IPTC 10146

Challenges and Strategy for Increased Oil Recovery

W.M. Schulte, Shell Intl. E&P

Copyright 2005, International Petroleum Technology Conference

Introduction
This paper was prepared for presentation at the International Petroleum Technology
Conference held in Doha, Qatar, 21–23 November 2005.
The global average recovery factor in oil fields is of
This paper was selected for presentation by an IPTC Programme Committee following review
of information contained in an proposal submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper, as the order of 30% with a wide scatter between 0%
presented, have not been reviewed by the International Petroleum Technology Conference
and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material, as presented, does not necessarily
(stranded fields) to 70%. This is illustrated in Fig.1 in
reflect any position of the International Petroleum Technology Conference, its officers, or which field data in the ISH data base were ranked for
members. Papers presented at IPTC are subject to publication review by Sponsor Society
Committees of IPTC. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper Recovery Factor and their STOIIP integrated.
for commercial purposes without the written consent of the International Petroleum Technology
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C u m u la tiv e O il In P la c e (b ln b b l)
3500

3000
Abstract
2500

A great industry challenge exists to increase 2000

recovery factors in E&P projects from the current 1500 Average RF of 34%

average levels of low 30s. This challenge becomes, in 1000

turn, a unique opportunity for EOR technologies to make 500

a sizeable contribution to additional reserves. 0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

RF (%)
This paper reviews this challenge by considering
portfolio aspects, target setting, EOR technologies and Figure 1: Worldwide Distribution of Recovery Factors for
enabling factors. data in the ISH data base

The discussion of EOR technologies includes

some of the accomplishments of EOR in gas, thermal This indicates that there is still a huge prize in many
and chemical flooding and their current contribution to oil fields to increase the recovery factor. This can be
production. achieved through better and more cost effective
execution of conventional development processes
Advances in technology in many areas all contribute leveraging best-in-class practices. However, in many
in the realization of the EOR promise. We will discuss fields the deployment of novel IOR/EOR technologies is
three key areas: fractured carbonate rocks, gas sourcing required to achieve higher recovery over the field life
and Smart Fields. Shell’s in-situ thermal project at Peace cycle.
River provides an example of the use of a full suite of In the early 1980’s, extensive research, field-
monitoring technologies to understand sweep and testing and implementation of IOR/EOR projects were
recovery mechanisms. An example is also given of the triggered by an expectation of high oil prices and,
use of swellable elastomers for water shut-offs and especially in the USA, by a decline of overall oil
inflow/outflow control options. production. The main IOR/EOR techniques that have
been employed since that time are in thermal heavy oil
A successful EOR practice requires a number long- (steam, ISC) and in gas injection (CO2 miscible and
term commitments in human and capital resources, WAG variations). Shell has been one of the leading
technology deployment and R&D, and sustainable players in setting industry standards and has best
development. practices and wide experiences in the design,
implementation, and execution of IOR/EOR projects all
The various aspects discussed in this paper will over the world.
be summarized in a strategy framework where in
addition to the presented components also synergies Given the low oil prices over the past decade, only
with outside organizations as well as partnerships and a small number of new IOR/EOR projects have been
alliances are considered. implemented over the past decade. The number of gas
injection projects is slowly growing, but the number of
2 IPTC 10146

thermal and chemical projects especially has seen a Target setting for Recovery Factors
sharp decline over the past 10 years. However recent oil
price developments combined with the evolution of A consensus exists in industry that we can do better
advanced technologies and current outlook on in many fields by having a more proactive longer-term
supply/demand forecasts have resulted in a new minded reservoir management approach. Such
emphasis on improving Recovery Factors through approach includes gathering of key data early in the
implementation of EOR processes. production life of the field and continuously through its
life to identify boundaries, undrained/unswept oil, and
This paper reviews portfolio aspects, target setting, inflow/outflow profiles to improve well utilization.
EOR technologies and enabling factors. Production optimization is highly impacted by the ability
of the operator to create and use cost effective reservoir
management options based on that data.
Recovery Factors in the portfolio
The wide distribution of ultimate recoveries in Fig.1 is
the result of the interplay of multiple factors such as
reservoir characteristics, development costs, commercial
terms, and oil price forecasts.

Our industry faces in each new project the need to

understand and quantify unique subsurface
environments. High ultimate recovery factors are
presently found in reservoirs with good fluid mobilities –
original or induced- and connectivity, with adequate
reservoir energy to drive fluids to the producing well. The
cost of drilling and in-fill drilling wells is also an important
element in reaching high recoveries. A list of field
features and subsurface themes associated with high
primary/secondary recovery is included in Table 1.

Figure2: Contribution of Different Activities to Higher

• Homogeneous at all scales Ultimate Recovery
• Good connectivity
• Good (induced) fluid mobility The target of field optimization is illustrated in
• Gravity stable at reasonable rates Figure 2 by green wedge that moves the distribution to
• Appropriate natural drive the right. It makes the point of the bigger opportunities to
• Non-fractured be found in presently low recovery fields.
or homogeneous, densely fractured
• Clean, sweet oil In general tertiary EOR, as being practiced
• Thick oil column, large areal extend presently, can contribute by a 7-15% increase in ultimate
• Good, cheap accessibility recovery. This is illustrated by the second wedge in
• Good monitoring (seismic, etc) ability Fig.2. The unit cost of this EOR oil is often higher than
• Consolidated sands has been allowed under oil price scenarios of the past
• Low residual Hydrocarbon saturation decade.
• Good and accurate understanding
When setting ultimate targets the value of the oil
Table 1: Fields characteristics of high-recovery prototypes resources and its contribution to local economies have to
be considered as well. Therefore operators should set
Field names can be readily identified across industry an aspirational target to reach 70%+ recovery factors at
with recovery factors above 60% or even 70% levels. the end of the life of any field. This aspiration will be
materialized driven by market forces and integrated
These fields will most likely include many items of existing and novel technologies including low cost wells
the list. As clearly illustrated by Figure 1, however, the and facilities, improved fluid distribution mapping and
vast majority of fields are far from reaching those levels. reservoir imaging, among many others. It also
They include for example heavy oil fields, complex constitutes a driving force for research as a 70% target
carbonate fields which often show complex may require new techniques not deployed or invented
fracture/faulting patterns, very sour accumulations, fields yet. In general one can expect that initially the unit
with high well cost resulting in low well density and poor technical cost to reach this target will be much higher
sweep. than we have seen in recent field developments.
IPTC 10146 3

A strong motivation to pursue high recovery factor resulted in a plethora of projects that share a technology
targets is the recently renewed discussion about peak base and culture.3 Figure 3 also illustrates that the
oil. Based on current proven oil volumes and production, aspirational Recovery Factors has only been achieved
the global R/P ration is about 40 years. Including the fact when there was also a good secondary development.
that expectation reserves are higher and that reserves
replacement is a key attention area, this still suggests
that within the next 20 years we may see a peak in W est Texas Ultimate Recovery Efficiencies
global oil production. World energy demand is already 90
shifting further to gas and non-conventional energy
80
supplies. The challenge of extracting more oil from the
70

Recovery, %OOIP
prim ary
known resources will help to ‘buy time’ for other energy waterflood
60
sources to build up and meet the ever growing energy CO2 flood
50
demand. IOR/EOR will play an important role. Especially
40
for complex EOR project this will not happen overnight
30
as history has shown that such projects often take 10 or
20
more years to be fully implemented.
10

A portfolio of fields can be analyzed for applicability 0

of existing EOR techniques. Such analysis allows to

recognized focus areas and challenges for that portfolio Figure 3 Recoveries of a number of fields in West Texas
of fields. We will discuss below existing techniques and CO2 Flood
special challenges.

In areas where CO2 natural deposits are not

available its sourcing will be highly facilitated by a)
IOR/EOR Technologies Today environmental and market forces that will strengthen the
business drivers for low pressure sequestration and b)
We will here refer to the big themes of EOR,
the maturity of new separation technologies to deliver
namely, thermal, gas, and chemical flooding.
medium pressure CO2 from contaminated gas
reservoirs, which will unlock huge volumes of natural gas
Thermal recovery (air or steam injection) has
while freeing up sizeable volumes of CO2.
focused traditionally on heavy oil accumulations. Very
significant volumes of heavy oil are produced cold in
Recently, re-injection of sour gas for IOR/EOR is
Venezuela1,2 during a low-recovery –around 15%- early being embedded in development planning e.g. in the
phase of the life of the fields. Thermal energy will be Harweel cluster, Oman and in the huge Kashagan Field,
required in a second phase to bring these recoveries Kazakhstan. Contaminated gas thus is being turned from
above 50%. Some prime examples of excellent recovery a show-stopper to a key enabler for high recovery
factors are provided by mature steam projects in factors.
California (Tulare, Midway Sunset among others) with
Alternatively nitrogen, although expensive to
excellent quality sands and low well costs. Application of
manufacture, could be used mostly in immiscible
thermal processes for offshore heavy oil is still a large
displacements. It’s being injected quite successfully by
challenge. The techniques of air and steam injection are
Pemex in their Cantarell field where its adding more than
extending its realm to lighter oils where it contributes not
half a million barrels per day of incremental production4,5
only to viscosity reduction but also by providing
additional driving mechanisms to oil production.
Chemical flooding6 includes polymers to
Gas flooding for medium and light oils has mainly
improve mobility control, surfactants to reduce interfacial
been practiced under miscible conditions. Hydrocarbon
tension and remaining oil, and combinations of the
gas sourcing is a growing hurdle as it is too valuable as
above two in reactive systems where alkaline is added to
a resource to be used for tertiary floods. CO2 is being
react with acid groups in the oil to provide an additional
very successfully used in the west Texan carbonates of
insitu generated surfactant (an Alkaline-Surfactant-
the Permian Basin where it is sourced from naturally
Polymer package). Although significant research and
occurring deposits in Colorado.
pilot testing was done in the 80’s, chemical flooding is
much less common EOR method than thermal & gas as
Figure 3 illustrates the contributions of primary,
injectants are more expensive so floods require greater
secondary, and tertiary recovery for a number of West
engineering for targeted placement and robustness to
Texas fields. The graph clearly shows that 70% is
unknown subsurface conditions remains an issue. There
possible, even in complex carbonates by the incremental
are hardly any surfactant injection projects and only a
EOR contribution of 10 to 15%. The availability of CO2
few polymer projects, mainly in China.
at costs that could be absorbed by the tertiary floods has
4 IPTC 10146

above CO2 miscible is dominated by the Permian Basin

in Texas.

The Middle East is becoming quite active as a

number of projects will be on stream shortly in Oman,
and others are being considered across the region.

Incremental EOR production -

global volume by EOR method
total = 2930 kbpd

HC N2
injection injection CO2
25% 19% injection
Figure 4: Oil Cut in Marmul Polymer Injection Pilot 7%

Figure 4 illustrates the successful performance of

the inverted five-spot of the Marmul polymer flood Thermal
conducted by Petroleum Development Oman (PDO) in Polymer/
41%
the 80’s. The reversal in oil cut few months after starting
of polymer injection is apparent. This technique proved Chemical
more successful than a parallel pilot on steam injection. 8%
In view of low oil prices in the 90’s, secondary methods
based on water injection have been pursued first. At the
moment a large scale implementation of polymer Figure 5: Contribution of EOR Methods to Oil Production
flooding is again being considered.
Challenges in EOR applications
Microbial EOR, being actively researched, may
bring a cost effective way to improve sweep efficiency We will now discuss three key challenges that can have
and reduce interfacial tension7. This process has been distinct impact on improving the recovery factor and
looked at for a long while. Some field applications are enable execution of EOR methods. These are the
known but they have not reached full maturity yet. descriptions of fractured reservoirs, gas sourcing for gas
However, as better understanding is acquired more injection and application of Smart Fields techniques.
applications may well be seen in the next 20 years.
Geological complexity in fractured carbonates

Contribution of EOR to Oil Production Fractured carbonates offer a special challenge as

they allow no viscous pressure build-up and therefore
According to a recent survey8 the incremental require being gravity drained. They are complex flow
systems that need to be fully characterized to capture
contribution of EOR to the base production of projects the multiplicity of heterogeneity factors that impact flow.
represents almost 3 million barrels per day, or more than
3% of world oil production. Figure 6 is an illustration of Shell’s SVS tool9 of a
large fracture corridor system where the lower right
Figure 5 shows how this production is allocated to shows part of a detailed fracture model, with each color
the various methods. Thermal recovery is responsible for representing a different fracture set as distinguished by
more than 40% of the current production. Its main fracture properties such as location, orientation, and
contributions come from steam drives in California and aperture. The upper left shows how that part of the
Indonesia, cyclic steam stimulation in Canada, China model has been translated to a simulation grid, with
and Venezuela. colors indicating fracture spacing in X direction (blue =
large, red = small) for each grid block.
Hydrocarbon (miscible) flooding is the second EOR
contributor with above 25% of the total production. Main
projects are found in Alaska and Algeria. As discussed
IPTC 10146 5

use of CO2 in integrated EOR and down stream projects

has considerable attention.

A key source of CO2 will be waste exhaust gas from

power plants, which need to be cleaned up and
pressurized for injection. The industry is actively looking
at improving these techniques or use power generation
systems which can more easily generate high pressure
CO2, like coal gasification.

An alternative source with high concentration of CO2

would be the waste stream produced from clean up of
highly contaminated natural gas fields with mean
concentrations of CO2 above 20%. There are an
increasing number of these reservoirs in recent
discoveries.
Figure 6: Shell’s SVS model of “large” (vertically
continuous) fracture corridors The cost of treating such streams with existing
amine processes quickly outstrips the value of the clean
SVS interacts with the static and dynamic packages gas produced. Therefore the use of such sources implies
to produce integrated reservoir models. It is capable of that new gas separation techniques need to be
data integration and visualization, constraints definition, developed.
and 3D fracture modeling (either explicitly or via dual Other gas clean-up techniques exists such as
porosity/permeability models). membranes and pressure swing absorption. However
neither of these would be able to handle the high flows
A prime area where such techniques to describe the (100’s MMscf/d) associated with the contaminated fields
fracture system are critical, is Gas Oil Gravity Drainage to be produced.
(GOGD). The traditional method of GOGD of has been An alternative technology such as centrifugal gas
practiced for many years in the Fahud field in Oman10. separation – a technology derived from isotope
The density difference between the oil and the separation 13- is being considered. It looks favorable for
surrounding medium will cause oil to flow in the matrix application to natural gas14. However for a pure gas
vertically. The oil will not exit the matrix unless a barrier process, separation rates are reportedly on the slow
to vertical flow is encountered. Capillary hold-up at the side15,16. Other higher-pressure technologies are also
bottom of the draining block prevents complete oil being investigated for very high throughputs 17
drainage.
In the absence of hydrocarbon or CO2 sources, high-
Currently SVS is also used as key input into new pressure air injection (HPAI) in deep, light oil, low-GOR
methods like Thermally Assisted GOGD which is now reservoirs offer a viable and field proven alternative 18,19
being advanced by PDO in Qarn Alam to increase
production rates by viscosity reduction11,12. In addition Smart EOR
gas dissolution may contribute by viscosity reduction and
swelling. The Smart Field20,21 approach of closing loops (real
time monitoring, modeling and decision making) and
Other technologies under active research to potentially capturing the value at well, reservoir, asset, and regional
allow waterflooding a densily fractured reservoir include level, offers a unique opportunity for the most effective
wettability modification to a more water-wet behavior to deployment of EOR. This is of utmost importance in
promote imbibition via surfactant or heat, in combination EOR projects where injectants are costly, are to be used
with forced imbibition, via water pressure pulsing above extremely efficiently, and where understanding recovery
the capillary threshold. and unswept areas can make or break a project.
Gas Sourcing Two examples of technological advances that
enable the Smart Field concept are given below, on
Miscible Gas flooding is long recognized as one of monitoring and reservoir/well management technologies
the most effective enhanced recovery methods for light in horizontal wells.
oils. Application has however been limited to those areas
where gas export to markets is limited. With the
increased importance of environmentally sustainable
power generation and the introduction of CO2 taxes, the
6 IPTC 10146

Monitoring River. Surface deformation was monitored continuously

through 50 tilt meters at surface with the capability of
As stated above there are great opportunities to recording tilt changes as small as 10-9 radians. The
increase ultimate recovery by applying the adequate surface uplift can be translated into the reservoir strain
EOR technology in combination with a robust monitoring field ( reservoir dilation). Collection of microseismic
program of a multiple of techniques. Shell’s Peace River events provided a valuable disturbed rock map that
test program22 provides a good example of this approach brings complementary information to the surface
deformation data. Significant microseismic activity is
and illustrates that monitoring gives insight into non-
seen to occur when the fracture pressure is reached
uniform responses and leads to optimize field
and the net injected fluid volume is increased beyond its
development.
previous maximum. Changes in measured time-lapse
Shell’s Peace River leases hold more that 7 billion bbl of
seismic response are associated to changes in
9 °API oil with viscosity above 100,000 cP at reservoir reservoir’s compressibility caused, in turn, by
temperature. The initial recovery process in areas of the temperature changes, micro-cracking and hydraulic
field without injectivity consists of cyclic steam fracturing.
stimulation. Steam is injected above parting pressure for
about three months creating a network of fractures
propagating from the well. The success of this process
depends not only on achieving commercial production
rates but also on maintaining an acceptable oil/steam
ratio. This is particularly key at high gas prices.

A comprehensive monitoring program was

implemented to understand how steam (heat) is
deployed throughout the reservoir via fracture
propagation and growth and where pockets of unheated
oil are located after each new cycle. This information is
needed to develop a reservoir/well management
program to access virgin tar and avoid reheating areas
where oil has been swept by previously injected water.

The magnitude of vertical and horizontal principal

stresses, which determine the orientation of fractures,
cross over within the depth of the reservoir. Fractures
that start in a vertical direction turn horizontal as they Figure 8: reservoir thickness changes
propagate upwards, creating dilation zones to
accommodate injected fluids. Figure 8 illustrates the interpretation of tilt meter
data in terms of reservoir thickness changes over one
Repeated seismic time-lapse, continuous injection cycle. The rapid motion and non-uniform
microseismic and surface tilt meter data have been distribution of reservoir strain is apparent from this plot.
acquired since late 2002.
All of these monitoring techniques indicate complex
behaviour in this complex recovery process and help to
advance our technical understanding, which is needed to
optimize recovery efficiency.

Well/Reservoir Management in horizontal wells

Due to their higher productivity and reach,

horizontal wells have enabling developments that
otherwise would have remained economically unviable.
However, horizontal wells offer limited cost-effective
options for modifying inflow and outflow profiles. Zonal
Figure 7: Monitoring technologies at Peace River isolation and well control are key to improved sweep
efficiency and high ultimate recovery. Especially for EOR
with its high cost for injectants, profile control is of the
Figure 7 illustrates the use of a variety of monitoring essence.
tools deployed at a multilateral pad of 10 wells at Peace
IPTC 10146 7

A number of well technologies have reached a level Figure 10 shows the segmentation concept. Blue arrows
of maturity to be considered field proven and cost indicate watered out zones where downhole interval
effective. In particular the use of expandable clads and control valves are shut off, while other oil producing
swellable elastomers has come to the forefront in two zones are fully open for production.
important applications 23, 24,25
Alignment to meet the IOR /EOR challenges
1) To shut off high permeable zones and fractures,
Next to technology advances as discussed above,
2) To segment the well, which creates the possibility for there are a number of key factors that need to be aligned
remedial action after water/gas breakthrough in one of to realize high ultimate recoveries in all assets:
the segments. In these cases the use of packers for
zonal isolation in permeable formations is marginally - Life Cycle Planning: to provide the long term plan for
effective, as fluid will by-pass the packer through the an asset, making sure the right facilities and well
formation. provisions are made at each step not to place tertiary
reserves at risk. The application of ‘Smart EOR’ in all
fields as discussed above will require pre-investments.
Also right-time pilot testing of novel concepts is part of
life cycle planning. Some testing can only be done early
in a field life to enable key decisions later.

- Long-term commitment to high ultimate recovery:

putting in place the mind-sets and long-term views of the
maturation processes required to reach the targets. This
9a will be built on a commitment at all levels in the
organization and using selection criteria that favor both
short term and long term optimization.

- A sustainable development approach to business:

9b with full consideration of the costs associated to a
minimum environmental impact. Sustainable here refers
also to solutions that will satisfy the long term objectives
Figure 9a) swellable band of all stakeholders in the country.
9b) Typical layout for a full joint seal
- Capability Development: EOR requires a more labor-
Application of low-cost swellable elastomeric intensive approach to operations and engineering. Long-
bands to full joints – illustrated in Figure 9 – provides a term career commitment in EOR technologies is to be
new dimension to zonal isolation and well control. encouraged and supported. It is only through the
Elastomers that swell in either a water or an oil medium practice of EOR that true capabilities are developed.
are now available for separate or combined applications.
Surface operated downhole valves can be installed - Long-term R&D: Traditional EOR recovery processes
between two adjacent bands along the well, to convert a have been around for decades. However advancements
long horizontal in a series of independently operated in well construction and completion, availability of
shorter horizontal wells. This will enable Smart Field traditional and new injectants, monitoring methodologies,
production optimization surface processing, among many others, have a
profound impact on the way EOR is practiced.

- Ability to Integrate: EOR requires full integration of

Beam Pump technology, people, and top-down as well as bottom–up
Seal ICV commitment. Integration of all these elements is
essential to success. It boils down to bringing together
Closed Closed people, technology, and company culture; neither is of
much value without the others.
Fracture Fracture
Well produced through permanently installed ICV’s Integration will go well beyond the asset
development itself. More and more opportunities may be
possible to integrate upstream and downstream e.g. via
Figure 10: Segmented long horizontal well employing linking field developments with optimum use of by-
swellable elastomers products as seen for example in the link between field
development, LNG and use of the waste CO2 streams.
8 IPTC 10146

Shell is very active in searching for such solutions in new Conclusions

project proposals.

- Balanced financial conditions: EOR requires higher -The energy challenges facing the world today and in the
capital investment with often a delay in the net-benefits. coming decades makes a very compelling case for
Development contracts are an important consideration increasing ultimate recovery.
as they will ‘create behaviours’, e.g. they can focus
attention to short term, cheap solutions, quick wins or - Presently average recovery factors industry wide are in
lack of long-term investments. To facilitate EOR, the low 30s. They can be substantially increased by field
contracts should encourage investments in testing and optimization and EOR.
applying EOR, realising a win-win in the long run for all
stakeholders. - Advances in monitoring and control will provide
invaluable support to the success of EOR projects

- EOR faces many challenges as we move to more

EOR Strategy complex reservoirs in most hostile environments. These
challenges need to be addressed via an environmentally
All of the above aspects can be captures in a sound, long-term minded, hydrocarbon maturation
framework that can help a company or region to define planning.
clear targets for EOR applications. We have already
discussed a few main steps: - A company strategy will facilitate a) prioritization of the
use of existing or to-be-developed capabilities across the
Understand your portfolio, portfolio, b) alignment of synergies of NOCs, ISCs, and
Define targets, EOR options and potential timings IOCs, and c) identification of the best options at asset
What synergies and value-added options are possible and regional level.

Two main steps remain to be added:

How can Alliances help: Alignments between National Acknowledgements

Oil Companies, Service Companies and Operators can
help to generate effective proposals which crosses The author thanks the management of Shell E&P
boundaries. Each has its strength and a good Technology for their permission to publish this paper.
cooperation may shorten the time to realising options.

Prioritization: The final step is to assign financial and

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IPTC 10146 9

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12 K. Rawnsley, F. Hadhrami, A. Kok, R. Moosa, P. Reservoirs, (2004) SPE 88736 11th International
Swaby, S. Dhahab, S. Bettembourg, G. Engen, P. Petroleum Exhibition and Conference, Abu Dhabi,
Richard, M. de Keijzer, R. Penney, P. Boerrigter, D. U.A.E., 10-13 October
Pribnow, M. Koning, and H. Hillgartner, Accelerated
understanding and modeling of a complex fractured 24 R.S. Medeiros, D. Bisnas, DeGolyer , MacNaughton
heavy oil reservoir, Oman, using a new 3D fracture
and P.V. Surayanarayana Impact of Thief Zone
modeling tool , IPTC 10095-PP
Identification and Shut off on Water Production in the
Nimr Field, (2004) SPE/ IADC 91665
13 M. Golombok and C. Morley Thermodynamic factors
governing centrifugal separation of natural gas, Chem. 25 M. Kleverlaan, R.H. van Noort, and I. Jones
Eng. Res. Des. 82(A4), 513 (2004)
Deployment of Swellling Elastomer Packers in Shell
E&P, (2004) SPE/IADC 92346
14 M. Golombok and L. Chewter Centrifugal separation
for cleaning well gas streams, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.,
43(7), 1734 (2004)