bomb load) and landing gear
configuration. Only about half of the normal roll rate is available with
the gear down, or with a heavy (CAT III) bomb load. In essence, you
command a roll rate with lateral stick.
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FLIGHT PHYSICS
Pitch
Motion about the pitch axis is characterised by an up and down

movement of the aircraft's nose. Pitch motion is commanded by fore
and aft pressure on the sidestick. Again, these pressures are sensed
and interpreted by the Flight Control System (FLCS) computer based
on a variety of factors, including landing gear position and angle of
attack. The computer figures out how much the stabilator must angle
up or down in order to comply with your wishes. Once the stabilator
moves, the plane begins a pitch motion.. This is because the F-16 was
designed with "Relaxed Static Stability". Unlike conventional designs,
where the tail produces a downward force in flight, the F-16 uses a
lifting tail. This allows the weight of the plane to be shared between
the two surfaces, rather than making the wing lift both the weight of
the plane, and the extra force from the tail. This design allows the
plane to have less drag, and allows tighter turns to be flown, but it
comes at a cost. Without the computer continuously monitoring and
correcting the planes behaviour, it would quickly nose up or down,
faster than a pilot could control it. This explains the almost constant
movement of the F-16's tail plane in flight, even without pilot input.
To accurately model the F-16's flight characteristics, a simulation pro-
gram must model not only the planes aerodynamics, but also the char-
acteristics of the flight control systems stabilisation. As far as we
know F-16 Aggressor is the first PC based simulator to correctly pro-
vide this level of modelling sophistication based on actual F-16 FLSC
block diagrams and schedules.
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Yaw
Yaw is characterised by motion of the planes nose to the right and left.
Yaw motions are commanded by foot pressure on one rudder pedal
over the other. This too is processed through the Flight Control
System computer and will typically cause the rudder to move. The
aerodynamic forces on the rudder then cause the plane’s nose to
swing to the left or right. At very slow speeds, use of the rudder could
cause the F-16 to loose control and enter a spin. For this reason, the
flight control system begins reducing the pilot’s ability to move the
rudder as the aircraft's angle of attack increases. At the slowest
speeds, the rudder will have no effect, in fact if the plane does begin
an uncommanded yaw, the computer will automatically deflect the
rudder to prevent this dangerous loss of control. In the real F-16 and
in this simulation, yaw and roll commands actually cause all of the
controls to move in a coordinated fashion to cause the plane to
respond in a manner desirable to the pilot. Unlike planes without a
computer between the pilot and the aerodynamic control surfaces,
when the F-16 rolls, it does so about its flight velocity vector - that is,
around its direction of travel. This is important to the pilot because he
can more easily manoeuvre the plane towards a target because rolling
corrections do not cause unwanted deviations in flight path. Because
of its FLCS, the F-16 was one of the first planes which could be made
to behave in any way the designers wished.
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18.3 The Forces Acting on the Aircraft

All of the forces which act on an aircraft in flight can be expressed in
term of aerodynamic forces, propulsive forces, and gravitational
forces.
Aerodynamic forces are the result of air flow patterns around the
aircraft shape, and are typically separated into lift forces, acting
perpendicular to the direction of flight, and drag forces, acting
opposite the direction of flight. The magnitude of the forces depend
on many factors, and their accurate calculation is imperative to realis-
tic simulated flight.
Lift
Lift is created as air flows over the wing surfaces. The wing’s shape is
designed so as to produce lower pressure on the top surface than on
the bottom, which in effect sucks the plane into the air. How much lift
is generated depends on many factors, including the speed, atmos-
pheric density, wing curvature, and wing area, but holding other
things constant, the greater the angle of attack, the greater the wings
lift. By lowering movable surfaces called flaperons which form the
trailing (back) edge of the wing, the pilot can increase the wings lift-
ing capability. This is useful to allow the F-16 to fly slowly for
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FLIGHT PHYSICS
landings. These trailing edge flaps (TEF's) automatically lower when

you put the undercarriage down for landing. At high speeds, the flight
control computer prevents the flaps from lowering. When landing and
taking off, some extra lift is produced from an alteration of the air flow
patterns around the plane because of the ground’s influence.
Sideways lift can be produced off the fuselage and tail at high angles
of sideslip, and can allow the plane to fly for a limited time on its side
or at knife edge.
Drag
Drag is the part of the aerodynamic force which acts to slow the plane.
Like the lift, the drag too is effected by the speed, air density, and
surface area. The drag goes up very rapidly with speed, among the
three contributing components of total drag, the balance depends on
the speed regime:
Parasite drag is dependent mostly on the cross sectional and surface

area of the plane. Lowering the landing gear, flaps, airbrakes, or
causing the plane to slip sideways so that the side of the fuselage
strikes the air flow can all increase the drag. Adding bombs and
external fuel tanks also adds parasite drag. You might want to add
drag to descend steeply without picking up speed for landing, or to
loose speed so as to avoid overshooting (flying past) an opponent in an
ACM engagement. Parasite drag is the dominant contributor to total
drag during high speed subsonic cruise.
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FLIGHT PHYSICS
Induced drag is created as a by-product of lift. Induced drag is the

biggest factor when flying slowly for landing and when attempting to
turn hard in a dogfight. The large increase in drag makes it difficult to
maintain energy. Lowering the flaps for landing also increases
induced drag, as it increases the lifting coefficient of the wings.
Induced drag is also reduced slightly when in close proximity of
the ground.
Wave drag begins becoming a significant contributor to total drag

around Mach .85, and rises rapidly as you exceed Mach 1. It is caused
by the interaction between shock waves and the aircraft as air speeds
reach sonic velocity around the plane, even before the plane is
travelling at Mach 1. Once above Mach 1, the drag coefficient remains
more or less constant. Wave drag is the dominant contributor to total
drag at high subsonic and supersonic speeds. It is responsible for the
very high thrust and fuel burn rate required to fly above Mach 1
Thrust
Propulsive forces are generated by the aircraft's engine, and typically

act so as to push the plane directly forward. Depending on the plane’s
attitude, these forces can offset gravity, or can accelerate the plane to
speeds above Mach 1. The magnitude of the force depends on the
speed of the plane, its altitude, and the power setting. Afterburners
are used to greatly boost the propulsive force, but are useful only for
short duration, as it consumes a tremendous amount of fuel.
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FLIGHT PHYSICS
Weight
Gravitational force always acts toward the earth's centre, and

is proportional to the aircraft's weight. The weight of the plane
depends on the amount of fuel and weapons you are carrying. Weight is
recalculated every frame of the simulation.
18.4 The Moments Acting on the Aircraft

The forces on the aircraft define its path through the air, but it is the
moments or rotational forces that determine the plane’s attitude.
These moments are of three types: aerodynamic moments, inertial
moments and fuels and stores moments.
Aerodynamic moments are generated by aerodynamic forces acting

on the tail, wings, and fuselage of the aircraft in flight, which in turn
are influenced by the commanded position of the flight controls,
speed and atmospheric characteristics, rotational rates of the airframe,
and aerodynamic interactions between surfaces that influence the
local angle of attack at each surface. The wing has a natural pitching
tendency which is altered by angle of attack and flap deployment. The
fuselage of modern jets tend to be long and slender and to extend well
in front of the wings, The fuselage has an aerodynamic tendency to
fly backwards.
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FLIGHT PHYSICS
The tail provides stability through a fully active pitch stability aug-
mentation system. The moment produced by the tail is based on the
calculated control position, the body rates of the plane, and to a large
degree is influenced by the angle of downwash from the wing, which
is dependent on the amount of lift the wing is generating. The
rudder and fin provide yaw stability, but their influence is reduced as
angle of attack increases.
The rolling and yawing moment contributions of the wings come

from a variety of influences, but are dominated by the control positions,
and the relative velocities of the surfaces in manoeuvring flight.
Inertial moments: airplanes are not bowling balls, and so their distri-
bution of mass around their centre of gravity is not uniform. This
leads to some interesting cross coupling effects which cause motion
and accelerations around one axis to induce motions around another
axis. These cross couplings can have a large influence on the planes
behaviour in spins, or in other high angular rate manoeuvre. F-16
Aggressor naturally considers these forces in its calculations.
Fuel and stores moments are considered, influenced by the g-loading

and the amount of fuel and weapons loadout.
18.5 Stall
Stall is caused by excessive angle of attack, and occurs when the
smooth airflow over the wings cannot be maintained. Luckily, the F-
16 has many features to delay stall to very high angles, and then pre-
vents you from ever reaching these angles. Therefore, it is nearly
impossible for the F-16 to stall. As the AoA is increased above 8
degrees the flight control computer begins deploying the leading edge
flaps to keep the air flowing smoothly over the wings. By 20 degrees,
the air can no longer smoothly follow the shape of the wing, but pow-
erful vortices, like mini-tornadoes, have formed off each leading edge
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FLIGHT PHYSICS
strake (the long swept extensions to the wing which project forward to
the side of the cockpit). The vortices will help the inboard portions of
the wing to continue to produce lift, even at extremely high angles of
attack. Conventional wings would have stopped producing lift at
around 16 degrees AoA. If you continue to pull on the stick, so as to
force the AoA above 25 degrees, the flight control computer will take
over, and prevent you from flying the aircraft out of control. By this
point the rudder of the F-16 will be in fairly turbulent airflow and the
leading edge flaps will be fully deployed at 24 degrees. To go to
steeper angles would be courting complete loss of control. Remember
that even a sophisticated flight control computer can't control the
plane if there isn't enough air flowing over the control surfaces to
generate control moments. The F-16, under certain conditions can
enter a deep stall, where the pilot has managed to trick the flight
control computer, and the plane is "stuck" in a stall beyond the angle
of attack that the flight control system can handle. This may occur if
you try going straight up too far, and run out of speed before levelling
off. In any case, there are only two ways out of this mess. If you have
the right stuff and some altitude, you can try turning off the flight
control system to regain direct control of the stabilators, and try
pushing on the sidestick to lower the nose. The plane will respond
with a minor lowering of pitch attitude, but will not recover. As soon
as the minimum pitch attitude is achieved, pull all the way back on the
stick. When the nose reaches its highest point, push forward. With
some timing and good luck, you should be able you get the plane
rocking enough so that on one nose down rock, the wing will start
flying and the plane will recover. If you don't you will probably flop
onto your back, and enter an inverted deep stall. This can be recovered
in an analogous manner, but by now you've probably run out of
altitude. If in a spin or deep stall and you are at or below 10,000 feet
AGL, you must take the second way out. Eject immediately!. Do not
delay ejection below 2000ft AGL for any reason as this may well
commit you to unsafe ejection.
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19. BASIC COMBAT

In this chapter, basic combat procedure is outlined for both air-to-air
and air-to-ground combat. One of the training missions is designed to
teach you these concepts. It's wise to take the time to practise these
before starting the campaigns. You'll almost certainly stay alive longer
if you do. Basic combat procedure is a term for a number of
fundamental actions a pilot will have to perform in order to engage
specific hostile units. As you gain experience these procedures will
become automatic but meanwhile it is useful to have a step by step
approach to follow. Most of the missions you fly will include both
aerial and ground threats. You will have to decide which constitutes
the greater danger in any given situation. The ability to monitor,
alternate between and respond to different types of danger cannot be
underestimated. A novice might concentrate on neutralising an
enemy Su-27, forgetting the certain death an unobserved SAM site
guarantees. By definition the first rule of engagement is to remember
that there will be multiple threats, so cover your back. There is a basic
protocol that can be followed for air-to-air and air-to-ground combat.
The vital issue is not to forget that you are constantly vulnerable to
attack from both areas.
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BASIC COMBAT
19.1 Weapon Summary

Air-to-air: Unguided
Internal 20mm cannon
Air-to-air: Guided
AIM-7D Sparrow
AIM-7E Sparrow
AIM-7F Sparrow
AIM-7P Sparrow
AIM-9BSidewinder
AIM-9E Sidewinder
AIM-9J Sidewinder
AIM-9L Sidewinder
AIM-9M Sidewinder
AIM-120 AMRAAM
Air-to-ground: Unguided
Internal 20mm cannon
LAU-3A Hydra Rocket Pod
MK82 500lb Iron Bomb
CBU-72 Fuel Air Bomb
CBU-87 Cluster Bomb
Air-to-ground: Guided
AGM-65G Maverick
GBU-10 Paveway 2000lb Laser Guided Bomb
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BASIC COMBAT
Anti-runway
BLU-107 Durandal
Anti-Radiation
AGM-45 Shrike
AGM-88 HARM
Anti-Ship
AGM-84 Harpoon
AGM-119A Penguin
19.2 Air-to-air Combat

When you are in a combat scenario with a hostile aircraft there are two
types of weapon that can be used, the F-16's internal 20mm cannon
or air-to-air missiles if they are available. Missiles are always prefer-
able as they can be launched from a greater distance and are much
more accurate. Using missiles also provides an increased amount of
time to react to any offensive manoeuvres initiated by the enemy.
The majority of air-to-air missiles use a solid propellant rocket to

achieve the high speeds necessary to intercept their targets (between
three and four times the speed of sound). Once an air-to-air missile
has been launched it rapidly accelerates to its maximum speed. As the
fuel burns off, the missile glides in towards its target. In order to track
the target perfectly the missile makes constant minor adjustments to
its flight path, which leads to aerodynamic drag. Missiles lose speed as
a result of gravity and aerodynamic drag. As the missile speed reduces
so does the missile's ability to manoeuvre and this is vital to the strike
success rate. That is why you are advised to wait until targets are well
within range before launching
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BASIC COMBAT
The altitude of the launch aircraft will affect a missile's range. A

missile launched at high altitude won't lose its speed as rapidly as one
launched close to sea level. This is because at higher altitudes the air
is not as dense and so the drag is reduced. Vice-versa missiles
launched close to sea level will have a significantly reduced range.
The aspect of the target is also relevant to missile launch. This is the
direction the target is flying in relative to your own aircraft. If the
target is flying towards you, the missile and the target will be flying at
one another. Therefore you could launch the missile at an increased
range and the two will still meet. If you are firing on a retreating
target make sure that it is well within range. Otherwise the probability
of the missile catching the target over a long distance, even with its
superior speed, will be small. If the target is crossing your flight path
the missile will be constantly turning to track it, therefore increasing
its aerodynamic drag and losing speed and therefore range and
effectiveness continuously. In conclusion, the range and speed of any
AAM missile depends on the altitude and heading of the plane it is
fired from.
Air-to-air Missile
Upon perceiving an aerial threat:
Select JTIDS mode on the MFD if it's not already selected. (Use [ ] to
cycle through MFD display options). Alter radar range to the desired
choice using the INS/DEL keys. Select missiles mode on the HUD
(mode 5). This enables you to arm an AA missile.
If there are multiple targets cycle through them on radar using the
TAB key.
Use the I key to identify any selected target. The target description will
appear on screen and on the computer read out (Cockpit view 9).
Decide which target you wish to designate. JTIDS will automatically
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BASIC COMBAT
Target Range Circle
Missile Target
Boresight Aspect
Carat
Radar
Target Range
Designator
Box Missile
(with Missile Range
Lock) Scale
Selected
Weapon
Bank Indicator
designate a target if there is one available. The designator box will

appear on the HUD in the position that the target will appear when it
is in visual range. Decide which type of missile you wish to use if there
is an option. Use the ENTER key to alter weapon selection. Missiles
have different ranges illustrated on the HUD by the missile range
scale, so select the most appropriate one if there is a choice. This scale
also has a sliding pointer denoting the target's range. Identify the
aspect of the target by observing the target aspect carat revolving
around the missile boresight symbol. A head-on or tail-on shot is
preferable for tracking purposes. Check that you are in range, which
can be determined by using the range to target scale on the HUD. As
you close on the target the circle will unwind counter clockwise. After
it has reached the three o'clock position your target is within optimum
range. This scale is only present when using short range AAM's
where range is critical. With medium range AAM's the missile range
scale provides enough accuracy for an effective launch. Wait until the
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BASIC COMBAT
All Aspect Missile Weapons Envelope

(360 Sphere)
60
Rear Aspect Missile Weapons Envelope

(60 Cone)
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BASIC COMBAT
missile achieves lock. Missile lock is displayed on the HUD as a

diamond superimposed over the target designator box. The Bitching
Betty cockpit system will confirm missile lock. Fire when ready.
Your actions after firing depend on the type of missile you have
launched. If you can afford to purchase advanced missiles like the
AIM-120 AMRAAM 'fire and forget' missile you can turn away and
immediately begin tracking another target. If the missile is not of the
'fire and forget' variety you may have to maintain missile lock until the
missile has made impact. To do this you must keep the target in your
field of vision until missile impact. This will certainly be the case if
you have launched a missile like the AIM-7 Sparrow. See Chapter
22.1, weapons specifications.
Air-to-air Cannon
The dogfight is perhaps the most difficult and in its own way the most
sophisticated type of aerial combat to engage in. Because of range
limitations use of the cannon dictates that you will be quite close to
the enemy. This being the case it is counter-productive to be flying at
speeds in excess of 250-300 knots. Any faster and your turning rate
will be reduced thus giving the enemy an advantage. Shooting at high
speed targets, in relatively close quarters with no form of computer
guidance, would be futile. Therefore if you have to use your cannon
against an opponent select the LCOS (Lead Computed Optical Sight)
mode of the HUD (mode 6). Described in Chapter 16, F-16 Cockpit
Systems, LCOS gives an optical trail that portrays the projected bullet
flight path of the cannon rounds as well as the targets previous
flight path.
Should you find yourself in close proximity to a hostile aircraft and

have the choice of using missiles or cannon select the Dogfight or
DGFT mode of the HUD (mode 9). This will provide the option of
launching a missile under the same constraints as MSLS mode.
DGFT also supplies a constant LCOS (see above) so that if at any point
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BASIC COMBAT
a hostile aircraft is directly in your sights you can switch to cannons

without having to alter the HUD mode.
19.3 Air-to-ground Combat

Air-to-ground combat is entirely dependent on aircraft payload and
mission objectives etc. In some missions you may not be expected to
designate any ground targets though ground threats will probably
exist. In others your payload could include a range of air-to-ground
missiles and guided/unguided bombs. Air-to-ground combat is
generally pre-planned in relation to the mission that you are flying.
This will dictate to some extent which weapons are chosen. The
combat procedure for ground attack tends to reflect this. The weapons
that are used are more specific and therefore require more specific
launch conditions. We will cover the deployment procedure for each
variety of air-to-ground weapon.
Air-to-ground Missiles
To launch standard air-to-ground missiles such as any missile in the
Maverick family, you must first select Electro Optical (EO) HUD
Radar
Range
Target
Designator
Box
(Missile Lock) Missile
Range
Scale
Selected
Weapon
HUD: Air-to-ground (EO)
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BASIC COMBAT
mode (mode 4). This is the primary ground attack mode of the HUD.
You must also be monitoring possible targets using radar. Select GM
(ground map) radar mode on the multifunction display. Alter the
range using the INS/DEL keys. This will display all the available
ground targets in your radar range and scope. To cycle through avail-
able targets use the TAB key. As in air-to-air combat you can identify
the target by pressing the I key. This will provide a description of the
target on screen as well as on the computer read-out. Once you have
selected your target you may choose to switch the multifunction dis-
play to FTT or fixed target tracking. This will enable you to follow the
target even if it subsequently becomes mobile. It also reduces the
amount of information on the MFD making it easier to monitor.
Weapon range is displayed on the HUD. A target designator box will
appear as you approach the target. The missile boresight, portrayed as
cross-hairs on the HUD, will drift towards the designator box as the
missile acquires lock. When missile lock is achieved the cross-hairs
will snap onto the designator box and lock will be confirmed by the
Bitching Betty cockpit system. Once you are in range you can launch
the missile at any time.
Anti Radiation Missiles

When launching anti-radiation missiles the ARM mode of the HUD
must be selected (mode 8). Follow the same procedure used for
launching traditional air-to-ground missiles but remember that anti-
radiation missiles will only lock on to targets that are emitting radar
waves. Even if an enemy radar site is in the vicinity it must be at least
partially active for an anti-radiation missile to track it.
Air-to-ground Bombs (Unguided)

Using 'dumb' or unguided bombs requires precise accuracy by the
pilot. They are relatively cheap but quite difficult to use successfully.
Unless you are very confident or experienced it is wise to approach
potential targets at low altitude, 1000ft or lower, and reduced air
speed. This in turn makes you an easy target for nearby anti-aircraft
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BASIC COMBAT
guns or mobile missile launchers, so be wary. Choose your target

using the GM radar mode on the MFD as above. Select the
Continuously Computed Impact Point (CCIP) Pre-designate mode of
the HUD (mode 2). This mode is only used for unguided bombs. It
shows a 'bomb fall line' and computed impact point. Wait until
impact point covers the target and then release the bomb. To check if
the target has been destroyed use the camera views e.g. last weapon
fired view or present target view (F6 and F7 keys respectively).
Air-to-ground Bombs (Guided)

These bombs are much easier to use and have a greatly increased
strike rate due to their guidance systems. It is much easier to guarantee
accuracy even at increased speeds and higher altitudes. When using
guided and laser guided bombs such as the GBU-10, select
Continuously Computed Impact Point (CCIP) Post-designate HUD
mode (mode 3). Select the desired target as above, cycling through
potential targets on radar. When a target is chosen the CCIP displays
a 'bomb steering line' with a primary, designated target box, which
covers the target and a secondary box. You must fly the F-16 so that
the steering line dissects the designated target box. The secondary box
slowly climbs towards the target box. Hold down the fire button and
when the two are perfectly aligned the weapon is released automati-
cally.
Rockets and Cannon

When firing either rockets or cannon at ground targets select STRF
mode (mode 7). You can use the radar to specify a certain target but
although the HUD provides a target designator box over the chosen
target, it is only a visual guide to aid the pilot. This is because there is
no lock available with unguided weapons like rockets and cannon fire.
When the gun boresight cross on the HUD covers the target designa-
tor box open fire. Effective rocket and cannon range is estimated at
just under 1Nm.
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BASIC COMBAT
19.4 Weapon Selection and Related HUD Summary
Aerial Combat
Air-to-air missiles HUD mode: MSLS
Cannon HUD mode: LCOS
A-A missiles and cannon HUD mode: DGFT
Ground attack
Air-to-ground missiles HUD mode: EO
Anti-radiation missiles HUD mode: ARM
Unguided bombs HUD mode: CCIP (Pre)
Guided bombs HUD mode: CCIP (Post)
Rockets and Cannon HUD mode: STRF
19.5 Counter Measures

Chaff and Flares
The F-16 is equipped with an internal ALE-40 chaff and flare dis-
penser. The number of chaff and flare rounds available is displayed on
the MFD in weapons management mode. Chaff is made up of radar
reflecting strips. These are released into the air so as to confuse enemy
radar positions and radar guided missiles. Flares are decoys used
against heat seeking missiles that will follow the heat trail of the F-16's
engines. There are 25 rounds of each loaded onto the aircraft but each
round will only be effective for a short amount of time. Releasing
them is a skill in itself. If they are released too soon the incoming mis-
sile will quickly re-orient itself on your position. Releasing them too
late will unfortunately be much too late! The best tactic is to perform
an aggressive turn, dive or climb immediately after releasing the
decoy, therefore hopefully escaping the missile's field of view once it
attempts to resume its search.
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WINGMEN
20. WINGMEN
Many of the missions you will be asked to undertake for the F-16:
Aggressor Unit will be high-risk solo missions in which you will be
expected to ensure that all primary mission objectives are met.
However the situation may arise whereby one or more pilots will be
assigned to your command so as to ensure that extended mission
objectives are met. These pilots will perform the role of wingmen and
will be under your direct control. There are specific commands which,
as unit leader, you may issue to your wingman. These are listed below.
Make sure that as unit leader you plan the mission ahead and decide
which tasks you will delegate to your wingman and which you intend
to perform yourself. This may influence your payload choice.
Remember these pilots are in your unit. Do not sacrifice them
needlessly. Whenever you begin a mission in which a wingman
is available, there will be a wingman icon displayed in the briefing
screen below the mission description. This icon will be repeated
to denote the amount of pilots under your command
whenever appropriate.
A formation includes two or more planes. A Wingman flies on your

wing within a formation. A section (which can include a section leader
and a section wingman) flies on your wingman’s wing.
141
WINGMEN
20.1 Wingmen Key Controls
‘Wingman Attack My Target’ v¡

‘Section Attack My Target’ v™
‘Formation Attack my Target’ v£
‘Wingman Rejoin’ formation v¢
‘Line Abreast Right’ v∞
‘Line Abreast Left’ v§
‘Line Astern’ v¶
‘Echelon Right’ v•
‘Echelon Left’ vª
‘Close Up’ formation vº
‘Spread Out’ formation v–
142
CHAPTER HEADING
21. ADVANCED MANOEUVRES

Air combat, especially close aerial engagement or dog fighting, is a
deadly art practised in an arena of constantly changing conditions.
Pursuit manoeuvres, rolls and loops can all be employed to place you
in an enhanced position for effective engagement. It will be to your
advantage to understand and practise these techniques simply
because, in removing a threat more efficiently, you will minimise any
potential risk to yourself.
The primary aim is to manoeuvre yourself into a position from which

you can then fire at the hostile aircraft otherwise known as a 'bandit'.
In a defensive situation this is reversed and the aim is to manoeuvre
yourself out of a position in which you are vulnerable. In almost every
manoeuvre that is undertaken energy will be lost or expended.
Therefore energy is lost as a good aircraft position is gained. Energy
here refers to the speed and altitude of your aircraft. As mentioned
earlier, a good combat airspeed is 400-450 knots. If you are travelling
faster, your turn rate (the amount of time it takes to complete a turn)
will be slow because your turn radius will be large. Turn rate is vital
because it determines how quickly you can bring your sights to bear
on a bandit. Travelling much less than 400 knots will result in a
smaller turn radius but as your speed is significantly reduced your
turn rate will be slow because you cannot achieve high G's at
low speeds.
There are manoeuvres that can be executed which will enable you to
either bleed off speed or accelerate if you are above or below this rec-
ommended combat speed. A manoeuvre to slow the aircraft down is
detailed below. Lighting the afterburner temporarily and going into a
shallow dive will cause the aircraft to accelerate. Remember that
whatever manoeuvre you execute, you must constantly monitor your
airspeed and adjust it otherwise you will find yourself travelling either
much too fast or much too slowly. Either of these situations may
seriously impair your ability to react to events. It is also possible you
143
ADVANCED MANOEUVRES
could place yourself in the bandit's sights should you overshoot him
or should he manage to turn onto you.
The pilot and author, Pete Bonanni, summarised a fighter pilot’s

thought process. If you want to stay alive you must constantly;
• Observe the combat situation,

• Predict the actions and flight path of the bandit,
• Manoeuvre into a position of advantage based on your predictions,
• React to any change in the situation.
Pure Pursuit
Pure pursuit is generally more effective when you are travelling faster
than the target. It basically involves following the movements of the
target and selecting the point of attack that generates the most
favourable firing position.
Pure Pursuit
144
ADVANCED MANOEUVRES
Lead Pursuit
Lead pursuit demands that you anticipate the target's flight path and
manoeuvre in such a fashion that you place yourself in a favourable
firing position when the bandit arrives at a specific point.
Lead Pursuit
145
ADVANCED MANOEUVRES
Lag Pursuit
Lag pursuit is very effective in the F-16 as it has such a superior turn
rate in comparison to the majority of other fighter aircraft. Lag pursuit
is simply a term that describes following your opponent through a
turn but ensuring that your flight path and turn rate conspire to place
you directly behind the bandit and thus in a perfect firing position.
Lag Pursuit
146
ADVANCED MANOEUVRES
Slowing Down
It is safe to say that being in relatively close proximity, but behind your
opponent creates a perfect firing position. By slowing down you can
attempt to force your opponent into a forward position. Apply the air-
brake and snake the aircraft from side to side. This slows the aircraft's
forward velocity while simultaneously creating a longer distance for
your plane to travel. This manoeuvre can be described as a basis for a
scissors manoeuvre.
Slowing Down
147
ADVANCED MANOEUVRES
Barrel Roll
This manoeuvre is excellent when you find yourself approaching
a slow moving target at high speed and wish to remain behind it.
To initiate the barrel roll, first climb gently and then roll the aircraft to
the left or right. The plane will then roll into the loop. Once you have
performed a complete 360° roll, level your aircraft by gently pulling
the flight stick in the opposite direction.
Barrel Roll
148
ADVANCED MANOEUVRES
The Break
If your opponent has managed to achieve a favourable firing position
behind you, the fastest way to get out of this is by performing a
high-G turn directly into his flight path. Subsequently your opponent
may even end up in front of you providing you with the opportunity to
fire at him.
The Break
149
ADVANCED MANOEUVRES
The Scissors
As mentioned when discussing 'the Snake', the Scissors is a manoeu-
vre often employed when you are trying to bleed off speed and acquire
a good firing position on your opponent. It often involves a series of
near collisions as both pilots attempt to achieve a good firing position
behind each other. As the F-16, if flown skillfully, can usually out turn
its competitors, it should be victorious in such a contest.
The Scissors
150
ADVANCED MANOEUVRES
The Split S
You can use this manoeuvre to quickly reverse your direction and
rapidly accelerate. Be careful however not to execute the Split S at a
low altitude. While flying level, roll the aircraft left or right, effective-
ly flipping the F-16 upside down or inverting it. Now pull back hard
on the stick causing the aircraft to effectively dive. As you charge
towards the ground keep pulling back on the stick until you eventual-
ly level off. Remember that you will have increased your speed by
performing this manoeuvre.
The Split S
151
ADVANCED MANOEUVRES
The Vertical Loop

Use this manoeuvre when you have a bandit on your six, i.e. at your
six o'clock position, or directly behind you. Not only should it get you
out of his sights, you may well come out of the manoeuvre behind the
bandit or on his six thus being able to fire on him. Pull back hard on
the stick and continue to do this until you have completed a full loop.
Ease the stick forward as you come out of the loop and level
the aircraft.
Vertical Loop
152
ADVANCED MANOEUVRES
The Immelmann Manoeuvre

This manoeuvre increases altitude, reduces speed and allows a sharp
change in direction. From a level position, pull back on the flight stick
until you are in a vertical climb. Now roll the aircraft left or right.
At the appropriate altitude, pull back again on the stick so that you
resume level flight, although your position will now be inverted.
Finish off with a 180° roll so that you are now flying straight and level.
The direction you are now travelling in is dependent on the amount of
roll you induced while in the vertical climb.
Immelmann Manoeuvre
153
SPECIFICATIONS
22. SPECIFICATIONS
22.1 Weapons
All specifications for weapons utilised by the F-16
Aggressor Unit are as follows:
AIM-7D SPARROW The AIM-7D Sparrow is an all aspect semi-active, radar

WEIGHT 200KG RANGE 20NM guided, medium range air-to-air missile. It requires a
constant radar lock to be maintained on the target
during flight. The Sparrow missiles are effective against
all air targets, however they are quite susceptible to
countermeasures.
AIM-7E SPARROW The AIM-7E Sparrow is an improvement on the earlier

WEIGHT 205KG RANGE 20NM D variant being more manoeuvrable and having a gen-
erally superior warhead.
AIM-7F SPARROW The AIM-7F Sparrow is again an improvement on the

WEIGHT 230KG RANGE 43NM earlier D and E variants. An enhanced warhead which is
faster, more manoeuvrable and more reliable
154
SPECIFICATIONS
AIM-7P SPARROW The AIM-7P Sparrow is an all aspect semi active, radar
WEIGHT 250KG RANGE 43NM guided, medium range air-to-air missile. It requires a
constant radar lock to be maintained on the target
during flight. The AIM-7P Sparrow is a further
improvement on the F variant with better tracking.
AIM-9B The AIM-9B Sidewinder is a fire and forget, rear aspect,

SIDEWINDER infrared guided air-to-air missile. It must be fired at the
WEIGHT 70.4KG RANGE 1.5NM rear of enemy planes from a 60 degree field of view. It
is less manoeuvrable and less reliable than later models.
AIM-9E The AIM-9E Sidewinder is a fire and forget rear aspect

SIDEWINDER infrared guided air-to-air missile. It must be fired at the
WEIGHT 74.5KG RANGE 2.5NM rear of enemy planes from a 80 degree field of view.
Although an improvement over the AIM-9B, it remains
less manoeuvrable and reliable than later models.
AIM-9J The AIM-9J Sidewinder is a fire and forget rear aspect

SIDEWINDER infrared guided air-to-air missile. It can be fired any-
WEIGHT 78KG RANGE 8NM where at the rear of enemy planes. The AIM-9J is a mod-
ern missile and a great improvement over the earlier B
and E variants.
155
SPECIFICATIONS
AIM-9L SIDEWINDER The AIM-9L Sidewinder is a fire and forget all aspect
WEIGHT 85.3KG RANGE 9.5NM infrared guided air-to-air missile. The L Sidewinder can
be fired at the target from any angle. Slightly more
manoeuvrable and reliable than the J variant, its all
aspect capability is a great advantage.
AIM-9M SIDEWINDER The AIM-9M Sidewinder is a fire and forget all aspect
WEIGHT 86KG RANGE 9.5NM infrared guided air-to-air missile. The M Sidewinder
can be fired at the target from any angle. It is more
manoeuvrable and reliable than the L variant and has a
reduced smoke motor.
AIM-120 AMRAAM The AIM-120 Advanced Medium Range Air-to-air

WEIGHT 150KG RANGE 21.5NM Missile, is a fire and forget all aspect, active radar,
guided air-to-air missile. The AMRAAM is effective
against all air targets and is fitted with the latest
anti-countermeasures system making it the most lethal
air-to-air missile in our arsenal.
AGM-45 SHRIKE The AGM-45 Shrike is a fire and forget radar signal
WEIGHT 177KG RANGE 15NM seeking air-to-ground missile. The Shrike is effective
against ground radar stations and vehicles but can be
easily countered if the target turns off their radar signal.
156
SPECIFICATIONS
AGM-88 HARM (D) The AGM-88 High speed Anti Radiation Missile is a fire
WEIGHT 362KG RANGE 26NM and forget radar signal seeking air-to-ground missile.
The HARM is effective against ground radar stations
and vehicles and is difficult to counter as it 'remembers'
the target location even if the radar signal is turned off.
AGM-65G MAVERICK The AGM-65G Maverick is a fire and forget infrared

WEIGHT 302KG RANGE 6.5NM guided air to ground missile. The Maverick is a versatile
weapon, it is effective against all types of vehicle, small
buildings and hardened bunkers and can even be used
against ships at sea.
AGM-84 HARPOON The AGM-84 Harpoon is a fire and forget active radar
WEIGHT 555KG RANGE 43NM guided air to ship missile. The Harpoon is effective
against all types of sea vessel and its large warhead is
particularly good when used against larger classes of ship.
AGM-119A PENGUIN The AGM-119A Penguin is a fire and forget anti-ship

WEIGHT 384KG RANGE 21.5NM missile. Primary guidance is followed by terminal
infrared guidance. The Penguin is suitable against all
small and medium class ships and submarines.
157
SPECIFICATIONS
LAU-3A HYDRA The LAU-3A Hydra Rocket Pod carries 19 unguided

ROCKET POD 2.75inch rockets containing a mixture of M151 high
WEIGHT 245KG explosive and M247 anti tank warheads. Hydra Rockets
are effective against all ground targets except hardened
bunkers and are particularly useful against large
concentrations of mixed targets. Their low accuracy
makes them of little use beyond 1Nm.
MK82 500LB IRON BOMB The MK82 500lb Iron Bomb is an unguided, general
WEIGHT 241KG purpose, free fall bomb. The MK82 is effective against
all ground targets except the most hardened bunker.
With their lack of guidance, the MK82 must be delivered
with pinpoint accuracy.
MK83 1000LB IRON BOMB The MK83 1000lb iron bomb is similar in all aspects to
WEIGHT 447KG the smaller MK82.
MK84 2000LB IRON BOMB The MK84 2000lb iron bomb is similar in all aspects to
WEIGHT 894KG the smaller MK82.
158
SPECIFICATIONS
CBU-72 (FUEL/AIR The CBU-72 is a Fuel/Air Bomb is a devastating ground

BOMB) attack weapon. After the weapon is released an initial
WEIGHT 890KG detonation distributes highly explosive liquid droplets
into the surrounding air. A secondary detonation then
ignites these droplets causing a huge explosion.
CBU-87 (CLUSTER The CBU-87 Cluster Bomb Unit spreads hundreds of

BOMB) small bomblets over an area of 300ft by 600 ft. Half the
WEIGHT 431KG bomblets penetrate the ground and explode beneath the
surface, while the remainder detonate on impact with
the surface therefore causing maximum damage.
BLU-107 DURANDAL The BLU-107 Durandal is an unguided runway cratering

WEIGHT 204KG bomb. The Durandal is designed for one target only and
will cause extensive damage to any runway.
The GBU-10 Paveway 2000lb Laser Guided Bomb is a

GBU-10 2000LB variant of the MK84 2000lb Iron Bomb fitted with a
BOMB laser guidance system for increased accuracy. The
WEIGHT 944KG
Paveway is effective against all ground targets. With its
pinpoint accuracy, it is most suited for targets that
require a direct hit such as hardened bunkers.
159
SPECIFICATIONS
GBU-12 500LB BOMB The GBU-12 Paveway 500lb Laser Guided Bomb is a
WEIGHT 255KG variant of the MK82 500lb Iron Bomb fitted with a laser
guidance system for increased accuracy.
GBU-16 1000LB The GBU-16 Paveway 1000lb Laser Guided Bomb is a

BOMB variant of the MK83 1000lb Iron Bomb fitted with a
WEIGHT 474KG laser guidance system for increased accuracy.
FUEL POD (WING) The fuel pods carry any extra fuel that the F-16 requires
WEIGHT 943KG in order to increase its air time or flight range.
FUEL POD (FUSELAGE)

WEIGHT 943KG
160
SPECIFICATIONS
22.2 ENEMY WEAPONS

If you survive as a pilot with the Aggressor unit you will come to
operate in a variety of countries. In each of these countries you will
engage different forces some of which have access to the weapons we
ourselves use and some who utilise alternative weaponry systems.
Here is a comprehensive list of the alternative air-to-air and surface to
air missiles that may be used against you.
Matra R.460
Type: Surface to Air Missile
Origin: French, launched from the Shahine SAM launcher of
the same origin and used globally.
Range: 13.5 km
Speed: Mach 2 / 1,483 mph / 2,387 km/h
Ceiling: 6.1 km / 20,000ft
Ganef
Type: Surface to Air Missile
Origin: Russian, launched from the SA-4 mobile SAM unit.
Range: 72km
Speed: Mach 2.5 / 1,854 mph / 2,983 km/h
Ceiling: 24 km / 80,000 ft
AA-2 Atoll
Type: Air-to-air Missile
Origin: Russian
Range: 6.5 km
Speed: Mach 2.5 / 1,854 mph / 2,983 km/
161
SPECIFICATIONS
AA-6 Acrid
Origin: Russian
Range: 80 km
Speed: Mach 4
AA-7 Apex
Origin: Russian
Range: 40km
Speed: Mach 3
AA-8 Aphid
Origin: Russian
Range: 5.5km
Speed: Mach 3
162
SPECIFICATIONS
22.3 Aircraft
E-3 Boeing E-3 Sentry
Type: AWACS Airborne Warning and Control System

Speed: (optimum cruise) 360 mph / 580km/h
Range: 2880mls or over 8 hours endurance
Service Ceiling: Above 29,000 ft
Armament: N/A
Crew: Flight crew of four plus mission crew of 13-19 specialists
C-130 Lockheed C-130 Hercules
Type: Transport
Speed: 566 mph / 910km/h
Range: 3960-9790 km
Service Ceiling: 35,000 ft
Weights: 17,320 kg or 92 passengers
Armament: N/A
Crew: 5
163
SPECIFICATIONS
F-15E McDonell Douglas F-15 Eagle
Type: Fighter/Bomber
Speed: Mach 2.2 / 1,600 mph /2443km/h
Combat Radius: 790mls 1,270km
Range: 2,765mls 3,450 km
Armament: One 20mm M-61A1 Vulcan cannon, 4 AIM-7
Sparrow, and 4 AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles, plus
15,000 lbs. mixed ordnance carried externally.
Crew: 2
F-16 Lockheed Martin F-16C Fighting Falcon
Type: Multi-role Fighter

Speed: Mach 2.02 / 1,247 mph / 2,007 km/h
Combat Radius: 360mls /580km
Range: 3,890 km
Armament: One Vulcan 20mm six-barrel cannon with 515
rounds, plus up to 20,450 of payload carried on
nine external points
Crew: 1
164
SPECIFICATIONS
MiG-19Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-19 Farmer
Type: Multi-role fighter

Speed: Mach 1.15 / 707mph / 1130km/h
Range: 1220 km
Armament: One 37mm cannon plus four missile pylons for
AA/AG missiles
Crew: 1
MiG-21 Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 Fishbed
Type: Multi-role fighter

Speed: Mach 1.06 / 1,351mph / 2175 km/h
Range: 1100km
Service Ceiling: 49,210ft
Armament: One 23mm twin barrel gun, 1500 kg ordnance
consisting of AA/AG missiles or bombs carried
on four pylons.
Crew: 1
165
SPECIFICATIONS
MiG-25 Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25 Foxbat
Type: Stand-off Interceptor

Speed: Mach 2.83 / 1,5846mph / 3000km/h
Range: 1730km
Armament: Four missile pylons for AAM's or AGM's
Crew: 1
MiG-29 Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-29 Fulcrum
Type: Interceptor
Speed: Mach 2. 3 / 1,518 mph / 2445km/h
Range: 2900 km
Armament: One 30mm cannon and six pylons
Crew: 1
166
SPECIFICATIONS
SU-27Sukhoi Su-27 Flanker
Type: Long Range Air Superiority Fighter

Speed: Mach 2.35 / 1,550mph / 2500km/h
Range: 2485 km
Service Ceiling: 60000 ft
Armament: 1 30mm cannon plus 10 hard points for R-27A
and R-73 AA Missiles.
Crew: 1
Learjet 31A
Type: Small Jet Aircraft

Speed: Mach 0.7 / 522 mph / 839 km/h
Range: 4,841 km
Ceiling: 51,000 ft
Passengers: 10
167
SPECIFICATIONS
Boeing 747
Type: Civilian Jet Aircraft

Cruise Speed: Mach 0.85 552mph/910km/h
Range: 13,590km
Ceiling: 34,700 ft
Passengers: 416
Crew: 2/3
22.4 Helicopters
Bell Cobra AH-1
Type: Anti-armour attack helicopter.

Armament: Multi-barrelled 20mm cannon, 8 Outboard
TOW missiles, multiple inboard rocket options
Range: 507km
Crew: 2
168
SPECIFICATIONS
Boeing Chinook CH-47D
Type: Transport helicopter

Armament: 30mm cannon, 16 Hellfire missiles/76 2.75inch rockets
Range: 185km
Crew: 3
22.5 Land Vehicles
MRLS
Multiple Rocket System

Armament: 227mm Rockets
Range: 40km
Crew: 3
169
SPECIFICATIONS
SA4
Mobile SAM Launcher

Range: 72km
Speed: 2.5 Mach
Crew: 3
SCUD
MAZ-543 Scud-B Launcher

Range: 500km
Crew: 3
170
SPECIFICATIONS
SHAQ
Shahine SAM Radar Site

Radar Range: 18km
Crew: 2
SHFR
Shahine SAM Launcher

Range: 13.500km
Speed: Above Mach 2
Crew: 2
T-63
Main Battle Tank

Armament: 115mm gun
Speed: 50km/h
Crew: 4
171
SPECIFICATIONS
T-72
Main Battle Tank

Armament: 125mm gun
Speed: 60km/h
Crew: 3
T-80
Main Battle Tank

Armament: 125mm gun
Speed: 70km/h
Crew: 3
172
SPECIFICATIONS
ZSU
23
Anti-Aircraft Gun
Armament: 23mm Cannon
Range: 5km
Crew: 2
HUMVEE
Military Jeep
JEEP
Military Jeep
173
SPECIFICATIONS
22.6 Ships
Missile Cruiser
Gas Container Transport Ship
Container Transport Ship
Iowa Battleship
Destroyer
Transport Hovercraft
174
SPECIFICATIONS
Fast Attack/Patrol Boat
Oil Tanker
Submarine
Supply Ship
Trawler
175
THE HISTORY & DEVELOPMENT OF THE F-16
23. THE HISTORY & DEVELOPMENT OF THE F-16

by Bill Sweetman
Lockheed Martin F-16

The Lockheed Martin F-16 is a classic in its own time. The best-selling
fighter of the modern era, with more than 4,000 aircraft built or on
order for 20 air forces, the F-16 is still being developed and improved
a quarter-century after its first flight.
The F-16’s origins date to 1965, when the US Air Force and US Navy
launched a campaign of air strikes over North Vietnam. In battles with
the North Vietnamese Air Force, the US pilots found that their big
F-4s and F-105s were not decisively superior to the NVAF’s small
MiG-21s and obsolescent MiG-17s. The USAF responded by re-
emphasising air combat in its requirement for a new fighter, desig-
nated F-X, demanding improved cockpit visibility and far better
manoeuvrability.
In July 1967, however, the Soviet Union unveiled a new range of

heavier fighters, including the Mach 3 MiG-25. The USAF changed its
plans for the new F-X fighter, demanding a big radar and a heavy mis-
sile armament as well as agility.
A small group of USAF officers, Pentagon analysts and industry

engineers, the so-called “fighter Mafia”, disagreed with the official
emphasis, arguing that a smaller and simpler fighters was needed.
Key members of the mafia, in its early days, included John Boyd, a
USAF fighter pilot who had developed a set of metrics that quantified
fighter manoeuvrability and Pierre Sprey, a civilian analyst with a
strong background of research into fighter costs and effectiveness.
From General Dynamics’ Fort Worth division, they were joined by an
outspoken and talented designer named Harry Hillaker.
176
In parallel with GD’s F-X efforts, Hillaker designed a smaller aircraft

called FX-404. Half the size of F-X, it had a single engine, and was
armed with infra-red homing AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles rather than
radar-homing Sparrows. After GD was eliminated from the F-X
contest in early 1969 (McDonnell Douglas won the contract at the end
of the year, with the F-15) Hillaker was put in charge of a new
lightweight fighter team. Boyd and Sprey continued to lobby for a light
fighter at the Pentagon, with the support of Col. Everest Riccioni, who
had been assigned the job of assessing new technology for the USAF.
The timing was fortunate. Under the leadership of Deputy Defence

Secretary David Packard, the Pentagon had rediscovered the value of
prototypes in avoiding unexpected problems in major projects.
Directed to select some promising technologies to be explored in, the
USAF decided, in August 1971, to test prototypes of two Lightweight
Fighter (LWF) designs. In April 1972, GD and Northrop were
awarded contracts to build two aircraft each.
The first GD YF-16 made an unscheduled first flight on January 20,

1974, when the prototype started to roll side to side during a
high-speed taxi test, and pilot Phil Oestricher decided that the aircraft
would be safer in the air. The official first flight followed on February
2, and the remaining test program went smoothly – including mock
combats in which the YF-16 beat all challengers.
The USAF had not planned to buy any LWFs, but started to question
that decision in 1972 as it became clear that post-Vietnam budgets
would not support an all-F-15 fighter force. At the same time, four
European nations – the Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark and Norway
– started discussing a joint program to replace their F-104s.
US Defence Secretary James Schlesinger and his staff saw an

opportunity to acquire a lower-cost fighter for the USAF, scoop a large
export market and improve “interoperability” among NATO air forces.
177
In April 1974, the USAF was persuaded to commit to 650 Air Combat
Fighters, based on either the YF-16 or its rival, the Northrop YF-17.
The winner, to be chosen in January 1975, would have enormous
momentum in the four-nation NATO contest.
The USAF chose the YF-16 on January 13, 1975. The GD fighter beat
the YF-17 in transonic acceleration and high-speed agility, cost less
and used the same engine as the in-production F-15. In June, the four
NATO nations announced an order for 348 F-16s. The F-16, which
had been a paper design 36 months earlier, had become a 1,000-air-
craft program.
The F-16 was full of radical features. It was a small fighter, designed
around an armament of two AIM-9 missiles and an M61 cannon, and
was shrink-wrapped around Pratt & Whitney’s powerful, lightweight
F100 engine. The engine breathed through a single chin inlet. The
thin-section wings had flaps that drooped automatically to improve
turning performance. The body was flared out to meet the wings,
providing extra lift at high angles of attack, adding fuel volume and
reducing weight.
The F-16 was the first fighter to be designed so that it was unstable in
pitch throughout most of the flight envelope. This made the aircraft
more agile, but required a then-unfamiliar “fly-by-wire” control
system. The pilot’s control stick was connected to the control actuators
by electrical wires, not rods and cranks, and the entire system was
controlled by four independent computer channels. The cockpit itself
was unusual – the usual central control stick was replaced by a short
side-stick on the pilot’s right, and the seat was reclined by 30 degrees
to improve the pilot’s g-tolerance.
Despite its advanced design, the YF-16 needed few changes to produce
the initial production version, the F-16A/B (the B being the two-seat
model). The nose was longer and deeper: the LWF concept envisaged
178
a simple search and ranging radar, but the operational fighter would
need a multi-mode radar (the new Westinghouse APG-66) with a
larger antenna. The wing was slightly enlarged (from 280 ft2 to 300
ft2) and internal fuel capacity was increased. Empty weight was some
600 lb (240 kg) more than that of the YF-16.
Since that time, there have been few substantial aerodynamic changes
to the design. The first major production version, the Block 15,
introduced larger horizontal tails, about 30% greater in area than
those of the original design. Otherwise, it is only details such as
antennas that distinguish a “clean” 1997 F-16 from the original F-16A.
The F-16 quickly proved that it was far more nimble than any other
modern fighter, with outstanding acceleration and turning
performance. The F-16’s fly-by-wire control system makes it easy to fly
aggressively, provided that the limits are respected and that the pilot
exploits its strong points. Generally, the F-16 is strongest at higher
speeds: at lower speeds, the Boeing F/A-18 is superior, because its
twin vertical tails improve its stability at high alpha, but there are few
aircraft that can match an F-16’s acceleration. The aerodynamic
configuration has proven very tolerant of increases in thrust and
weight, and of large and awkward loads: F-16s routinely fly at more
than twice the fighter-mission takeoff weight of the F/A-18.
The F-16’s development has proceeded through a series of “blocks”.

A block number change indicates that a new production configuration
has been established. This usually comprises a number of engineering
changes; by grouping them together, the USAF and the
manufacturer can introduce improvements and rectify problems
promptly, but maintain consistency on the production line.
F-16A/Bs in the first three blocks (94 Block 1, 197 Block 5, and 312
Block 10) were delivered to the USAF and the four original NATO
customers between mid-1978 and the end of 1980. Most of the Block
179
1 and Block 5 aircraft were upgraded to Block 10 standard by 1982.

Many of them also received the larger tails of the Block 15, introduced
in 1981.
The F-16A/B has remained in production alongside later versions of

the aircraft. The last of 983 Block 15s was delivered to Thailand in
1996 - making this the most widely produced F-16 variant. The latest
F-16A/B is the Block 20, still being produced for Taiwan.
Between 1989 and 1992, 270 USAF F-16As were modified as inter-
ceptors for Air National Guard units. The F-16 Air Defence Fighter
(ADF) can carry the AIM-7 Sparrow or AIM-120 AMRAAM missiles,
and has a specially modified APG-66 radar.
Apart from the launch customers – the US and the European air
forces – the F-16A/B was exported to a diverse group of operators. The
Israel Defence Force – Air Force (IDF-AF) took delivery of 75 Block 10
aircraft that were originally destined for Iran, and Egypt received 42
aircraft in the early 1980s. When MiG-23s were delivered to Cuba,
Venezuela was allowed to acquire 24 Block 15s – which remain the
only F-16s exported to South America.
Israel was the first nation to use the F-16 in combat. In April 1981,
Israeli F-16s shot down two Syrian helicopters over Lebanon. A more
significant mission took place on June 7, when eight IDF-AF F-16s,
escorted by F-15s, made a 1,270-mile round trip to the outskirts of
Baghdad and destroyed Iraq’s nuclear-weapons reactor at Osirak. The
mission highlighted the F-16’s excellent range and the accuracy of its
weapons-delivery system – even with unguided bombs, the fighters
hit precise aimpoints around the reactor dome. A month later, an
Israeli F-16 achieved the type’s first kill in fighter-versus-fighter com-
bat, shooting down a Syrian MiG-21.
180
One year later, in June 1982, the IDF-AF F-16s were in action once
again, attacking Syrian missile sites in Lebanon’s Beka’a Valley. As
the missile sites were destroyed, the Syrian air force committed
hundreds of MiG-21s and MiG-23s to defend them – but they were
tactically and technologically outclassed. Within three days, 92 Syrian
fighters had been shot down, 44 of them by the new F-16s.
The first major change in the design produced the F-16C/D Block 25.
The principal changes were a “glass cockpit”, the largely new
Westinghouse APG-68 radar, and space for an internal electronic
warfare (EW) system in a thickened vertical tail. The Block 25 was
ready to carry the AIM-120 Advanced Medium Range Air-to-air
Missile (AMRAAM), although the missile was still under development.
The USAF took delivery of all 244 Block 25s between June 1984 and
June 1987.
One serious problem was that the F100 engine was subject to
persistent “stagnation stalls” – the engine would stall and would be
hard to restart. In 1979, after a series of modifications failed to solve
the problem, the Air Force had given General Electric a contract to
develop an alternate engine. In 1984, the USAF ordered GE’s F110
into production. The F100 and F110 would compete for each year’s
USAF orders and for new export business. General Dynamics
developed a new version of the F-16, the Block 30/32, to accommodate
both engines: Block 30 aircraft have the GE F110 and Block 32 aircraft
have P&W’s improved F100-PW-220 engine. The Block 30 has a
larger inlet, informally known as the “big mouth”.
The P&W engine was lighter, but this was more than offset by the GE
engine’s greater thrust. The Block 30 was a measurably better
performer than the Block 32 - indeed, some pilots of other aircraft,
used to flying mock combat against the earlier F-16s, had a rude shock
in their first encounter with a big-mouth Block 30.
181
Including the USAF, five operators took delivery of 759 Block 30/32s
between mid-1987 and 1989. Only the USAF acquired Block 32s.
Three export customers - Israel, Turkey and Greece - ordered the
Block 30 (Turkey established a production line for the F-16) and the
US Navy took delivery of a unique Block 30 variant, the F-16N, tailored
to the Aggressor role.
The Block 30/32 was a more reliable aircraft, but lacked the ability to
handle night-vision systems and precision-guided weapons. These
problems were addressed in the next version of the F-16. “The Block
40 was such an improvement over the Block 30, it’s not even fair to
compare them,” comments a Lockheed Martin engineer. In many
ways, it was the first “digital” F-16.
The only visible, fixed change in the Block 40 was a new GEC-Marconi
wide-angle, holographic head-up display (HUD). At night, the HUD
could display an infra-red picture of the outside world, and this
allowed the Block 40 to carry the twin pods of the Martin-Marietta
LANTIRN navigation and targeting system. The AAQ-13 navigation
pod, carried on the left-hand chin pylon, combined a wide-field-of-
view forward-looking infrared (FLIR) sensor and a Texas Instruments
terrain-following radar (TFR). The AAQ-14 targeting pod included a
stabilised, steerable, auto-tracking narrow-field-of-view (telephoto) IR
imager and a laser rangefinder.
Other changes included a stronger landing gear and a greater

maximum takeoff weight, and a new digital flight control system. The
Block 40 was the first combat aircraft to feature a fully integrated
Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver. Weapons carried by the
Block 40/42 include the family of Raytheon laser-guided bombs (the
GBU-10, GBU-12 and the newer GBU-24 low-level LGB) and the
Rockwell (now Boeing) GBU-15 glide bomb.
182
GD developed a suite of stealth modifications for the Block 40/42

under a secret program codenamed Have Glass. This includes the
gold-tinted canopy that is fitted to all F-16C/Ds, and incorporates an
indium-tin-oxide (ITO) layer to reflect radio-frequency (RF) signals.
Specific Have Glass elements include a radar-absorbent material
(RAM) shroud which conceals the radar bulkhead and the antenna
drive, and RAM treatments on the inlet lip and duct.
The Block 40/42 was the principal production version of the F-16
between 1988 and 1995, and 744 aircraft were produced in that
period. Export customers included Israel, Egypt, Bahrain and Turkey.
Earlier Block 25/30 F-16s dominated the USAF fleet when Iraq invaded
Kuwait in August 1990. F-16s were the first air-to-ground aircraft in-
theatre, and by the start of Operation Desert Storm, in the small hours
of January 16, the 249 F-16s were the most numerous type available.
The F-16s performed 43% of all USAF strike sorties: 13,480 sorties,
with about 4,000 at night.
F-16s scored no air-to-air kills during the war: the Iraqi air force
seldom ventured very close to Iraq’s borders, F-15Cs were tasked with
the air superiority mission, and the USAF F-16s did not carry
medium-range AAMs, AMRAAM still being under development.
Another missing asset was LANTIRN. There were only 25 targeting

pods available in the Gulf, and they were assigned to F-15E units. Only
72 of the F-16s in-theatre received the LANTIRN navigation pods.
Most F-16 missions in Desert Storm delivered Mk84 2,000 lb (900

kg) dumb bombs. The F-16 could deliver dumb bombs accurately - but
from a low-level dive attack. In the Gulf, the intense low-level threat
from guns and SAMs forced the bombers to attack from slant ranges
between 17,000 and 20,000 feet. The net result was that the average
miss distance of Mk84 releases grew from 30 feet to 200 feet.
183
Some F-16 bombing missions were far from successful. On January

19, a huge Vietnam-type strike package assembled for a daylight raid
on the Baghdad suburbs, comprising 64 F-16s accompanied by F-4G
Wild Weasel defence-suppression aircraft, EF-111 Raven jammers and
F-15 escorts. The F-16s were from different units. Some GE engines,
and cruised faster than the others. Combined with jinking to avoid
heavy radar-guided flak, this stretched the formation out, and the last
group was minutes away from the initial point when the first F-16s
and the escorts arrived in the target area. With support from EF-111s
and F-4Gs, the first F-16s egressed the target unscathed - but without
bombing, because an undercast had covered the objectives. As the last
F-16s approached their IP, the weather cleared - but the defences
could see them too, and the F-4Gs had fired all their HARMs. Two
F-16s out of the final group were shot down, although both
pilots ejected.
F-16s were used in the close-support role over Iraq. Forward air con-
trollers (FACs) flying F-16s known as “fast-FACS” or “killer scouts”
led the air campaign to free Kuwait. Arriving attack aircraft would
take instructions from these fast-FAC aircraft, working a designated
map-grid area known as a killing box. The airborne FAC would in
turn direct other strike aircraft to targets that were being reported
by the advancing ground troops. Two fast-FACs worked each
15Nm-square box.
The USAF acknowledges three F-16s lost in combat over Iraq - the two
losses on January 19 and a third aircraft shot down by a SAM on
February 27 - plus one non-combat loss, due to a fuel leak.
During 1992, F-16s operating over Iraq finally received the AMRAAM mis-
sile. On December 27, 1992, an F-16D achieved the USAF’s first F-16 kill,
and first AMRAAM kill, during Operation Southern Watch, shooting down
a MiG-25. On January 17, 1993, an F-16 from Incirlik AB in Turkey shot
down another MiG - either a MiG-23 or a MiG-29 - over Northern Iraq.
184
A new F-16 version joined the family just after the war. Since the F-16
had entered service, its empty weight had increased by almost a pound
per day. The result was a need for more power, which was answered
by the USAF’s Increased Performance Engine (IPE) program. Both
IPE engines - the P&W F100-PW-229 and the GE F110-GE-129 -
offered more takeoff thrust, but the big difference was in the lower
right-hand corner of the engine’s envelope. At 530 kt and 200 ft, the
IPE engines developed 30-33% more thrust than their predecessors.
The new engines were incorporated in the Block 50/52. The first Block
50 flew in October 1991, the Block 52 following almost exactly a year later.
Full-rate deliveries of IPEs and Block 50/52 aircraft started
in 1993.
Apart from the new engine, the Block 50/52 introduced a new, lighter
and less costly wide-angle HUD and the Northrop Grumman
APG-68(V5) radar. The new radar is more reliable, more resistant to
jamming and more readily upgraded.
The Block 50/52 can launch the Raytheon AGM-88 High-Speed Anti-
Radiation Missile (HARM). The original goal was to use the F-16 as a
launch platform for HARM. Specially equipped F-4G Wild Weasel
fighters would detect hostile radars and transmit their locations to the
F-16 via the Improved Data Modem (IDM) datalink. By 1990,
however, it was apparent that the F-4G would have to be retired before
a direct replacement could be ready. Under a secret program, GD and
Texas Instruments developed the ASQ-213 HARM Targeting System
(HTS), a podded sensor which detects, locates and identifies enemy
radars. The first systems were delivered in September 1993, and HTS-
equipped Block 50/52s have assumed the Wild Weasel mission.
185
With the end of the Cold War, the USAF fighter force was scaled back,
F-16 production abruptly slowed down, and General Dynamics sold its
Fort Worth division to Lockheed in March 1993. Lockheed, in turn,
merged with Martin-Marietta in 1995.
The same geopolitical changes have changed the F-16’s mission.

Within months of the AMRAAM shoot-downs over Iraq, USAF F-16s
were deployed to secure another “no-fly” zone, above Bosnia-
Herzegovina, under Operation Deny Flight. On February 28, 1994,
six Serbian J-1 Jastreb light attack aircraft violated the no-fly zone.
Four F-16 Block 40s shot down three of the Jastrebs with AIM-120s
and AIM-9s, the most recent air-to-air kills by the F-16.
The total number of F-16 kills varies according to the definition of an

official kill. Lockheed Martin gives the number as 69. IDF-AF pilots
claim 52 of these, most of them during the 1982 air battles over
Lebanon. The Pakistan AF has an official total of 11 kills against
Afghan MiGs and Sukhois; unofficially, the total is 13, but two are not
mentioned because they resulted from a generous interpretation of
“hot pursuit” and occurred on the wrong side of the border.
Venezuelan AF pilots shot down three rebel aircraft - two OV-10s and
a Tucano - during a November 1992 coup attempt. Adding the non-
official Pakistani kills and the Venezuelan shoot-downs to the list
brings the F-16’s total kills to 74.
No F-16 has been shot down by an adversary in air-to-air c

ombat - although it is believed that one Pakistan Air Force F-16A was
accidentally shot down by another.
USAF and other NATO F-16s have been heavily involved in air-to-
ground operations in support of peacekeeping activities over Bosnia.
In May 1995, the 31st Fighter Wing at Aviano AB, Italy, performed the
186
first F-16 LGB attack, using LANTIRN. A more intensive series of

strikes started in August 1995, under Operation Deliberate Force, and
continued into the following month. F-16s dropped more than 300
LGBs, with 90% effectiveness, and no observed collateral damage.
One USAF F-16, flown by Captain Scott O’Grady, had been shot down
by an SA-6 missile over Bosnia in June 1995. O’Grady was rescued six
days later by a force escorted by HARM-carrying Marine Corps F/A-
18s. When Deliberate Force started, weeks later, the Aviano F-16s
were supported by eight Block 50s carrying HARMs and the HTS.
Nine HARMs were fired during Deliberate Force, and all were judged
effective in shutting down the targeted radars.
In 1998, the Block 50/52 remains the standard USAF version of the
F-16, and it continues in low-rate production to make up for attrition.
However, development has continued for the export market.
Israel received its first F-16C/Ds in 1987,and eventually acquired 135

Block 30/40 aircraft. All of these were specially modified to meet
Israeli requirements. In particular, the two-seat aircraft (named
Brakeet, or Thunderbolt, in the IDF-AF) feature a long, box-shaped
dorsal spine that accommodates extra avionics, the refuelling
receptacle and chaff/flare dispensers. The rear cockpit is designed to
accommodate a weapon system operator. (Singapore’s Block 50s also
feature the dorsal spine).
When the IDF/AF started looking for a longer-range strike aircraft in

the early 1990s, Lockheed offered an F-16 with a pair of conformal
fuel tanks, carried above the wing roots. These would accommodate
almost as much fuel as underwing tanks, creating less drag and
releasing underwing stations for weapons. Another logical change -
made possible by miniaturised electronics - was to remove the LAN-
TIRN pods, build its terrain-following radar functions into the APG-
68, and install an internal FLIR/laser system. Although the IDF/AF
187
requirement was met by the F-15, Lockheed tested an F-16C with

aerodynamic representations of the fuel tanks and FLIR turrets in
late 1994.
At the same time, Lockheed, the USAF and the original European
customers for the F-16A/B developed the F-16 Mid-Life Update
(MLU) configuration, to modernise 300 F-16As. The MLU has an
updated Northrop Grumman APG-66(V)2 radar and a new mission
computer (which replaces three older units). It is also the first fighter
to enter service with full-colour active-matrix LCD cockpit displays and
a digital terrain system (DTS), which pinpoints the fighter’s exact
position and altitude by comparing altimeter readings with a digital
model of the terrain.
The first MLU aircraft flew in April 1995. By early 1998, production
conversions were being performed in the four customer countries and
operational test and evaluation was under way. Conversion work will
continue into 2003.
The MLU and the Israeli aircraft show how much can be done within
the F-16A planform, but Fort Worth has continuously studied changes
to the airframe. The first such development was the arrow-winged
F-16XL. Inspired by NASA supersonic transport research, the arrow
wing and a stretched fuselage doubled the F-16 internal fuel capacity,
carried weapons more efficiently and almost doubled its range. Two
F-16XLs were built in 1983, and the design competed unsuccessfully
against the F-15 Strike Eagle.
In 1987-88, GD proposed a design called Agile Falcon, with a larger,

all-composite wing. The objective was to maintain the original
aircraft’s agility and flying qualities despite increasing weight. GD
talked to the original European partner countries about joining forces
on the Agile Falcon, but by 1988 it was clear that new weapons, more
power and updated avionics offered similar improvements in
188
capability at less cost. However, a similar design was adopted in Japan,

where Mitsubishi Heavy Industries is developing a big-wing F-16
derivative called the F-2A. The first of four FS-X test aircraft was flown
in October 1995, and the Japanese government authorised
procurement of 130 F-2A production aircraft in mid-1996. Deliveries
will begin in 1999 and continue until 2011.
In 1994, Fort Worth proposed another stretched, delta-winged F-16 to

the United Arab Emirates (UAE). More than 1,000 hours of
wind-tunnel testing had been completed by early 1995. The UAE did
not want to pay the development costs , so Lockheed Martin offered a
heavier F-16 conformal fuel tanks. In April 1998, the UAE and the US
Government agreed on an order for 80 of these aircraft, known as the
F-16 Block 60/62.
This latest F-16 will have a 48,000 lb (21770 kg) takeoff weight and a
more powerful engine – as these words are written, the UAE has yet
to choose between the P&W F100-PW-229A and the GE F100-GE-129
Enhanced Fighter Engine (EFE). A thrust-vectoring nozzle is an
option, and would improve manoeuvrability and shorten takeoff and
landing distances. The Block 60/62 features a Northrop Grumman
integrated sensor suite, based on the APG-68(V)5, which blends the
Internal FLIR and Targeting System (IFTS) with an Agile Beam Radar
(ABR). The ABR has an active array, like that of the F-22, comprising
a fixed structure which contains a large number of transmit/receive
modules.
The Block 60/62 has a mission computer and DTS based on the F-16
MLU work, a modernised cockpit and an internal electronic warfare
system – the two-seaters will have the same dorsal spine as the Israeli
F-16Ds. The first Block 60s should fly in 2001, with deliveries in the
following year. All 80 aircraft will be handed over by the end of 2004.
The Block 60 and improved versions of the Block 50 are on offer to
Norway, Saudi Arabia and Singapore. Some Block 60 and MLU fea-
189
tures will be retrofitted into the USAF’s Block 40/42 and 50/52 air-
craft under the Common Configuration Implementation
Program (CCIP).
New weapons continue to improve the F-16’s capability. The Boeing

GBU-30/31 Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM), with GPS/inertial
guidance, will give the fighter a near-precision strike capability in bad
weather. The Raytheon AGM-154 Joint Standoff Weapon (JSOW) is a
near-precision glide bomb designed for use against area targets
or armour.
Long-range precision weapon options include the Rafael/Lockheed

Martin AGM-142 Have Lite, and the USAF/Lockheed Martin AGM-
158 Joint Air-to-Surface Standoff Missile (JASSM), which will be oper-
ational in 2002. In the air-to-air regime, most F-16s will be fitted with
“off-boresight” infra-red AAMs, such as the Raytheon AIM-9X or the
BAe/Matra Dynamics ASRAAM, together with helmet-mounted dis-
plays which allow the pilot to designate targets outside the radar’s
scan limits.
The F-16 enters the 21st century as the world’s most numerous
modern fighter, and one which is still competitive with newer aircraft
such as the Dassault Rafale and Eurofighter Typhoon. The delta-wing
design is still on the shelf at Fort Worth, and would probably be dust-
ed off in the not unlikely event that the F-16’s intended replacement –
the tri-service Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) – arrives later and costs more
than expected. Another round of development for this remarkable
warplane cannot be ruled out.
190
ACRONYMS
24. Acronyms
AAA anti-aircraft artillery

AAM air-to-air missile
AGM air-to-ground missile
AoA angle of attack
ARM anti-radiation missile
AWACS airborne warning and control system
CCIP continuously computed impact point
DGFT dogfight mode
D0, D1 destination
ECM electronic counter measures
EO electro-optical
FBW fly by wire
FTT fixed target tracking
GM ground map
HUD heads up display
IIR imaging infrared
ILS instrument landing system
JTIDS joint tactical information
distribution system
LND landing mode
LCOS lead computed optical sight
MFD multifunction display
NAV navigation mode
Nm nautical mile
NOS POS nozzle position
SAM surface to air missile
STRF strafe mode
191
ACRONYMS
TACAN tactical air control and navigation

TEF tail edge flap
TWD threat warning display
WP waypoint
192
CREDITS
25. F-16 AGGRESSOR CREDITS

General Simulations Incorporated
Concept Phil Allsopp, Niels Jensen
Project Management Charles Donnison
Programming Sam Brown, Dave Burrows,

Bob Cowburn, Tim Gaskins,
Alan Hinton, Nigel Knox,
David Lopez, James Mclaren,
Steve Round, Ben Sugden
Artists Ian Bell, Chris Luck, Ursula Mclean,

Nathan Roberts, Marcus Tanner,
Will Whitaker
with contributions from
Guy Avery, Justine Board, Jolyon Leonard,
Jeff Levy and Graham Traynor
Testing Phil Allsopp, Guy Avery, Justine Board,

Niels Jensen, Rick Kelsall, Jolyon Leonard,
Jeff Levy, Julian Lopez, Aelred Mclean,
Graham Traynor
Music & Sound Matt Sugden
Manual Aelred Mclean

with contributions from
Tom Low and Bill Sweetman
Research Belinda Mizrahi
193
CREDITS
Flight Model Thomas Low Simulation Company (TLSC)
Voice Actors Lani Minella, Jon St. John, Chris Wilcox
Special Thanks Shahid Ahmad, Mark Beaumont,

Joss Ellis, Bill Lindorff,
Julian Lynn Evans, Margaret Oldham,
Dan Van Elderen, Air Marshall
Sir Thomas H. Stonor
Virgin Interactive
Producer Shahid Ahmad
Technical Adviser Mike Wall
Product Managers Matthew Walker, Rosemarie Dalton
Localisation Sophie Cristobal
QA Llewellyn Ligas, Graham Archer
Group Captain Gary Foley
Squadron Leader Steven Frazer
Flying Officers David Casey, Chris Arnsby,

David Isherwood, Al Perch,
Drew Waldegrave, Simon Lee
Special Thanks to: Rob Riley, Lou Rios, Bob Wan, Joss Ellis,
Leila Bokaie, Chau Chan, Emma Cassell,
Lisa Bucek, Julie Man, Heiko Kaspers,
Lee Jacobson, Asim Naseer,
Julian Lynn-Evans and the B.A.M. team.
194
INDEX
26. INDEX
195
CHAPTER HEADING
196
CHAPTER HEADING
197
CHAPTER HEADING
198
CHAPTER HEADING
199
CHAPTER HEADING
200

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English manual 5/15/00 3:29 PM Page 1

1. PLEASE READ FIRST.......................................................................5

16. F-16 COCKPIT SYSTEMS ................................................................62

22. SPECIFICATIONS ............................................................................154

PLEASE READ FIRST

1. PLEASE READ FIRST

Many of you will be aware of accepted flight simulation protocol.

Aggressor's 3D world contains over 900 billion square metres of fully

The Kingdom of Morocco, in the far north-west of Africa, features an

to the south-east, is also mountainous, boasting the sacred green

F-16: Aggressor’s cockpit has been designed to exactly reproduce that

It only remains to be said that we hope you enjoy F-16: Aggressor. We

F-16 DIAGRAM & SPECIFICATIONS

3.1 F-16 DIAGRAM

Courtesy of Lockheed Martin TAS

F-16 DIAGRAM & SPECIFICATIONS

3.2 F-16 DIAGRAM KEY

F-16 DIAGRAM & SPECIFICATIONS

27. Port position light

F-16 DIAGRAM & SPECIFICATIONS

3.3 F-16 SPECIFICATIONS

Fuselage and tail

F-16 DIAGRAM & SPECIFICATIONS

Fuel and Load

AT SEA LEVEL ......795 kt (915 mph; 1472 km/h)

F-16 DIAGRAM & SPECIFICATIONS

TAKEOFF RUN ....2500 feet (762 metres) at MTOW

THE FLIGHT MODEL

4. THE FLIGHT MODEL

The developers of the real-time flight dynamics engine used in this

The F-16 model contained in this product is unique in the PC game

THE FLIGHT MODEL

Unlike most conventional aircraft, the F-16 was designed with

The flight control system also monitors the pilot's performance,

To reproduce this behaviour, the flight model designers began by

This, together with a comprehensive atmospheric model, and a

THE FLIGHT MODEL

landing gear dynamics, fuel management system, aerodynamics of

A partial list of flight model features:-

• Continuously variable, independent left and right ABS wheel

• Continuously variable speed brakes, with realistic actuation rates.

• Automatic and manual trailing edge flap (TEF) actuation, with

• Rigorous undercarriage model (landing gear) allows one or more

• Modelling of transonic and supersonic effects such as wave drag,

THE FLIGHT MODEL

• High angle of attack modelling, including deep stall and spin.

• Extensive modelling of fly-by-wire system, including G-command,

• Flight tests data based aerodynamic and propulsion modelling

• Atmospheric model to 80,000 feet, including the effects of

• Turbine powerplant simulation considers altitude, mach number,

• Correct treatment of control surface positions during all phases

• Modelling of ground effect changes to lift, drag, and

• Supports modelling of meteorological effects such as windshear,

• Modelling of fuel load imbalance.

INSTALLATION & SETUP

5. INSTALLATION & SET-UP

Recommended System Requirements

INSTALLATION & SETUP

To install F-16: Aggressor