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Aqsa Sahar Roll no.20 MCS 4th Semester Session 2017-19 IUB (BWN)

Lecture # 1 Spatial Data Modeling (SDM)

Model: The real world is too complex for our immediate and direct understanding so we create models of
reality that are intended to have some similarity with selected aspects of the real world.

Database Model: Databases are created from these "models" as a fundamental step in coming to know the
nature and status of that reality.

Spatial Data Models: A spatial database is a collection of spatially referenced data that acts as a model of
reality.

Geo Data Processing and Data Models:

Data acquisition Acquisition oriented

Data models

Data Processing Query Oriented Data

Models

Data Output Oriented Data

Presentation Models

Basic Structures of Spatial Data: GIS are used to store and process the data referring to the spatial objects/
spatial entities. Data contains both geometric and thematic information.

Geometric Data:

Geometric Data

Position/ Shape and Topological

Orientation Size Relationships

Levels of Data Modeling:

 Conceptual Data Model

 Logical Data Model.
 Physical data model/ implementation model.
Spatial Data Models:

Spatial Data models are used to represent the spatial component of geographic data.
There are two spatial data models
1. Raster Data Model
 Run-length encoding
 Quad-tree Data Model

2. Vector Data Model

 Spaghetti Data Model
 Topological Data Model
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Raster Data Model:

Characteristics:
 Basic unit / spatial unit / Homogeneous unit are cell.
 The map space is regularly subdivided into cells.
 Cell size is same in whole map space.
 Location and position is identified with the help of rows and columns numbers.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Simple data structure.  Less compact
 Overlay operations are easily implemented.  Topological relationships are difficult to represent.
 High spatial variability is represented.  Objects are not in natural shape.
 Use in image enhancement techniques.

Vector Data Model:

Characteristics:
 Homogeneous unit are the point, line and polygon
 The position of each object in a map space is defined by the coordinate reference system.
 Every position in the map space has a unique coordinate value.
 Variable in size
Advantages:
 More compact data structure rather than raster model.
 Network operations are easily and efficiently implemented.
 Objects are in more natural shape
 Provide precise positioning of features
Disadvantages:
 More difficult data structure rather than raster model.
 Overlay operations are more difficult to implement.
 Representation of high spatial variability is inefficient.
 Difficult to use vector data in image enhancement techniques.

Vector Data Model:

 Vector-data-Sequential points or vertices
 Arc-String of vertices terminated by node
 Node-Vertex that starts and ends an arc
 Polygon-Set of closed coordinate pairs
 Spaghetti Data model
 Topological Data Model
 TIN
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The Spaghetti Model:

 The spaghetti model is the most simple vector data model
 The model is a direct representation of a graphical image--NO
 explicit topological information
 The structure of this model is very simple and easy to understand
 The data model is the map expressed in Cartesian Coordinate
 Spatial Relationship between the features are not recorded

No spatial relationships are encoded.

― This represents a significant deficiency since, to perform any type of spatial analysis, the spatial
relationship between such entities must be derived through computation.
• Each entity on a map becomes one logical record in the digital file, and is defined as a string of x, y
coordinates.
• Each point, line, or polygon is stored as a record in a file that consists of that entity’s ID and a list of
coordinates that define geometry.
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The Spaghetti Model:

Advantages:
 Easy to create and store
 The structure of this model is very simple and easy to understand
 The data model is the map expressed in Cartesian Coordinate
 Efficient for display and plotting

Disadvantages:
 Inefficient for most types of spatial analysis.
 Redundant since the boundary segment between two polygons can
be stored twice (once for each feature)

Topological Data Model:

 Topology is the mathematical method used to define spatial relationship
 Dangling Arc is an arc whose one node is not connected to another arc
 Topology is recorded in three data tables
 Often referred to as an intelligent data structure
 A GIS topology is a set of rules and behaviors that model how points, line and polygons share
geometry.
 ArcGIS implements topology through a set of validation rules that define how features may share a
geographic space and a set of editing tools that work with features that share geometry in an
integrated fashion.
 Polygon Topology Table shows arcs that made up the boundaries of each polygon
 Node Topology Table each node is defined by the arcs which it belongs
 Arc Topology Table defines the relationship of the node and polygons to the arcs.
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TIN:
 A triangular irregular network can be created
from the data that usually represents altitude.
 Spot-heights are the most common source of
data in this form.
 The first stage in generating a TIN is to plot
the entire x, y coordinates as points.

SPOT HEIGHTS Triangles Generated from Spot Heights

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Lecture # 2 Topology
GIS as a Representation of Reality:
• Selection:
Select objects of the real world to be included in the digital model of the real world.

• Representation in a standard way:

The real world objects must be represented by ―virtual‖ objects in the GIS.

• Quantification:
GIS data into the computer’s memory in a physical data structure (i.e. files and directories).
• Geographic objects have two components
• A description
• A spatial component
• What makes it a geographic Entity?? description + spatial object + unique identity

Geographic Entities:
• Point
• Line (Polyline)
• Polygon

Point
 Zero-dimensional abstraction of an object represented by a single X, Y co-ordinate.
 normally represents a geographic feature too small to be displayed as a line or area
 stored by their real (earth) coordinates

Line
 One dimensional linear Objects
 Commonly used for representing networks

Poly-Line
 Finite set of line segment/ edges such that each segment endpoint (vertex) is shared by exactly two
segments, except for two endpoints.
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Topology:

Topology defines how the different features are related to each other.

Why topology in GIS?

• To avoid redundancy

• Efficient implementation of Geographic Queries

Adjacency
SPATIAL RELATIONSHIP Connectivity
Containment
Geographic Analysis:
 Area-Area Relationship
 Line-Line Relationship
 Area-Line Relationship
 Point-Line Relationship
 Point-Polygon Relationship
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Area-Area Relationship: Line-Line Relationship

 Connectivity

Branching Off
 Adjacency
Cross

Intersect
 Containment
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Cluster Tolerance:

• The minimum distance between vertices

Of features that are not coincident.
• Vertices that fall within cluster tolerance
Are defined as coincident and snapped together

Mono-Layer:
Polygon Topology:

E.g. a voting district map cannot have an overlap in its coverage

E.g. soil polygons cannot include gaps or voids-they must form a continuous fabric.
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Line Topology:

E.g. a street network has line segments that connect. Exceptions can be introduced for dead-end roads

E.g. Lot lines cannot intersect or overlap and must connect to one another only at the end points of each line
feature.

E.g. for transportation analysis, streets and highway segments of the same features should not overlap
themselves.
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E.g. contour lines cannot intersect

E.g. a highway system is made up individual features where any one feature is not made up of more than one
part.

Bi-Layer: Polygon Topology

E.g. states are

Covered by

Countries
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Polygon with Point

E.g. parcels must contain one address point

Point Topology: Point with polygon

E.g. state capitals must be inside each state

Point with polygon

E.g. utility service points might be required on the boundary of parcels

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E.g. street intersections must be covered by the endpoints of street centerline.

E.g. monitoring stations must fall along streams

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Lecture#3 Terrain Analyses in GIS

Slope:

 Slope, or gradient, describes the rate of elevation change of a landscape.

 DEMs contain both horizontal (coordinate) and vertical (elevation) information; they can be used to
create slope maps.
 It is measured in angular units or as percentage.

Comparing values for slope in degrees versus percent:

Aspect:

 It is the steepest down slope direction

 It is measured clockwise in degrees from 0 – due north- to 360 again due north, coming full circle.

 The value of each cell in an aspect dataset represents the direction of the cell’s slope face.

 Flat slopes have no direction and are given a default value of -1

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Usefulness:

 Identifying best slopes for ski runs (Ideally north-facing slopes on a mountain)

 Calculating solar illumination at various locations.

 Identifying potential runoff sites (e.g. southerly slopes in a mountainous region are likely to melt
first )

 Identifying flat areas in hilly regions for a plane to land in an emergency.

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Lecture # 4 Hydrology
Hydrology and Water Resources:

• Modern hydrology is concerned with the distribution of water on the surface of the earth and its
movement over and beneath the surface, and through the atmosphere.
• Surface water Hydrology
• Ground water hydrology
• global waterresources, about 97.2% in oceans, 2.8% is available as fresh
• Out of this 2.8% of fresh water, about 2.2% is available as surface water and 0.6% as ground water

Catchment Area or River Basin:

• The area of land draining into a stream at a given location is known as catchment area.
• In simple words area that drains its water at a single outlet.
• Also called as drainage area or drainage basin or watershed (USA).
• All the amount of precipitation, that falls on a particular catchment reaches at the outlet point of the
catchment?

Catchment of River A at station M

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Hydrological Cycle:

Phases of Hydrological cycle:

• Hydrologic cycle is the water transfer cycle, which occurs continuously in nature

• The three important phases of the hydrologic cycle are,

(a) Evaporation and evapotranspiration

(b) Precipitation and

(c) Runoff

Water Balance Equation or Hydrological Equation:

• Mathematical description of the Hydrological process and incorporates principles of mass

I = O + ΔS Where I = inflow, O = outflow, ΔS = change in storage

Or

Q= P-E- ΔS Where Q = Runoff, P = precipitation, E = Evaporation, ΔS = change in storage

Scope of Hydrology:

The study of hydrology helps us to know

(i) the maximum probable flood that may occur at a given site and its frequency; this is required for the safe
design of drains and culverts, dams and reservoirs, channels and other flood control structures.
(ii) The water yield from a basin—its occurrence, quantity and frequency, etc.; this is necessary for the
design of dams, municipal water supply, water power, river navigation, etc.
(iii) the ground water development for which a knowledge of the hydrogeology of the area, i.e., of the
formation soil, recharge facilities like streams and reservoirs, rainfall pattern, climate, cropping pattern, etc.
are required.
(iv) The maximum intensity of storm and its frequency for the design of a drainage project in the area
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Lecture # 5 Digital Elevation Model (DEM)

 Dem are the digital representation of altitude
 Also called DTM
DTM sources:
 Existing sources
◦ From digitized topographical maps
◦ From existing elevation information, e.g.GTOPO30, SRTM
• Various techniques can be used for DTM creation
◦ Ground surveying
◦ Applying photogrammetric means directly from air and space borne stereo images
◦ Radar
◦ Lidar

Techniques for DTM generation:

Technique Advantage Disadvantage

 Contour lines Easy Labor-intensive

 GPS Accurate Only points, not for large areas

 Photogrammetry Suitable for large areas only points many points are needed

 Radar interferometry Weather and daytime in dependable Complex processing

 Laser altimetry Accurate Expensive for large areas

Digital elevation data structures:

Digital Elevation Data are usually organized into one of three data structures:

 Contours or isolines of constant elevation at a specified interval are probably the most familiar
representation of terrain surfaces. Contour maps for most of the world are readily available at a
variety of scales.

 Grids are a matrix structure that records topological relations between data points implicitly (i.e.
DEMs). Since this data structure is similar to the array storage structure of digital computers, the
handling of elevation matrices is simple and grid-based terrain modeling algorithms therefore tend to
be relatively straightforward.

 Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) model is a significant alternative to the regular raster of DEM
and has been adopted in numerous GIS, automated mapping and computer packages. The TIN model
was developed as a simple way to build a surface from a set of irregularly distributed points

Errors in DEM:

 Dem created by Contours

 Dem created by SRTM
 Dem in Hydro processing
 Related to GPS data
 Errors in Photogrammetry
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Errors
Errorsrelated
relatedtotoContours:
Contours: Errors related to SRTM:

 Spot Heights  Fill Sinks

 Digitizing  Filter operations

 Code Consistency  Conditional statements to cope these errors

 Low resolution data

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Lecture # 6 DEM Based Watershed

Watershed:

A watershed, also called a drainage basin or catchment area, is defined as an area in which all water flowing
into it goes to a common outlet.
• Total area of water flowing towards an outlet point (Pour point).
• Water flows in the direction of the terrain steepest downhill slope. Streamlines (blue arrows) are
orthogonal to the contour lines
• Total area of water flowing towards an outlet point (Pour point).
• Water flows in the direction of the terrain steepest downhill slope. Streamlines (blue arrows) are
orthogonal to the contour lines.
Characteristics of Watershed:
 All characteristics affect the disposal of water.
 SIZE: It helps in computing parameters like precipitation received, retained, drained off.
 SHAPE: Different shapes based on morphological parameters like geology and structure, e.g. pear,
elongated etc.
 PHISIOGRAPHY: Lands altitude and physical disposition.
 SLOPE: It controls the rainfall distribution and movement:
 CLIMATE: It decides the quantitative approach.
 DRAINAGE: It determines the flow characteristics and so the erosion behavior.
 VEGETATION: Information of species gives a sure ground for selection plants and crops.
 GEOLOGY AND SOILS: Their nature determines size, shape, physiographic, drainage and
groundwater conditions. Soils, derivative of rocks are the basic to greenery
 HYDROLOGY: Basic to final goal of growing greenery in a watershed. It helps in quantification of
water available.
 HYDROGEOLOGY: Availability of groundwater.
 SOCIOECONOMICS: Statistics on people and their health, hygiene, wants and wishes are
important in managing water.
Watershed Management:
 It involves management of land, water, energy and greenery integrating all the relevant approaches
appropriate to socioeconomic background for a pragmatic development of a watershed.
 Greening of the watershed through proper management of land water and energy resource.

Drainage Network:

• Topography defines drainage

direction on the landscape and
resultant runoff and stream flow
accumulation processes
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Catchments:
• For every stream segment, there is a
corresponding catchment.
• Catchments are a tessellation of the
landscape through a set of physical rules

DEM:
• Digital Elevation Models (DEM) is grids of elevation.
• Contour maps are converted to digital contour files and elevation values are interpolated from
irregularly spaced points to regular grid points.

Flow Directions:
Flow Directions:
• The eight-direction pour point algorithm (D-8) assigns a flow direction code
to each cell, based on the steepest downhill slope as defined by the DEM.
• The flow direction code indicates the cell towards which the water flows.
• Flow direction is calculated by comparing the distance weighted drop of
neighboring cells
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Flow Accumulation:
• Flow Accumulation:
– Flow accumulation is a measure of the drainage area in units of grid cells.
– The flow accumulation value of a cell is the sum of the flow accumulation values of the
neighboring cells and the number of neighboring cells which flow into it.
The Pit Removal Problem:
• DEM creation results in artificial pits in the landscape
• A pit is a set of one or more cells which has no downstream cells around it
• Unless these pits are removed they become sinks and isolate portions of the watershed
• Pit removal is first thing done with a DEM.

Pit Filling:
Increase elevation to the pour point elevation until the pit drains to a neighbor.

Carving:
Lower elevation of neighbor along a predefined drainage path until the pit drains to the outlet point.

Summary Concepts:
• The eight direction pour point model approximates the surface flow using eight discrete grid
directions
• The elevation surface represented by a grid digital elevation model is used to derive surfaces
representing other hydrologic variables of interest such as
– Slope
– Flow direction
– Drainage area
– Catchments, watersheds and channel networks
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Lecture # 7 Geometric Earth Models

Geometric Earth Models:
• Flat earth models
• Spherical earth models
• Ellipsoidal earth models
Flat earth models:
These are still used for plane surveying, over distances short enough so that earth curvature is
insignificant (less than 10 kms).
Spherical Earth Models:
• Represent the shape of the earth with a sphere of a specified radius.
• Often used for short range navigation and for global distance approximations.
• Fail to model the actual shape of the earth.
• The slight flattening of the earth at the poles results in about a 20 km difference at the poles b/w an
average spherical radius and the measured polar radius of the earth.
Ellipsoidal Earth Models:
• Are required for accurate range and bearing calculations over long distances.
• Define an ellipsoid with an equatorial radius and a polar radius.
• Represent the shape of the earth over the smoothed, averaged sea‐surface.
Datum:
• Geodetic datum’s define the size and shape of the earth and the origin and orientation of the
coordinate systems used to map the earth.
• A Datum defines how the coordinate system is mapped over the surface of the earth.
• A smooth mathematical surface that fits closely to the mean sea level surface throughout the area of
interest.
• The surface to which the ground control measurements are referred.
• Provides a frame of reference for measuring locations on the surface of the earth.
Geoid Earth without topography:
• To determine latitude and longitude, surveyors level their measurements down to a surface called a
geoid. The geoid is the shape that the earth would have if all its topography were removed.
• Or more accurately, the shape the earth would have if every point on the earth's surface had the value
of mean sea level.
• Due to irregularities or mass anomalies in this distribution the "global ocean" is forced to be an
undulated surface. This surface is called the geoid or the "physical figure of the earth".
 If the earth was of uniform density and the earth's topography didn't exist.
 The geoid would have the shape of an ellipsoid centered on the earth's center of mass.
 But – The Density is NOT uniform.
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Shape of the Earth:

• The assumption that the earth is a sphere is possible for small-scale maps, those smaller than
1:5,000,000.
• However, to maintain accuracy for larger-scale maps (scales of 1:1,000,000 or larger), a spheroid is
necessary to represent the shape of the earth.

Shape of the earth:

A spheroid is defined by the semi- major axis, a, and the semi-minor axis, b.
The flattening f is the difference in length between the two axes expressed
as a fraction or a decimal. f = (a - b) / a
The flattening ranges between zero and one. A flattening value of 0 means the
two axes are equal, resulting in a sphere. The flattening of the earth is
approx. 0.0033530 (a = 6378137.0 m)

It’s not only the ellipsoid parameters that define a datum but also position, different datums may have
the same ellipsoid but with positional shifts:

WGS‐84:
• The most common and prevailing of global datums is the WGS‐84 (World Geodetic Survey 1984).
• It is being widely adopted and implemented especially with the advent of the GPS (Global
Positioning System).