Civil engineering as a discipline[edit]

Civil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles for solving the problems of
society, and its history is intricately linked to advances in the understanding
of physics and mathematics throughout history. Because civil engineering is a wide-ranging
profession, including several specialized sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of
structures, materials science, geography, geology, soils, hydrology, environment, mechanics and
other fields.
Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried
out by artisans, such as stonemasons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder.
Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances. Structures, roads, and
infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental.[5]
One of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and mathematical problems
applicable to civil engineering is the work of Archimedes in the 3rd century BC, including
Archimedes Principle, which underpins our understanding of buoyancy, and practical solutions
such as Archimedes' screw. Brahmagupta, an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th
century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, for excavation (volume) computations.[6]

Civil engineering profession[edit]

See also: History of structural engineering
Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence. The earliest
practice of civil engineering may have commenced between 4000 and 2000 BC in ancient Egypt,
the Indus Valley Civilization, and Mesopotamia (ancient Iraq) when humans started to abandon
a nomadic existence, creating a need for the construction of shelter. During this time,
transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the wheel
and sailing.

Leonhard Euler developed the theory explaining the buckling of columns.

Until modern times there was no clear distinction between civil engineering and architecture, and
the term engineer and architect were mainly geographical variations referring to the same
occupation, and often used interchangeably.[7] The construction of pyramids in Egypt (circa
2700–2500 BC) were some of the first instances of large structure constructions. Other ancient
historic civil engineering constructions include the Qanat water management system (the oldest
is older than 3000 years and longer than 71 km,[8]) the Parthenon by Iktinos in Ancient
Greece (447–438 BC), the Appian Way by Roman engineers (c. 312 BC), the Great Wall of
China by General Meng T'ien under orders from Ch'in Emperor Shih Huang Ti (c. 220 BC)[9] and
the stupas constructed in ancient Sri Lanka like the Jetavanaramaya and the extensive irrigation
works in Anuradhapura. The Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire,
including especially aqueducts, insulae, harbors, bridges, dams and roads.
A Roman aqueduct [built circa 19 BC] near Pont du Gard, France

Chichen Itza was a large pre-Columbian city in Mexico built by the Maya people of the Post Classic. The
northeast column temple also covers a channel that funnels all the rainwater from the complex some 40
metres (130 ft) away to a rejollada, a former cenote.
In the 18th century, the term civil engineering was coined to incorporate all things civilian as
opposed to military engineering.[4] The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton,
who constructed the Eddystone Lighthouse.[3][9] In 1771 Smeaton and some of his colleagues
formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a group of leaders of the profession who met
informally over dinner. Though there was evidence of some technical meetings, it was little more
than a social society.

John Smeaton, the "father of civil engineering"

In 1818 the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded in London,[10] and in 1820 the eminent
engineer Thomas Telford became its first president. The institution received a Royal Charter in
1828, formally recognising civil engineering as a profession. Its charter defined civil engineering
as:
the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man, as
the means of production and of traffic in states, both for external and internal trade, as applied in
the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, canals, river navigation and docks for internal
intercourse and exchange, and in the construction of ports, harbours, moles, breakwaters and
lighthouses, and in the art of navigation by artificial power for the purposes of commerce, and in
the construction and application of machinery, and in the drainage of cities and towns.[11]
Civil engineering education[edit]
The first private college to teach civil engineering in the United States was Norwich University,
founded in 1819 by Captain Alden Partridge.[12] The first degree in civil engineering in the United
States was awarded by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835.[13][14] The first such degree to be
awarded to a woman was granted by Cornell University to Nora Stanton Blatch in 1905.[15]
In the UK during the early 19th century, the division between civil engineering and military
engineering (served by the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich), coupled with the demands of the
Industrial Revolution, spawned new engineering education initiatives: the Class of Civil
Engineering and Mining was founded at King's College London in 1838, mainly as a response to
the growth of the railway system and the need for more qualified engineers, the private College
for Civil Engineers in Putney was established in 1839, and the UK's first Chair of Engineering
was established at the University of Glasgow in 1840.

Education[edit]
Main article: Civil engineer
Civil engineers typically possess an academic degree in civil engineering. The length of study is
three to five years, and the completed degree is designated as a bachelor of technology, or
a bachelor of engineering. The curriculum generally includes classes in physics,
mathematics, project management, design and specific topics in civil engineering. After taking
basic courses in most sub-disciplines of civil engineering, they move onto specialize in one or
more sub-disciplines at advanced levels. While an undergraduate degree (BEng/BSc) normally
provides successful students with industry-accredited qualification, some academic institutions
offer post-graduate degrees (MEng/MSc), which allow students to further specialize in their
particular area of interest.[16]

Surveying students with professor at the Helsinki University of Technology in the late 19th century.

Practicing engineers[edit]
In most countries, a bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step
towards professional certification, and a professional body certifies the degree program. After
completing a certified degree program, the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements
(including work experience and exam requirements) before being certified. Once certified, the
engineer is designated as a professional engineer (in the United States, Canada and South
Africa), a chartered engineer(in most Commonwealth countries), a chartered professional
engineer (in Australia and New Zealand), or a European engineer (in most countries of
the European Union). There are international agreements between relevant professional bodies
to allow engineers to practice across national borders.
The benefits of certification vary depending upon location. For example, in the United States and
Canada, "only a licensed professional engineer may prepare, sign and seal, and submit
engineering plans and drawings to a public authority for approval, or seal engineering work for
public and private clients."[17] This requirement is enforced under provincial law such as the
Engineers Act in Quebec.[18]
No such legislation has been enacted in other countries including the United Kingdom. In
Australia, state licensing of engineers is limited to the state of Queensland. Almost all certifying
bodies maintain a code of ethics which all members must abide by.[19]
Engineers must obey contract law in their contractual relationships with other parties. In cases
where an engineer's work fails, they may be subject to the law of tort of negligence, and in
extreme cases, criminal charges.[20] An engineer's work must also comply with numerous other
rules and regulations such as building codes and environmental law.

Sub-disciplines[edit]

The Akashi Kaikyō Bridge in Japan, currently the world's longest suspension span.
There are a number of sub-disciplines within the broad field of civil engineering. General civil
engineers work closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers to design grading,
drainage, pavement, water supply, sewer service, dams, electric and communications supply.
General civil engineering is also referred to as site engineering, a branch of civil engineering that
primarily focuses on converting a tract of land from one usage to another. Site engineers spend
time visiting project sites, meeting with stakeholders, and preparing construction plans. Civil
engineers apply the principles of geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, environmental
engineering, transportation engineering and construction engineering to residential, commercial,
industrial and public works projects of all sizes and levels of construction.

Coastal engineering[edit]
Main articles: Coastal engineering and Coastal management

Oosterscheldekering, a storm surge barrier in the Netherlands.

Coastal engineering is concerned with managing coastal areas. In some jurisdictions, the terms
sea defense and coastal protection mean defense against flooding and erosion, respectively.
The term coastal defense is the more traditional term, but coastal management has become
more popular as the field has expanded to techniques that allow erosion to claim land.

Construction engineering[edit]
Main article: Construction engineering
Construction engineering involves planning and execution, transportation of materials, site
development based on hydraulic, environmental, structural and geotechnical engineering. As
construction firms tend to have higher business risk than other types of civil engineering firms do,
construction engineers often engage in more business-like transactions, for example, drafting
and reviewing contracts, evaluating logistical operations, and monitoring prices of supplies.

Earthquake engineering[edit]
Main article: Earthquake engineering
Earthquake engineering involves designing structures to withstand hazardous earthquake
exposures. Earthquake engineering is a sub-discipline of structural engineering. The main
objectives of earthquake engineering are[21] to understand interaction of structures on the shaky
ground; foresee the consequences of possible earthquakes; and design, construct and maintain
structures to perform at earthquake in compliance with building codes.

Environmental engineering[edit]
Main article: Environmental engineering

Water pollution
Environmental engineering is the contemporary term for sanitary engineering, though sanitary
engineering traditionally had not included much of the hazardous waste management and
environmental remediation work covered by environmental engineering. Public health
engineering and environmental health engineering are other terms being used.
Environmental engineering deals with treatment of chemical, biological, or thermal wastes,
purification of water and air, and remediation of contaminated sites after waste disposal or
accidental contamination. Among the topics covered by environmental engineering are pollutant
transport, water purification, waste water treatment, air pollution, solid waste treatment,
and hazardous waste management. Environmental engineers administer pollution
reduction, green engineering, and industrial ecology. Environmental engineers also compile
information on environmental consequences of proposed actions.

Forensic engineering[edit]
Main article: Forensic engineering
Forensic engineering is the investigation of materials, products, structures or components that
fail or do not operate or function as intended, causing personal injury or damage to property. The
consequences of failure are dealt with by the law of product liability. The field also deals with
retracing processes and procedures leading to accidents in operation of vehicles or machinery.
The subject is applied most commonly in civil law cases, although it may be of use in criminal law
cases. Generally the purpose of a Forensic engineering investigation is to locate cause or
causes of failure with a view to improve performance or life of a component, or to assist a court
in determining the facts of an accident. It can also involve investigation of intellectual property
claims, especially patents.

Geotechnical engineering[edit]
Main article: Geotechnical engineering
A phase diagram of soil indicating the weights and volumes of air, soil, water, and voids.
Geotechnical engineering studies rock and soil supporting civil engineering systems. Knowledge
from the field of soil science, materials science, mechanics, and hydraulics is applied to safely
and economically design foundations, retaining walls, and other structures. Environmental efforts
to protect groundwater and safely maintain landfills have spawned a new area of research called
geoenvironmental engineering.[22][23]
Identification of soil properties presents challenges to geotechnical engineers. Boundary
conditions are often well defined in other branches of civil engineering, but unlike steel or
concrete, the material properties and behavior of soil are difficult to predict due to its variability
and limitation on investigation. Furthermore, soil exhibits nonlinear (stress-dependent) strength,
stiffness, and dilatancy (volume change associated with application of shear stress), making
studying soil mechanics all the more difficult.[22] Geotechnical engineers frequently work with
professional geologists and soil scientists.[24]

Materials science and engineering[edit]

Main article: Materials science
Materials science is closely related to civil engineering. It studies fundamental characteristics of
materials, and deals with ceramics such as concrete and mix asphalt concrete, strong metals
such as aluminum and steel, and thermosetting
polymers including polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and carbon fibers.
Materials engineering involves protection and prevention (paints and finishes). Alloying combines
two types of metals to produce another metal with desired properties. It incorporates elements
of applied physics and chemistry. With recent media attention
on nanoscience and nanotechnology, materials engineering has been at the forefront of
academic research. It is also an important part of forensic engineering and failure analysis.