Basic Concepts of Computer

The word computer derived from the word compute, which means to calculate.
Computer is an electronic device which is used to store the data, as per given instructions it gives
results quickly and accurately.

 Data : Data is a raw material of information.

 Information : Proper collection of the data is called information.

A computer system consists of mainly four basic units; namely input unit, storage unit, central processing
unit and output unit. Central Processing unit further includes Arithmetic logic unit and control unit, as
shown in the figure:

A computer performs five major operations or functions irrespective of its size and make. These are

• it accepts data or instructions as input,

• it stores data and instruction

• it processes data as per the instructions,

• it controls all operations inside a computer, and

• it gives results in the form of output.

Functional Units:
a. Input Unit: This unit is used for entering data and programs into the computer system by the user for
processing.
b. Storage Unit: The storage unit is used for storing data and instructions before and after processing.
c. Output Unit: The output unit is used for storing the result as output produced by the computer after
processing.
d. Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called processing.
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the storage unit and makes all sorts of
calculations based on the instructions given and the type of data provided. It is then sent back to the storage
unit. CPU includes Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit (CU)
• Arithmetic Logic Unit: All calculations and comparisons, based on the instructions provided, are carried
out within the ALU. It performs arithmetic functions like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and
also logical operations like greater than, less than and equal to etc.

• Control Unit: Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed by control
unit. It takes care of step by step processing of all operations in side the computer.
 Characteristics of Computer
The characteristics of computers that have made them so powerful and universally useful are speed,
accuracy, diligence, versatility and storage capacity. Let us discuss them briefly.

 Speed
Computers work at an incredible speed. A powerful computer is capable of performing about 3-4 million
simple instructions per second.

 Accuracy
In addition to being fast, computers are also accurate. Errors that may occur can almost always be attributed
to human error (inaccurate data, poorly designed system or faulty instructions/programs written by the
programmer)

 Diligence
Unlike human beings, computers are highly consistent. They do not suffer from human traits of boredom
and tiredness resulting in lack of concentration. Computers, therefore, are better than human beings in
performing voluminous and repetitive jobs.

 Versatility
Computers are versatile machines and are capable of performing any task as long as it can be broken down
into a series of logical steps. The presence of computers can be seen in almost every sphere – Railway/Air
reservation, Banks, Hotels, Weather forecasting and many more.

 Storage Capacity
Today’s computers can store large volumes of data. A piece of information once recorded (or stored) in the
computer, can never be forgotten and can be retrieved almost instantaneously.

Computer and its components

Memory
Computer’s memory can be classified into two types; primary memory and secondary memory

Primary Memory
This is the main memory of the computer. CPU can directly read or write on this memory. It is fixed on the
motherboard of the computer.
a. Primary Memory can be further classified as RAM and ROM.

• RAM or Random Access Memory is the unit in a computer system. It is the place in a computer where
the operating system, application programs and the data in current use are kept temporarily so that they can
be accessed by the computer’s processor. It is said to be ‘volatile’ since its contents are accessible only as
long as the computer is on. The contents of RAM are no more available once the computer is turned off.

 ROM or Read Only Memory is a special type of memory which can only be read and contents of
which are not lost even when the computer is switched off. It typically contains manufacturer’s
instructions. Among other things, ROM also stores an initial program called the ‘bootstrap loader’ whose
function is to start the operation of computer system once the power is turned on.

b. Secondary Memory
This memory is permanent in nature. It is used to store the different programs and the information
permanently (which were temporarily stored in RAM). It holds the information till we erase it.
These include devices that are peripheral and are connected and controlled by the computer to enable
permanent storage of programs and data.
Different types of secondary storage devices are:
Hard Disc, Compact Disc, DVD, Pen Drive, Flash Drive, etc.

Hard Disc
This is the main storage device of the computer which is fixed inside the CPU box. Its storage capacity is
very high that varies from 200 GB to 3 TB. As it is fixed inside the CPU box, it is not easy to move the hard
disc from one computer to another.
A hard disc contains a number of metallic discs which are called platters. Information is recorded on the
surface of the platters in a series of concentric circles.These circles are called Tracks. For the purpose of
addressing information, the surface is considered to be divided into segments called Sectors.This division
helps in the proper organisation of data on the platter and helps in maximum utilisation of the storage space.

Hard disks are rewritable.

Compact Disc(CD)

• Compact Disk
Compact Disk (CD) is portable disk having data storage capacity between 650-700 MB. It can hold large
amount of information such as music, full-motion videos, and text etc. CDs can be either read only or read
write type.
• Digital Video Disk
Digital Video Disk (DVD) is similar to a CD but has larger storage capacity and enormous clarity.
Depending upon the disk type it can store several Gigabytes of data. DVDs are primarily used to store music
or movies and can be played back on your television or the computer too. These are not rewritable.

Flash Drive:

It is an electronic memory device popularly known as pen drive in which data can be stored permanently and
erased when not needed.it is a portable storage device that can be easily connected and removed from the
CPU to store data in it.its capacity can vary form 2 GB to 256 GB.
Blu-ray Disc

This is a newly invented optical data storage device whose storage capacity can be form 25 GB up to 200
GB.it is mainly used to store high quality sound and movie data.They are the scratch resistant discs,that’s
why,storing data on these is much safer than a CD OR DVD.

Memory Units
Data in the computer’s memory is represented by the two digits 0 and 1.These two digits are called Binary
Digits or Bits. A bit is the smallest unit of computer’s memory. To represent each character in memory,a set
of 8 binary digits is used.This set of 8 bit is called a Byte. So,one Byte is used to represent one character of
data.
Bits=0,1
1 Byte= 8 bits(e.g,11001011)
To represent a large amount of data in memory,higher data storage units are used like
KB(Kilobyte),MB(megabyte),GB(Gigabyte),TB(terabyte),etc.
But all these unites are formed with the set of bytes like,

Input / Output Devices:

These devices are used to enter information and instructions into a computer for storage or processing and to
deliver the processed data to a user. Input/Output devices are required for users to communicate with the
computer. In simple terms, input devices bring information INTO the computer and output devices bring
information OUT of a computer system. These input/output devices are also known as peripherals since they
surround the CPU and memory of a computer system.
Input Devices
An input device is any device that provides input to a computer. There are many input devices, but the two
most common ones are a keyboard and mouse. Every key you press on the keyboard and every movement or
click you make with the mouse sends a specific input signal to the computer.
• Keyboard: The keyboard is very much like a standard typewriter keyboard with a few additional keys.
The basic QWERTY layout of characters is maintained to make it easy to use the system. The additional
keys are included to perform certain special functions. These are known as function keys that vary in
number from keyboard to keyboard.

• Mouse: A device that controls the movement of the cursor or pointer on a display screen. A mouse is a
small object you can roll along a hard and flat surface. Its name is derived from its shape, which looks a bit
like a mouse. As you move the mouse, the pointer on the display screen moves in the same direction.

• Trackball: A trackball is an input device used to enter motion data into computers or other electronic
devices. It serves the same purpose as a mouse, but is designed with a moveable ball on the top, which can
be rolled in any direction.

• Touchpad: A touch pad is a device for pointing (controlling input positioning) on a computer display
screen. It is an alternative to the mouse. Originally incorporated in laptop computers, touch pads are also
being made for use with desktop computers. A touch pad works by sensing the user’s finger movement and
downward pressure. • Touch Screen: It allows the user to operate/make selections by simply touching the
display screen. A display screen that is sensitive to the touch of a finger or stylus. Widely used on ATM
machines, retail point-of-sale terminals, car navigation systems, medical monitors and industrial control
panels.

 Light Pen: Light pen is an input device that utilizes a light-sensitive detector to select objects on a
display screen.

• Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR): MICR can identify character printed with a special ink that
contains particles of magnetic material. This device particularly finds applications in banking industry.

• Optical mark recognition (OMR): Optical mark recognition, also called mark sense reader is a
technology where an OMR device senses the presence or absence of a mark, such as pencil mark. OMR is
widely used in tests such as aptitude test.
• Bar code reader: Bar-code readers are photoelectric scanners that read the bar codes or vertical zebra
strips marks, printed on product containers. These devices are generally used in super markets, bookshops
etc.

 Scanner
Scanner is an input device that can read text or illustration printed on paper and translates the
information into a form that the computer can use. A scanner works by digitizing an image.

Web Camera
A webcam is a small digital video camera directly or indirectly connected to a computer or a computer network.
Webcams come with software that needs to be installed on the computer to help users record video on or
stream it from the Web. Webcams are capable of taking pictures as well as high-definition videos, although the
video quality can be lower compared to other camera models.
Webcams are also known as Web cameras.

Output Devices:
Output device receives information from the CPU and presents it to the user in the desired from. The
processed data, stored in the memory of the computer is sent to the output unit, which then converts it into a
form that can be understood by the user. The output is usually produced in one of the two ways – on the
display device, or on paper (hard copy).
•Monitor: is often used synonymously with “computer screen” or “display.” Monitor is an output device
that resembles the television screen (fig. 1.8). It may use a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) to display information.
The monitor is associated with a keyboard for manual input of characters and displays the information as it
is keyed in. It also displays the program or application output. Like the television, monitors are also
available in different sizes.
There are variety of monitor available in the market such as:
CRT (cathode ray tube) monitors
These monitors employ CRT technology, which was used most commonly in the manufacturing of
television screens. With these monitors, a stream of intense high energy electrons is used to form images on
a fluorescent screen. A cathode ray tube is basically a vacuum tube containing an electron gun at one end
and a fluorescent screen at another end.

LCD (liquid crystal display) monitors

The LCD monitor incorporates one of the most advanced technologies available today. Typically, it consists
of a layer of color or monochrome pixels arranged schematically between a couple of transparent electrodes
and two polarizing filters. Optical effect is made possible by polarizing the light in varied amounts and
making it pass through the liquid crystal layer. The advantages of LCD monitors include their compact size
which makes them lightweight. They also don’t consume much electricity as CRT monitors, and can be run
off of batteries which makes them ideal for laptops.

LED (light-emitting diodes) monitors

LED monitors are the latest types of monitors on the market today. These are flat panel, or slightly curved
displays which make use of light-emitting diodes for back-lighting, instead of cold cathode fluorescent
(CCFL) back-lighting used in LCDs. LED monitors are said to use much lesser power than CRT and LCD
and are considered far more environmentally friendly.

The advantages of LED monitors are that they produce images with higher contrast, have less negative
environmental impact when disposed, are more durable than CRT or LCD monitors, and features a very thin
design. They also don’t produce much heat while running.

• Printer: "A printer is an external output device that takes data from a computer and generates output
in the form of graphics / text on a paper".

There are two types of printers.

Impact printers

An impact printer makes contact with the paper. It usually forms the print image by pressing an inked ribbon
against the paper using a hammer or pins. Following are some examples of impact printers.

Dot-Matrix Printers

The dot-matrix printer uses print heads containing from 9 to 24 pins. These pins produce patterns of dots on
the paper to form the individual characters. The 24 pin dot-matrix printer produces more dots that a 9 pin
dot-matrix printer, which results in much better quality and clearer characters. The general rule is: the more
pins, the clearer the letters on the paper. The pins strike the ribbon individually as the print mechanism
moves across the entire print line in both directions, i-e, from left to right, then right to left, and so on. The
user can produce a color output with a dot-matrix printer (the user will change the black ribbon with a
ribbon that has color stripes). Dot-matrix printers are inexpensive and typically print at speeds of 100-600
characters per second.

Daisy-wheel printers

In order to get the quality of type found on typewriters, a daisy-wheel impact printer can be used. It is called
daisy-wheel printer because the print mechanism looks like a daisy; at the end of each “Petal” is a fully
formed character which produces solid-line print. A hammer strikes a “petal” containing a character against
the ribbon, and the character prints on the paper. Its speed is slow typically 25-55 characters per second.

Drum printer

A drum printer consists of a solid, cylindrical drum that has raised characters in bands on its surface. The
number of print positions across the drum equals the number available on the page. This number typically
ranges from 80-132 print positions. The drum rotates at a rapid speed. For each possible print position there
is a print hammer located behind the paper. These hammers strike the paper, along the ink ribbon, against
the proper character on the drum as it passes. One revolution of the drum is required to print each line. This
means that all characters on the line are not printed at exactly the same time, but the time required to print
the entire line is fast enough to call them line printers. Typical speeds of drum printers are in the range of
300 to 2000 lines per minute.

Non-impact printers

Non-impact printers do not use a striking device to produce characters on the paper; and because these
printers do not hammer against the paper they are much quieter. Following are some non-impacted printers.

Ink-jet printers

Ink-jet printers work in the same fashion as dot-matrix printers in the form images or characters with little
dots. However, the dots are formed by tiny droplets of ink. Ink-jet printers form characters on paper by
spraying ink from tiny nozzles through an electrical field that arranges the charged ink particles into
characters at the rate of approximately 250 characters per second. The ink is absorbed into the paper and
dries instantly. Various colors of ink can also be used.

These printers are a better choice if user uses one color more than other colors. These printers produce less
noise and print in better quality with greater speed.
Laser printers

A laser printer works like a photocopy machine. Laser printers produce images on paper by directing a laser
beam at a mirror which bounces the beam onto a drum. Laser printers use buffers that store an entire page at
a time. The speed of laser printers is high and they print quietly without producing much noise. Many home-
use laser printers can print eight pages per minute, but faster and print approximately 21,000 lines per
minute, or 437 pages per minute if each page contains 48 lines. When high speed laser printers were
introduced they were expensive.

Advantages of Laser Printer

 The main advantage of Laser printer is its speed & efficiency at which it prints high-quality quality
graphics & text.

 Laser printers produce high-quality output as compared to other printers.

 Laser printers are quite and does not produce disturbing sounds.

 They are also capable to produce color prints.

Disadvantages of Laser Printer

 The main disadvantage of Laser printer is its cost, they are relatively costly as compared to other
printers.

 The maintenance, repair & servicing charges are also high of these printers.

 Laser printers emit small amount of ozone and are hazardous to health and the atmosphere.

• Plotter: Plotters are used to print graphical output on paper. It interprets computer commands and makes
line drawings on paper using multi colored automated pens. It is capable of producing graphs, drawings,
charts, maps etc.
• Sound cards and Speaker(s): An expansion board that enables a computer to manipulate and output
sounds. Sound cards are necessary for nearly all CD-ROMs and have become commonplace on modern
personal computers. Sound cards enable the computer to output sound through speakers connected to the
board, to record sound input from a microphone connected to the computer, and manipulate sound stored on
a disk.

Computer Software
Computer software is the set of programs that makes the hardware perform a set of tasks in particular order. Hardware and
software are complimentary to each other. Both have to work together to produce meaningful results. Computer software is
classified into two broad categories; system software and application software.
System Software:
System software consists of a group of programs that control the operations of a computer equipment including functions
like managing memory, managing peripherals, loading, storing, and is an interface between the application programs and
the computer. MS DOS (Microsoft’s Disk Operating System), UNIX are examples of system software.
Application software:
Software that can perform a specific task for the user, such as word processing, accounting, budgeting or payroll, fall under
the category of application software. Word processors, spreadsheets, database management systems are all examples of
general purpose application software.

Types of application software are:

• Word processing software: The main purpose of this software is to produce documents. MS-Word, Word Pad, Notepad and
some other text editors are some of the examples of word processing software.

• Database software: Database is a collection of related data. The purpose of this software is to organize and manage data.
The advantage of this software is that you can change way data is stored and displayed. MS access, dBase, FoxPro,
Paradox, and Oracle are some of the examples of database software.

• Spread sheet software: The spread sheet software is used to maintain budget, financial statements, grade sheets, and
sales records. The purpose of this software is organizing numbers. It also allows the users to perform simple or complex
calculations on the numbers entered in rows and columns. MS-Excel is one of the example of spreadsheet software.

• Presentation software: This software is used to display the information in the form of slide show. The three main functions
of presentation software is editing that allows insertion and formatting of text, including graphics in the text and executing the
slide shows. The best example for this type of application software is Microsoft PowerPoint.

• Multimedia software: Media players and real players are the examples of multimedia software. This software will allow the
user to create audio and videos. The different forms of multimedia software are audio converters, players, burners, video
encoders and decoders.

 Embedded Software: This type of software embedded with hardware to do a

specific type of job.

 Open source software:

  Open source refers to a program or software in which the source code (the form of the program when a
programmer writes a program in a particular programming language) is available to the general public for use
and/or modification from its original design free of charge.
 The basics behind the Open Source Initiative is that when programmers can read, redistribute and modify the
source code for a piece of software, the software evolves
 Proprietary software is privately owned and controlled. In the computer industry, proprietary is
considered the opposite of open. A proprietary design or technique is one that is owned by a company. It also
implies that the company has not divulged specifications that would allow other companies to duplicate the
product.
.
Computer Languages
Computer language or programming language is a coded syntax used by computer
programmers to communicate with a computer. Computer language establishes a flow of
communication between software programs. The language enables a computer user to dictate
what commands the computer must perform to process data. These languages can be
classified into following categories.
1. Machine language

2. Assembly language

3. High level language

Machine Language
Machine language or machine code is the native language directly understood by the computer’s central processing unit or
CPU. This type of computer language is not easy to understand, as it only uses a binary system, an element of notations
containing only a series of numbers consisting of one and zero, to produce commands.
Assembly Level Language
Assembly Level Language is a set of codes that can run directly on the computer’s processor. This type of language is most
appropriate in writing operating systems and maintaining desktop applications. With the assembly level language, it is easier
for a programmer to define commands. It is easier to understand and use as compared to machine language.
High Level Language
High Level Languages are user-friendly languages which are similar to English with vocabulary of words and symbols.
These are easier to learn and require less time to write.

They are problem oriented rather than ‘machine’ based.

Program written in a high-level language can be translated into many machine language and therefore can run on any
computer for which there exists an appropriate translator.

Compiler & Interpreter

These are the programs that execute instructions written in a high-level language. There are two ways to run programs
written in a high-level language. The most common is to compile the program; the other method is to pass the program
through an interpreter.
 a. Compiler

A compiler is a special program that processes statements written in a particular programming language called as source
code and converts them into machine language or “machine code” that a computer’s processor uses.

Compiler translates high level language programs directly into machine language program. This process is called
compilation.

b. Interpreter
An interpreter translates high-level instructions into an intermediate form, which it then executes. Compiled programs
generally run faster than interpreted programs. The advantage of an interpreter, however, is that it does not need to go
through the compilation stage during which machine instructions are generated. This process can be time-consuming if the
program is long.