Psychodynamics and Dissociation:

All that Switches Is Not Split

Walter C. Young, M. D.

ABSTRACT
This paper contrasts the roles of splitting and dissociation in multiple personality disorder. It is proposed thllt dissociation
is a unique defensive process that serves to protect the patient from the overwhelming effects of severe trauma and thllt multiple
personality disorder need not a:zll upon splitting as its central defensive process. Fantasies of restitution may be incorporated into
the dissociative defense. Psychological, physiological, and behavioral models all are of use, making it likely thllt ultimately dissocia-
tion will be understood along multiple lines of study.

The dramatic shifts of manifest clinical phenom- metabolized" (p.239) or poorly integrated "internalized
ena noted in patients suffering multiple personality object relationships" (p.239). He observed an associated
disorder have caused some investigators to emphasize failure in the development of the ''highest level of deper-
splitting mechanisms to explain these shifting states sonified superego structures and autonomous ego struc-
(Pohl, 1977;Buck,1983;Fast 1974; Berman, 1981; Benner tures" (p.237). The ego splitting first occurs naturally,
& Joscelyne, 1984; Gruenewald, 1977; Gary, Bumstin, & when the immature ego lacks the capacity to integrate
Carpenter, 1984; Greaves, 1980; Gruenewald, 1984: contradictory affective states. Subsequently it is main-
Marmer, 1980; Lasky, 1978). This paper contrasts the tained or regressively reactivated for defensive purposes
roles of splitting and dissociation as defensive structures when the patient is unable to modulate intense affects.
underlying multiple personality disorder. It emphasizes
the role of dissociation as a major defensive process and
suggests a Significant role for fantasy in the develop- UMITATIONS IN
ment of multiple personality disorder's clinical picture. THE CONCEPT OF uSPUTTING"
Dissociation is a unique and invaluable defense Splitting requires certain assumptions about
that does not depend upon splitting for its explanatory psychic structure. Among other things, it necessitates
power. Dissociation is a protective inhibitory ego the assumption of contradictory underlying ego states,
function that maintains conflict laden material and organized around polarized affects and introjects. -
painful affects in dissociated states. Further, physiologic Second, splitting assumes a primitive personality
findings, as well as early somatic and behavioral models organization. Third, splitting assumes a structural
in infants, may provide new insights into dissociation. defect; it implies a lack of underlying integration.
While splitting may be present in multiple personality
disorder, it is not a prerequisite for dissociative defenses. While these assumptions may be of theoretical
value in understanding borderline personality organiza-
To avoid the multiple usages and semantic tion, they don't adequately account for the striking and
confusion that pervade the literature on splitting unique symptom picture seen in multiple personality
(Pruyser, 1975), in this paper the definition of the term disorder.
"splitting" is restricted to that used by Kernberg 1966 in These assumptions pose significant problems
his formulation of borderline personality organization. when applied to the phenomenology of actual patients.
Kernberg referred to splitting as the "alternative activa- In clinical practice, many multiple personality disorder
tion of contradictory ego states" (Kernberg, 1966, p.238), patients function at a high level of organization, and
and observed that the function of splitting is a defensive primitive defensive operations need not permeate their
mechanism that keeps "contradictory primitive affect personality structure (Horevitz & Braun, 1984; Kluft,
states separated from each other" (p.238). He saw that 1984a). Secondly, it is now clear that many alters are not
these affect states were "inseparably liked with corre- polarized around contradictory ego states (Confer &
_sponding internalized pathological object relations" Ables, 1983; Schrei~r, 1973). There are often multiple
(p.238) and persist as an attempt to deal with the "non- alters whose characteristics may overlap Significantly.

Dr. Young is the Medical Director of Columbine Psychiatric Center, 8565 South Poplar Way, Littleton, Colorado 80126.
Address reprint requests to: Walter C. Young, M. D., at thllt address.

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DISSOCIATION 1:1, March 1988

L 1
 DISSOCIATION" PSYCHODYNAMICS -------------------------WBJI
Alters are not necessarily defined by opposing affects case, for example, one alter oscillated between intense
and introjects. In Confer and Ables' (1983) case, Rene, denial of any abuse and intense rageful self-destructive
the alters were all helpful in resolving the multiplicity. abreactions. When her denial was breached, she went
Further the presence of 20, 30, or in Benner and through a vivid reliving of the rape experience, complet
Joscelyne's (1984) patient, 71 personalities, requires us to with the assumption of the physical position in which
accept 71 primitive self and object representations with she had been assaulted, and reenacted the movements
discrete affective linkages. With phenomena of such associated with the event. She re-experiencing the
complexity, their resemblance to splitting as Kernberg accompanying beating, cried out, "I'm bad! I'm bad!"
(1966) defined the term becomes quite remote. Cases of She would repeatedly bang her head on an area that ha
this complexity suggest that dissociation itself, rather been injured during this episode. These abreactions
than splitting, is being used as a defense. Moreover, were predictable and stereotyped, but unknown to the
splitting fails to explain the development of new alters primary personality. One might argue that the patient's
with continued abuse, or the restitutive functions of alter intense affect and her self-accusations as bad repre-
personalities in coping with chronic trauma. Finally, sented a split self-representation and an accompanying
splitting requires us to accept an unconscious structural affect. One could also see that she was treating herself i
defect. While many patients may have such a defect, accordance with an identification with her cruel and
there is no requirement for a structural defect to account punishing father who had been internalized. He had
for dissociative defenses. told her that she was bad. However, the stereotyped
There is, in fact, much to suggest that beneath the repetitive abreactions with the characteristic amnesic
diverse symptomatology of multiple personality disor- dissociation of the entire event, all of which remained
der there exists considerable underlying unity. This unknown to the primary personality, seem much more
unity is obscured by dissociation, not disrupted by a in keeping with a view of dissociation as a mechanism 0
structural split. Directional amnesia, shared experiences avoiding the painful memory of an overwhelming early
among alters, overlapping memories, "inner-self help- experience through inhibitory mechanisms.
ers" that know all of the patients's experiences, and
Beyond this, an over-emphasis on splitting
leakage between alters, especially as therapy progresses,
requires acceptance at face value that the manifest
all suggest a process of active but reversible separation
of painful memory traces through inhibition rather than symptom of multiple personalities directly reflects
splitting. Following integration, the sudden recall of unconscious structure; if conscious experience shifts,
memories and affect (which now feel like they belong to then unconscious structure must be split. This explana-
the patient) further suggests an underlying unity. tion gives short shrift, among other things, to the com-
Forgotten experiences are remembered and felt as plexity of unconscious mechanisms, and the roles of
fantasy (Congdon, Hain & Stevenson, 1961; Davis, 1950)
returning and belonging to a whole person. The pres-
or state dependent learning (Ludwig, Brandsma, Wilbur,
ence of dissociative states that are not organized as
discrete personalities suggests that there are several Benefelt & Jameson, 1972; Braun, 1984) as elements
contributing to alter personality formation.
varieties of dissociation, and argues against splitting as
the central mechanism.
For example, one 26 year old woman treated by THE ROLE OF FANTASY IN
the author awoke as herself at age 14, and attempted to THE DISSOCIATIVE DEFENSE
get ready for school. Spiegel and Rosenfeld (1984)
described this as spontaneous age regression. Another Fantasy itself has a major role in determining the
patient, a 34 year old woman was sexually assaulted by symptom picture seen in multiple personality disorder,
her father repeatedly over a period of many years. The without regard to the process of splitting. When they
I father was not only physically abusive, he also told her become connected to dissociative states, defensive
he would kill her if she became pregnant. This history distortions and early fantasies, arising from a traumatic
was obtained from an alter; the primary personality was origin, color the clinical picture that is seen. Many of the
still amnesic for the abuse and threats. The primary characteristics of alter personalities reflect elaborate
knew she had conflicts around sexuality. When I sug- fantasies of restitution in children who have suffered
gested she had work to do around her fears of preg- severe traumatization. This process of developing a
nancy, she immediately dissociated into an apparently restitutive fantasy life, together with symbolic elabora-
mute, deaf, and immobile state, and was unresponsive tions in alter personality formation, is probably univer-
for the remainder of the session. The splitting of contra- sal among multiple personality disorder patients.
dictory ego states did not appear to be as central as the One can see fantasy elaboration in many circum-
, dissociation of painfully repressed material. stances. One woman presented an angry alter Lucinda,
At times, the distinction among dissociations who adopted a name opposite her "perfect" sister Cindy
: short of multiple personality disorder phenomena, Lou. The author has encountered alters named Black,
:; multiple personality disorder phenomena, and border- Blue, and the Prince of Darkness. He is aware of alters
line phenomena can be hard to make. In the previous whose names merely reflect the symbolic representation
of a function, such as Slap, Runner, or Escape. One alter

HI34 DISSOCIATION 1:1, March 1988

presented as "Pooh Bear." Another had an alter named fantasies become connected to dissociated states and
Stacey, who remained to stay and see the abuse that was serve a protective and restitutive function. The docu-
endured. Bliss (1984) met a Cheshire cat. These are mentation of severe prolonged child abuse in etiology of
commonplace examples of the use of fantasy and the multiple personality has been clearly established (Bliss,
symbolic representation of functions used in surviving 1980,1984; Boor, 1982; Bowman, 1985; Coons & Milstein,
abusive situations. They so often color the clinical 1984,1986; Greaves, 1980; Putnam, 1986; Saltman &
picture of multiple personality disorder that anyone Solomon, 1982; Spiegel, 1984; Wilbur, 1984, 1985).
treating such patients will encounter them. In fact, the
production of any personality with its own name and
history implies the use of fantasy. Bliss (1984) states THE FUNCTION OF DISSOCIATION
categorically that "Personalities are obviously imaginary
constructs" (p.140). It is his contention that the person- In multiple personality disorder, the primary
alities are the result of dissociated fantasies produced symptoms are dissociated mental organizations, inhib-
through spontaneous self-hypnosis (Bliss 1980, 1984). ited or perhaps faulty memory processing, and shifting
between dissociated mental organizations or ego states.
It is imperative to recognize, however, that
multiple personality is not a confabulation, but rather The concept of ego states is an extensive subject
that fantasy elaborations are efforts at mastering severe in itself and will not be explored in depth here. In the
child abuse. Defensive distortions of this nature regu- following discussion the term ego state is used in a
larly can be seen. For example, one patient recollected general sense to represent a specific and consistent
being victimized severely when she was raped repeat- mental organization that is dominated by a particular
edly by several men. Another alter, however, fantasized affect that links a particular self representation with a
that she was being promiscucous and in control, and particular object representation. A given ego state may
described herself as sexually active and enjoying the vary within limits according to its affective variance, but
sexual encounters with these men. She, in fact, de- is relatively stable in its self and object representations.
scribed a sense of mastery through her ability to have This is similar to Kemberg's (1966) view, which links
repeated sexual encounters in which she felt she was in object and self representations with a corresponding
charge. In these instances, the distortions and fantasies affect. The term ego state is obviously an oversimplified
served the purpose of mastery and psychic restitu tion rendering of a highly complex mental organization that
from the trauma. includes multiple contributions from instinctual urges,
character traits, defensive constellations, somato-sensory
As fantasies become dissociated and connected to processing, ego ideals, and moral pressures that reflect
dissociated states, they may come to be believed in with not only states within the ego, but many processes
the same lack of critical judgment as shown by patients normally understood as functions originating from id
receiving suggestions in deep hypnotic trance states. A and superego components as well.
classic example of the influence of a dissociated fantasy
on one's conscious experience of reality is the case of The unique feature of dissociation is a protective
Bridey Murphy reviewed by Hilgard (1977). Under and inhibitory capacity of the ego to maintain conflict-
hypnosis Virginia Tighe began talking in a thick Irish laden material in dissociated states. The inhibitions in
brogue and recalled a prior life as Bridey Murphy in memory processing reduce over-stimulation through an
Cork, Ireland. There was enormous reinforcement for elimination of painful material from the primary
this patient's belief in her prior life, including a cele- . personality's field of consciousness. It would appear
brated best selling book, The Search for Bridey Murphy that a clearer understanding of dissociation is needed.
(Bernstein,1956). Later, it was discovered that as a In this discussion, dissociation is defined as an
teenager, Virginia lived for five years across from a Mrs. active inhibitory process that normally screens internal
Anthony Corkell. Note the similarity of the name . and external stimuli from the field of consciousness.
Corkell to the name of the city of Cork where Bridey Dissociation functions as a shut-off mechanism (Spitz,
supposedly lived. Mrs. Corkell had fascinated Virginia 1961; Fraiberg, 1982) to prevent over-stimulation or
with her Irish background, and one of her sons bore the flooding of consciousness by excessive incoming stimuli.
same name as Bridey's suitor. The story became clearer Evidence suggests that this inhibitory process may have
still when it was discovered that Mrs. Corkell's maiden somatic and behavioral precursors at the earliest stages
~me was, in fact, Bridie Murphy, but spelled with an -ie of development (Spitz, 1%1; Fraiberg, 1982; Lichtenberg
mstead of an -ey. Here we can see the powerful influ- & Slap, 1972). These inhibitory processes can become
ence of fantasy and its impact on a patient's experience organized psychologically to defend against painful and
of reality when it is connected to a dissociated state. intolerable experiences. Dissociation regularly elimi-
It should be clear that fantasy elaborations in nates from consciousness painful memories in a variety
mUltiple personality are in the service of mastery and of conditions, from simple fugue states, to traumatic
serve a compensatory function in patients who have neuroses, to somnambulistic abreactions, to the complex
been severely abused. It is not suggested that the dissociative amnesias seen in multiple personality
traUmatic events themselves are fantasies, but rather that disorder.
Under normal conditions, dissociation enhances

DISSOCIATION 1:1, March 1988 3

 DISSOCIATION &: PSYCHODYNAMICS na [III mlilt I!

the integrating functions of the ego by screening out ex- "genetic component in hypnotizability" (p.55). It seems
cessive or irrelevant stimuli. In the service of normal clear now that dissociative phenomena and probably
functioning, most of our mental life is dissociated at any multiple personality disorder are transgenerational.
given time. Under pathological conditions, one finds an There are now several reports of multiple personality
interruption of integrating functions as in conversion occurring in families across more than one generation
symptoms, amnesias, or dissociated ego states. In these (KIuft, 1984a; KIuft, 1984b; Braun, 1985; Coons, 1985).
instances, the normal functions of dissociation become The relative importance of genetic and environmental
mobilized for defensive use. contributions respectively remains to be established.
It would appear then that the primary function of
dissociation, in many instances, is one of avoidance of Many physiologic studies now note changes
intrapsychic pain that does not require a splitting of between alter personalities including differences in \
psychic structure for its conception. Hypnosis regularly handedness, EEG and/or EMG findings, and in galvani
brought one patient, for example, to the edge of a crucial skin responses, some of which have been interpreted to
traumatic memory during which she had seen or heard a suggest changes in hemispheric dominance between
terrifying event behind closed doors. When she ap- personalities (Ludwig, Brandsma, Wilbur, Benfeldt, &
proached the doors during hypnosis, an alter regularly Jameson, 1972; Coons, 1984; Braun, 1983; Brende, 1984;
emerged who refused to divulge the information. In a Putnam, 1984; Sutcliffe & Jones, 1962).
second patient, a tough, assertive alter became increas- Findings of dissociative phenomena in patients
ingly aware of the depression surrounding her emer- with temporal lobe abnormalities lend further impetus
gence and her defensive stance. However, for months, to developing physiologic models in the production of
rather than cry in a session, another alter, a child, dissociation (Shenk & Bear, 1981; Mesulam, 1981; Akhta
emerged and cried while the first avoided her own tears. & Brenner, 1979; Sutcliffe & Jones, 1962; Coons, 1984;
It is of interest how often severe trauma results in Bear & Fedio, 1977; Devinsky & Bear, 1984). The signifi-
anesthesia and out-of-body experiences in which one cance of these physiologic alterations remains to be
seems to be "floating above their own body, viewing clarified, but clearly physiologic models can be further
rather dispassionately what is being done to it" (Spiegel, developed to help understand dissociation where a
1984, p.l0t). Hillman (1981) described a hostage in a model of structural splitting may not apply.
prison riot who could see his body moving, so he knew Lastly, behavioral models derived from infant
he had been kicked, but who felt nothing. The func- observation may provide intriguing insights into the
tional shut-off mechanism is obvious and highly remi- origin of dissociation. Fraiberg (1982) studied 12 se-
niscent of the protective dissociations in multiple verely abused infants and noted behaviors that are
personality disorder. Alters in multiple personality hauntingly familiar to behaviors seen in multiple
disorder are often specifically organized not only to personality disorder. Infants develop pathological
survive or be anesthetic to the original trauma, but to defenses when faced with overwhelming helplessness
prevent recall of the early abuse. They intervene in all and abuse. These defenses reveal attempts to cope at a
possible ways to maintain a primary personality's disso- stage where psychological mechanisms would be, at
ciative barriers and keep the painful memories sepa- best, embryonic. Infants can selectively screen out all
rated. Even when an alter repeatedly abreacts a trauma, perceptions of the abusive mother, essentially editing
the primary personality may remain oblivious to it. any recognition and thereby any painful affect associ-
ated with the mother's percept. Fraiberg (1982) states,
"the behavior suggests that, at intolerable limits, there is
NEW MODELS a cutoff mechanism that functions to obliterate the
experience to intolerable pain, analogs with physiologi-
The distinction between dissociation and splitting
cal pain suggest themselves" (p.62t). Fraiberg notes
is reconfirmed when we examine physiologic and
that, "the mechanism in which the perception of a
behavioral models of dissociation. Emde, Harmon,
painful stimulus can be abolished from consciousness
Metcalf, Koenig, and Wagonfeld (1971) noted in new-
may be present in early development" (p.622).
born infants, for example, that routine circumcision
without anesthesia was "usually followed by a pro- Other infants under conditions of "extreme peril"
longed non-rapid eye movement sleep" (p.496), a state (p.622) will become frozen and immobilized, staring into
generally considered a low point on an arousal contin- space over long periods, completely unresponsive of
uum. Emde postulates a "reduction of incoming stimuli efforts to intervene. When this "freezing" (p.622) breaks
by alteration of sensory thresholds" (p.49t), in this case, down, a complete disintegration takes place, as in one
by sleep. Even at birth, there appears a capacity to infant who "screams, flails wildly, begins to strike her
eliminate excessively painful stimuli. mother ...and finally runs into a closet to hide ... she
seems out of touch with reality" (p.624).
There is even evidence for the inheritibility of
_ dissociative phenomena in Morgan's (1973) study of In other infants, anxiety could provoke a switch
, hypnotizability in identical twins. Compared to non- from anxiety to fighting behavior or self-directed
twin controls, she found a statistically significant aggression. Often these infants reveal high thresholds

11 ,- 36 DISSOCIATION 1:1, March 19

 CONCLUSIONS
for pain that become lower in the course of successful This discussion has presented the limitations in
treatment. These pathological behaviors appear as early the concept of splitting as an explanation for the disso-
mechanisms maintaining integration in the face of ciative processes seen in multiple personality disorder.
overwhelming stress. Dissociation itself is seen as a major unifying force in its
own right. Dissociation is a protective inhibitory ego
Observations of this sort may show us early de- function that maintains conflict-laden material and
fensive operations that could, in'some cases, evolve into painful affects in dissociated states. Early childhood
dissociative defenses. These dissociative defenses fantasy contributes to the symptom picture by its
become crucial to the defensive structure of multiple defensive incorporation into these dissociated states.
personality disorder and will be understood as highly Newer research findings hold promise for enriching our
complex operations the understanding of which will understanding of the role of dissociation in the defensive
emerge from investigation along multiple lines of study. structure of multiple personality disorder.

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~1 " 38 DISSOCIATION 1:1, March 1988