Hindawi

International Journal of Antennas and Propagation

Volume 2017, Article ID 4940656, 17 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/4940656

Review Article
A Review of Antennas for Picosatellite Applications

Abdul Halim Lokman,1 Ping Jack Soh,1 Saidatul Norlyana Azemi,1 Herwansyah Lago,1
Symon K. Podilchak,2 Suramate Chalermwisutkul,3 Mohd Faizal Jamlos,1
Azremi Abdullah Al-Hadi,1 Prayoot Akkaraekthalin,3,4 and Steven Gao5
1
Advanced Communication Engineering (ACE) CoE, School of Computer and Communication Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Perlis,
Pauh Putra Campus, 02600 Arau, Perlis, Malaysia
2
Institute of Sensors, Signals and Systems, School of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Heriot-Watt University,
Edinburgh EH14 4AS, UK
3
Department of Electrical and Software Systems Engineering, The Sirindhorn International Thai-German Graduate School of
Engineering, King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok, 1518 Pracharat 1 Rd., Wongsawang, Bangsue,
Bangkok 10800, Thailand
4
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok,
1518 Pracharat 1 Rd., Wongsawang, Bangsue, Bangkok 10800, Thailand
5
School of Engineering and Digital Arts, The University of Kent, Jennison Building, Canterbury, Kent CT2 7NT, UK

Correspondence should be addressed to Ping Jack Soh; pjsoh@ieee.org

Received 21 November 2016; Revised 17 January 2017; Accepted 7 February 2017; Published 30 April 2017

Academic Editor: N. Nasimuddin

Copyright © 2017 Abdul Halim Lokman et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly
cited.

Cube Satellite (CubeSat) technology is an attractive emerging alternative to conventional satellites in radio astronomy, earth
observation, weather forecasting, space research, and communications. Its size, however, poses a more challenging restriction on the
circuitry and components as they are expected to be closely spaced and very power efficient. One of the main components that will
require careful design for CubeSats is their antennas, as they are needed to be lightweight, small in size, and compact or deployable
for larger antennas. This paper presents a review of antennas suitable for picosatellite applications. An overview of the applications
of picosatellites will first be explained, prior to a discussion on their antenna requirements. Material and antenna topologies which
have been used will be subsequently discussed prior to the presentation of several deployable configurations. Finally, a perspective
and future research work on CubeSat antennas will be discussed in the conclusion.

1. Introduction commercial-off-the-shelf components [1]. Due to their size

and weight, CubeSats are known to be part of the picosatellite
In general, satellites are structures that are capable of trans- family. One of the first CubeSats was developed by the
mitting and receiving or relaying signals from space. Due California Polytechnic State University (Cal Poly) in collab-
to their location, they are able to provide a wide coverage oration with Stanford University starting 1999 [1] and was
area with long communication range. The development of the launched in 2002 [2]. The Cal Poly’s mission was aimed
conventional satellites incurs significant amount of financial, at using Stanford University’s spacecraft named OPAL as
time, and resources costs. However, a viable alternative to this the proposed CubeSat launcher [1]. This project began with
is the deployment of picosatellites such as CubeSats. They the development of the standard launcher known as the
cost less, consume less power, and allow fast development Poly Picosatellite Orbital Deployer (P-POD). Besides the
time but, at the same time, are feasible and robust, similar to CubeSat structure, its theoretical criteria such as the weight
conventional satellites. and the size of CubeSat must comply with the launcher’s
CubeSats are satellite structures with a volume of 10 cm3 specifications to ensure a successful deployment into space
and a mass of less than 1 kg, typically made of lightweight [1]. Several requirements for the P-POD deployer include
2 International Journal of Antennas and Propagation

aspects such as a space between CubeSat edges from the rail 2000 [9]. A larger satellite for this application, ENVISAT, was
to avoid friction and ensure smooth deployment. Besides built by ESA [9]. It is capable of fast and efficient observation
that, extended spaces need to be available for solar panels, [9]. The need for picosatellites such as CubeSats was quickly
antennas, or other components with possible extension of realized due to the need of mass-release payloads to ensure
more than 10 cm. mass efficiency using a single launch [9]. Other researches
Since then, several types of CubeSats were developed with involving nano- and picosatellites have been implemented
several sizes such as the 1 U standard CubeSat with a unit of and summarized in [11, 12]. The best CubeSat researches
cube (10 × 10 × 10 cm3 ), 3 U, 6 U, and 12 U consisting of three, so far include carbon dioxide measurements and GNSS
six, and twelve cube units. The choice of size is dependent on radio occultation [13], a research on hyperspectral microwave
the installed components and launcher’s specification. They atmospheric sounding by MIT’s MICROMAS CubeSat [14],
are typically placed into the low earth orbit (LEO) ranging and gathering results of particle involving clouds and aerosol
from 160 km to 2000 km in altitude [3], with a typical lifetime by NASA’s Cloud CubeSat [15]. Besides that, CubeSats have
of several years working in space [4]. This paper provides also shown potential for education purposes. For instance,
a comprehensive review of the applications of picosatellites detailed earth observations have been performed using a
and the types of antennas available in literature. Most impor- CubeSat in [12].
tantly, the challenges involved in their development and the For climate observation, satellite performance is crucial
innovative methods applied to these antennas in solving the to ensure complete and accurate measurement results. For
space and power limitations in such compact satellites are also instance, one of the main limitations of the Tropical Rainfall
discussed. The existing works on picosatellite antennas are Measurement Mission (TRMM) is the deployment of a num-
reviewed and summarized in a systematic way, with emphasis ber of instruments in LEO which were unable to provide com-
on their important deployable parameters such as stowage plete measurement results by short-term climate observation
location, stowed size, and stow-to-deployment ratio besides [16–19]. However, this can be reduced by implementing the
conventional antenna parameters. constellation of precipitation profiling instruments in LEO,
at the cost of production timeline and resources [20]. Thus,
CubeSat was chosen as an alternative structure for this
2. Applications of Picosatellites application by optimizing its existing characteristics for a
radar satellite [20].
Satellite technology is widely used in many aspects of today’s
life such as television broadcasting, mobile satellite, radar
and imaging applications, and weather forecasting [5]. How- 2.2. Space Weather Forecasting. Another interesting appli-
ever, the recent introduction of picosatellites has enabled cation for CubeSats is known as space weather forecasting.
their application in a small segment of the field which has Its purpose is to provide an initial warning of storms in
been conventionally supported by larger satellites for earth the solar system by using several CubeSats in a cluster. The
observation and space weather forecasting. Due to their concept is to forecast the weather of the solar system by
size and development time, costs are significantly reduced establishing a CubeSat with a specific payload and high
compared to conventional satellites. The applications for antenna performance to transmit the data with a high rate to
CubeSats have been reviewed in several previous publications the earth. The rest of the CubeSats will use low performance
[4, 6, 7]. A general CubeSat overview and its capability have antennas for communication between each satellite within
been described in [6]. Meanwhile, a general survey on the the earth’s orbit [21]. In such situations, the communication
communication system of the CubeSat applications over the links between CubeSats are crucial as they are deployed
past several years have been discussed in [4, 7]. Besides with unspecific distances from the target orbit. Besides that,
the current applications explained in the following sections, CubeSats have also been used for defence forces such as
CubeSats are currently still being improved and adapted for the Air Force for space monitoring. The interconnection
use in other more specific and advanced applications. of several CubeSats placed in LEO was able to optimize
resources in such monitoring [22].
2.1. Earth and Climate Observation. Earth observation has
been performed since 1960 by the United States (US) mete- 2.3. Space Research. CubeSats have also been utilized in a
orological satellite [8]. A review of the requirements and nanosatellite program known as the Nanosatellite Tracking
capabilities of CubeSats for the earth science and observation of Ships (NTS) [23]. This trial program is intended to test the
has been performed in [8]. The purpose of earth observation satellite in a real space environment to ensure communication
is to measure earth characteristics to better understand between the receiving part of the Automatic Identification
the weather, natural disasters, pollutions, and water [9]. A System (AIS) receiver radio and AIS transmitter in LEO
satellite placed in the orbit will scan the image of the earth within a range of 100 km [23]. This system is capable of
surface and map the focused area based on the radar concept collecting the message from space to provide the awareness of
[10]. It is also possible to measure the characteristics of soil global marine traffic and for other common applications [23].
using this technique [10] using a high gain antenna and radar. The NTS mission is to collect the AIS signal in the LEO range,
Meanwhile, the European Space Agency (ESA) and the to measure the surrounding radio frequency from 160 MHz
National Aeronautic and Space Administration (NASA) have to 162 MHz with noise level identification, and to provide a
both produced their first observing satellite in 1990 and platform for future mission qualification [23]. The structure
International Journal of Antennas and Propagation 3

Table 1: Summary of the operating frequencies, data rate, and antenna gains for picosatellite applications.

Operating frequency band Communication performances

Types of application Application-specific frequency Communication with ground Required transmitting
Required data rate
(range) station (range) gain
VHF band (130–170 MHz),
Earth and climate L-band (1-2 GHz), Millimeter
UHF band (400–450 MHz), Minimum 17 dB More than 9600 bps
observation [9] wave
S-band (2–4 GHz)
Space weather
X-band (8–12 GHz) S-band (2–4 GHz) 26 dB & 37 dB Up to 400 kbps
forecasting [21]
VHF band (130–170 MHz),
Space research [24] X-band (8–12 GHz) 17 dB & 37 dB More than 32 kbps
UHF band (400–450 MHz)
Communications [25] K-band (18–27 GHz) K-band (18–27 GHz) 45 dB More than 6 Mbps

of NTS is only 20 cm3 along with two strings for solar cells, Radio Astronomy (OLFAR) project, the QB50 project, and
which serve as the source power of the spacecraft attitude applications described in the previous sections [21, 27, 28].
[23]. Such systems work like a wireless sensor network (WSN)
In space research study, CubeSat can also be utilized with multiple nodes spread in space [25]. Based on projects
for asteroid exploration. The significant budget for such mentioned in [28, 29], each of the satellites will connect
exploration can be reduced by utilizing CubeSats [24]. Such to each other and share all information such as timing,
missions can be implemented using two methods: (1) using positioning, and other related information, including the
a single CubeSat as the explorer or (2) using a conventional observation data. Another example of such communication
satellite as a carrier of the CubeSat. For such applications, the system is the IRIDIUM satellite constellation, which uses
operation in X-band is preferred for deep space exploration frequencies ranging from 22.55 GHz to 23.55 GHz to enable
compared to the Very High Frequency (VHF)/Ultrahigh stable route traffic via intraplane and interplane neighboring
Frequency (UHF) band and the S-band [24]. satellites [30–32].

2.4. Communications. Arguably the most important appli- 2.5. Summary. A brief discussion of each CubeSat application
cation of picosatellites is in the communication aspect. is explained in this section. The application of antenna for
Identifying its requirements starts with estimating a good link CubeSat mainly serves two main links, either satellite-to-
budget to ensure efficient communication between the space- earth or satellite-to-satellite links, ideally with high data
to-earth or space-to-space communication links [25]. For rate. The applications which utilize CubeSats include earth
communications between CubeSats, a higher operating fre- and climate observation, research in space, space weather
quency is preferred in the S-band, or specifically at 2.45 GHz. forecasting, and communication. Due to the different types
This is to enable signal reception by small antenna receivers of collected data and the variation of the required link
using this band via the use of smaller antennas compliant to capacities, frequencies of these applications will differ and
the CubeSat structure [25]. so will type of antenna utilized and the required gains. The
More recently, researchers have been exploring the pos- limiting factors in the link budget include the transmitting
sibility of optical communication systems in space between power, operating frequencies, and the inherent gain and
satellite and earth station known as quantum communica- radiation capabilities of different antenna topologies. These
tions [26]. The satellite communicates by transmitting a laser are crucial considerations to suit different applications, and
in the optical field frequency range to a base station on earth their requirements for each are summarized in Table 1.
with a line of sight (LOS) enabling the link establishment [26].
This concept of bidirectional communication is, however,
susceptible to changes to the CubeSat position in orbit. There- 3. Requirements for Picosatellite Antennas
fore, an additional payload with a tracking and acquisition
system must be installed for CubeSat position detection. The effectiveness of the CubeSat communication system is
Several specifications have been proposed, including an determined by the link budget estimates, and one of the
uplink optical laser specified at 980 nm, while its downlink important components determining this is the performance
was specified by 1550 nm [26]. of the antenna. The size of the antenna on the CubeSat
In contrast with other applications, intersatellite com- structure is dependent on the required gain and operating
munication is a process of cooperation between each of frequency. Due to the need for multielement antenna arrays
the CubeSats aimed at gathering and distributing speci- to boost gain, the use of miniaturization techniques is
fied data to one another before data transmission to earth crucial in ensuring a suitable antenna size for implemen-
[25]. Multiple CubeSats mainly collaborate for deep space tation on picosatellite structure. Furthermore, the chosen
research and space weather forecasting. A group of CubeSats antenna needs to exhibit suitable polarization to ensure
in distributed locations will individually gather required the achievement of the desired performance even when
data, similar to the Orbiting Low Frequency Antennas for designed in a compact size. In view of these challenges,
4 International Journal of Antennas and Propagation

antennas chosen to fulfill the requirements of picosatellites

are expected to be rather distinct compared to those imple-
mented on conventional satellites. Their requirements and
parameters are stated in the sections below, while an overview
of the different picosatellite antennas is summarized in
Table 2.

3.1. Operating Frequency. There has been yet a series of stan-

dardized operating frequency for CubeSat’s communication
system. The early development of the CubeSat involved the
use of amateur radio frequencies in the VHF and UHF
bands due to its low cost and high accessibility by the end
users involved in the development of the first CubeSat [1]. Figure 1: A CubeSat with Ka-band reflector antenna for deep space
mission [37].
UHF and VHF band were also chosen as the frequency
specifically for telemetry, tracking, and command (TT&C) in
CubeSats [33]. After several years since the first launch of the
CubeSat, various antennas have been developed at different
operational frequencies depending on their requirements and However, the design of such high gain, broadband, and
applications. directive circularly polarized antenna is challenging. One
The wide use of the UHF and VHF bands for data and of the antenna prototypes which meets such requirements
voice communications was also demonstrated by the TURK- is proposed in [38], with a wide impedance bandwidth of
SAT CubeSat project. The antenna system development is 50.2% and 27% of axial ratio bandwidth. Meanwhile, the
divided into two parts. The first system is a receiver part designs proposed in [39, 40] produced a wide 3-dB axial
consisting of quarter wavelength dipole antennas with a ratio beamwidth higher than 120∘ . Besides that, a high gain
width of 3 mm and a length of 50 cm operating at 145 MHz. circularly polarized antenna investigated in [41] exhibited a
Meanwhile, the second section is a trifunctional transmitter gain of more than 10 dBic.
antenna, for the downlink of the beacon, modems, and A more sophisticated circularly polarized antenna design
transponders. This antenna operates at 435 MHz and consists was enabled via the sequential phase feeding technique [39].
of six-quarter wavelength dipoles similar to the receiver More than 10% of impedance bandwidth was produced with
antenna. Hence, the total ten antennas used for the UHF and a high axial ratio bandwidth with a reasonably miniature
VHF bands in this project increased the system’s cost and (0.533𝜆 0 × 0.533𝜆 0 ) form on a Rogers RO4003D substrate;
complexity [34]. see Figure 2 [39]. This substrate features a relative permittivity
of 3.55 and a thickness of 0.813 mm, enabling the antenna
Meanwhile, an S-band antenna for CubeSat was devel- operation at 1.6 GHz [39]. The design consists of two pairs
oped by team from MIT using the inflatable antenna concept. of complementary dipole antennas located parallel to each
This antenna operating at 2.45 GHz with a 10 dB gain is other on a square shaped substrate. As shown in Figure 2(a),
developed for the purpose of extending the exploration each dipole is connected to a phase shifter centered on the
into Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) from LEO [35]. A substrate. Each arm is designed with a 90∘ phase difference to
reflector was added in the antenna structure for improved feed the circularly polarized antenna. The four striplines were
gain performance [36], which consequently resulted in the combined with a patch to form a balun, enabling the dipole
achievement of a high communication data rate [35]. This to operate in a balanced mode, as shown in Figure 2(b). The
then extended the distance of the system from LEO to GEO final structure exhibited a 10 dB bandwidth of about 31% and
in [36]. a 3-dB axial ratio bandwidth of 1.6%, with a peak gain around
Besides UHF, VHF, and S-band, a CubeSat with Ka- 5 dBic [39].
band operating frequency for radar applications has been Another technique to provide high gain and wide band-
introduced for deep space research by NASA. The antenna width for circularly polarized antennas is by sequentially
was designed in an umbrella-like reflector form and the feed rotating the feed to enable circular polarization and increase
horn placed at the center of the antenna as shown in Figure 1. gains [42–45]. This technique can be generally implemented
The operating frequency is at 34 GHz with a gain of 42.8 dBi using a number of identical radiating elements, which are
[37]. fed sequentially using a 90∘ phase difference to enable bore-
sight circular polarization. For instance, the design in [42]
3.2. Circular Polarization. Besides the need to exhibit high consists of four sequentially rotated circular slot antennas
gains at the target operating frequency, the polarization of (in a 2 × 2 configuration) and a sequentially rotated feed
a CubeSat antenna is also of importance. Circular polarized network. The circular feed network is chosen to minimize
(CP) antennas are typically used in various applications of discontinuity between the feed, with each arm placed per-
satellite communication due to its ability to receive randomly pendicular to each other to generate circular polarization
polarized signals better than a linearly polarized antenna. by adapting the 90∘ rotating technique. The final design
This is advantageous for long distance communication indicated significant improvements; the single antenna gain
between a satellite and a ground station. of 3.6 dBic is improved to be 8.7 dBic for the array with
 Table 2: An overview of the different picosatellite antennas from literature.
Antenna model Deployable (yes/no) Frequency band Size dimension Stow size/location Stow-to-deployment ratio Gain Ref

10 cm × 10 cm ×
No V-band (60 GHz) NA NA 15.4 dBi [57]
0.32 cm
International Journal of Antennas and Propagation

Yes Ka-band (26 GHz) 33.9 cm × 8.26 cm On chassis 1:1 33.5 dBi [72, 73]

Yes X-band (8.425 GHz) 33.3 cm × 19.9 cm On chassis 1 : 1.1 28 dBi [73]

1.5 U (10 × 10 ×
Yes Ka-band (35.75 GHz) 50 cm × 22.8 cm 1 : 1.5 42.6 dBi [71]
15) cm3

Yes S-band (2.4 GHz) 100 cm × 50 cm 0.5 U (10 × 10 × 5) cm3 1 : 10 6.48 dBi [36]
5
 6

Table 2: Continued.
Antenna model Deployable (yes/no) Frequency band Size dimension Stow size/location Stow-to-deployment ratio Gain Ref

Yes S-band (2.4 GHz) 100 cm × 50 cm 0.5 U (10 × 10 × 5) cm3 1 : 10 8.97 dBi [36]

Yes UHF band (400 MHz) 36.8 cm × 138 cm 0.5 U (10 × 10 × 5) cm3 1 : 27.6 13 dBi [53]

No UHF band (400 MHz) 15 cm × 15 cm No No 2.5 dBic [84]

International Journal of Antennas and Propagation
International Journal of Antennas and Propagation 7

(a) (b)

Figure 2: CP antenna with phase shifter. (a) Front view and (b) rear view [39].

Wp

Wc2
Wc1
Wc3
Figure 3: Compact antenna with symmetrical slit [46].
W2

W1
an impedance bandwidth of 3.8 GHz, operating from 4.2 to
8 GHz [42]. In comparison, a wider impedance bandwidth of z
6.2 GHz (between 4.8 and 11 GHz) is exhibited by the single
element antenna. However, its 3 dB axial ratio bandwidth is x y
approximately 1 GHz in contrast to 1.9 GHz for the antenna
array [42]. Similarly, the circular polarized antenna described Figure 4: The illustration of the compact circular polarized crossed
dipole antenna with high impedance surface (HIS) on the back of
in [45] consists of four identical rectangular patches and
the antenna [48].
feed networks located on the top and bottom surface of a
substrate respectively, with an overall size of 10 × 10 cm2 .
Each patch is placed orthogonally on each side of a square
ring. A 90∘ phase difference between the two orthogonal circular polarization with a compact size [46]. Comparison
pairs of patches produced by the feeding network enabled of the same antenna on two different substrates, FR-4 and
circular polarization at boresight [45]. This feeding network is Rogers RO4003C, shows that the latter performs better
typically designed using quarter-wave transformers adapting compared to FR-4 substrate in terms of gain without any size
the Wilkinson power divider structure. Each patch is fed changes. The FR-4 impedance bandwidth was 3.85% with a 3-
equally from the feeding network after the input power is dB axial ratio bandwidth of 1.5% and a peak gain of 0.8 dBic.
divided using three power dividers. The antenna operates at Meanwhile, the antenna on Rogers RO4003C resulted in an
2.45 GHz with a gain of 5.9 dBi for a single patch element, impedance bandwidth of 1.5% and an axial ratio bandwidth
which is improved to 7.3 dBi for the complete structure, with of 0.5% and a peak gain 0f 3.4 dBic [46], indicating that the
a near-to-one axial ratio. substrate significantly influences the resulting gain.
Circular polarized antenna could also be implemented on Another method to create circular polarization is by using
a single patch antenna by applying elements on its surface crossed dipole antenna fed with an equal amplitude but 90∘
such as truncation, slot, or parasitic elements. An example is of phase difference [47–50]. The dipole illustrated in Figure 4
shown in Figure 3 where a microstrip antenna with several is composed of delay lines with a 90∘ phase difference. This
additional splits on each corner of the antenna to enable structure is centered on the antenna design to form a ring
8 International Journal of Antennas and Propagation

shape. Both parts of the dipole antenna were crossed between links between space and earth. However, such requirement
a ring at the center and fed by a 50 Ω coaxial cable [47, 48]. adds to the design complexity. Thus, it is important that
The dipole on the top and bottom side of the substrate is circularly polarized antennas are miniaturized and be made
connected with the inner and outer layer of coaxial cable, deployable to suit picosatellites. Antennas operating using
respectively [47, 48]. With some modification on the dipole lower frequencies benefit the propagation links due to their
structure, a circular polarization was exhibited by this design longer wavelengths and lower required gains, whereas oper-
with an axial ratio less than 3 dB [47, 48]. ation in the higher frequencies eases the antenna design
requirement in terms of size. A detailed summary of the
3.3. Size Compactness/Deployability. Perhaps the most criti- available CubeSat antennas in literature is provided in Table 2,
cal characteristic of a CubeSat antenna is its size compactness. highlighting several important aspects to better develop
There is yet to be a series of standardized antenna operating antennas suitable for different operating frequencies.
frequency for CubeSats and it will be almost impossible to
design an antenna capable of catering to all frequencies. 4. Materials for Picosatellite Antennas
Thus, antenna miniaturization techniques are important,
especially when designing antennas operating in the lower Material is one of the most important aspects in developing
VHF and UHF bands due to its intrinsic wavelength. Antenna an antenna. Besides the need to comply with space operating
miniaturization techniques that result in electrically small environments, material selection also needs to be determined
antennas are extremely desirable especially in applications according to the operating frequency, gain requirements,
with limited space constraints. Several instances of such and whether a deployable form is needed. If this is the
techniques include the folding, spiraling, and meandering case, possible flexible materials such as Kapton polyamide
of line antenna structures [40, 51, 52]. Besides size, high and Mylar films are suited. Besides that, conventional rigid
gain and circular polarized characteristics are also required substrate boards and lenses may also be chosen due to
for CubeSats. A method to overcome this limitation is to their suitability for use in space applications. The following
enable the stowage of the antenna prior to deployment in sections discuss the use of these materials in detail.
space. An example of this in the UHF band is a deployable
helical antenna with a resulting gain of approximately 13 dBi 4.1. Boards. Conventional substrates are popular due to their
to operate at 400 MHz [53]. It was designed with a dimension mechanical robustness for the space environment. Despite
larger than the size of the CubeSat. The use of the flexible their small thickness, commercial and well-characterized
materials allowed the antenna to be stowed by consuming boards such as those from Rogers could withstand the high
half the space available on the CubeSat before deployment heat illumination during propulsion from ground to space
[53]. Despite the fact that designing small antennas operating [45, 56]. Besides thickness, these materials must also be
in the S- and K-band is less challenging compared to VHF lightweight to ensure efficient operation in space. The design
and UHF antennas, the size of the antenna as compared to on the CubeSat chassis in [45] had a size of 39.7 mm (length)
the wavelength mainly determines the gain. An example of × 12 mm (width) and thicknesses of 1.52 mm and 0.508 mm.
this is presented in [54], where a 60 GHz V-band antenna was Its substrate relative permittivity of 2.33 resulted in a gain of
developed to fit the CubeSat chassis resulting in a 15.4 dBi of 7.3 dBi.
gain and used for intersatellite CubeSat communication link
[54]. 4.2. Conventional Metals. A number of earlier antenna
On the other hand, a compact sized patch antenna is designs used conventional conductive and rigid materials.
capable of producing high gains by the integration of a large They provided heat dissipation, mechanical robustness, and
reflector, at the cost of its overall size. However, the large size possibly longer lifespan. A rigid antenna design was proposed
of the reflector can be realized using flexible materials, which using aluminum material for CubeSat in [57]; see Figure 5.
can then be stowed prior to its deployment in space to comply This design named “Bull’s Eye” is integrated on the chassis
with the CubeSat size [35]. An instance of this is the 10 dBi using 6-indented rings to result in operation in the 60 GHz
gain S-band antenna demonstrated in [35], which extended a band. The number of indented rings shifts the frequency
LEO range of communication to the GEO range. either upwards or downwards, and the number of seven
Apart of electrically small antennas, a compact smart rings was chosen due to its compliance with the intended
antenna has also been proposed which features low cost and CubeSat application [57]. In addition, the antenna and its
low power [55]. This antenna prototype operates between specifications are summarized in Table 2.
2.3 GHz and 2.55 GHz. Results indicated that the antenna is
capable of beam scanning of over 360∘ in the horizontal plane, 4.3. Films. Mylar film has been used by NASA for the Echo
achieving a gain of 4.0 dBi and a front-to-back ratio of 20 dB. Balloons project [58] and several other projects, among
others [36, 59, 60] due to its ease of availability. Besides that,
3.4. Summary. Numerous antenna designs have been sug- one of the more popular materials used for small antennas is
gested to comply with the requirements of standard CubeSat the Kapton Polyimide film. Its advantages include flexibility,
structures. One of the most important antenna requirements good resistance over a number of chemical solvents, and
for satellite communication is their circular polarized prop- compatibility to high temperatures ranging from −269∘ C
erty, which is capable of reducing losses in the long distance to +400∘ C, making it suited for space applications. Despite
International Journal of Antennas and Propagation 9

to be either compact or folded in some way to ensure efficient

space utilization.
Meanwhile, flexible materials such as films and mem-
branes are more likely to be stored within the CubeSat during
launch and deployed in space. An advantage with the use
of deployable antennas is that it relaxes the robustness of
requirement of their materials. Films such as Kapton are
capable of withstanding up to 400∘ C and these antennas
may be additionally protected in a case within the CubeSat
structure. Due to the thinness of these flexible materials,
optimizing the antenna may be more complex. This is
due to the need to ensure reasonable antenna bandwidth
using the combination of permittivity and the substrate
thickness. Moreover, thin conductors may also potentially
affect conductivity, which in turn also degrades antenna
Figure 5: The Bull’s Eye antenna on a CubeSat chassis [57]. gain and radiation performance. Fabrication of these films
to form antennas can be done in several ways, including
inkjet printing or conductive paint spraying. Such tech-
nologies require specialized machines and well-characterized
not being used for satellite antennas, this material was processes to ensure fabrication accuracy. While methods such
used recently in the development of a dipole using an as spray painting on films or membranes cost less in terms
inkjet printing method [61]. Investigations indicated that of technical complexity, greater efforts are required to realize
the antenna prototype can be bent with a good flexibility small dimensions. In summary, it can be concluded that
without permanent deformations on its surface [61–64] and materials used in CubeSat must first consider reliability in
potentially integrated with a deployable mechanism as an space, space requirements on the picosatellite, and, finally, the
antenna. antenna topology which is planned to be realized using these
materials.
4.4. Membranes. Membranes have been used as reflectors
recently in satellite communications. Featuring a total reflec- 5. Types of Picosatellite Antennas
tive surface with a diameter of 300 cm, it is supported by
a canopy built from 40 pieces of tension cables to enable As summarized in the previous sections, it will be challenging
0.5 focus length to aperture ratio. More specifically, the to design an antenna which is compliant with all frequencies.
membrane surface was built using 0.025 mm thick polyamide Besides being dependent on the chosen materials, Cube-
Kapton film type VN, supported by Nylon tension cables Sat antenna characteristics are mainly dependent on the
along with additional components such as cords, springs, and frequency and its applications. Typical radiation pattern of
adjustment devices to ensure compliance to a pressure value each antenna type determines the footprint and the earth
of 15.07 N [65]. Results indicated that the reflector surface coverage area of the space-to-earth communication or the
error is less than 1 mm root mean square (rms) when utilizing radar system. Unlike geostationary satellites, the footprints
a Nylon-based boom. of LEO satellites are not fixed on a specific area on earth.
However, the moving footprint determined by the orbit of
the LEO satellite is directly linked to the time and region
4.5. Summary. Due to the more challenging space environ- of visibility. A detailed investigation on the coverage area of
ment, antennas are required to be designed with suitable small LEO satellites was reported in [66]. For the ground
materials to ensure its proper operation after launch. Several station, this means that a tracking mechanism is required to
potential materials have been discussed in this section, which ensure the communication link with the satellite during the
can be categorized into two: rigid and flexible materials. Rigid flyover period. Ideally, the CubeSat antenna should show the
materials such as high performance substrate boards and main lobe of its radiation pattern in the normal direction
conventional metallic plates are suitable for space and are towards the earth surface (nadir). Thus, in case of directive
usually implemented on the CubeSat surfaces or deployed in antennas, a precise attitude control is required to control
folded forms. Besides that, the fabrication method of rigid, the footprint. This is challenging to be implemented on
substrate-based antennas is also compatible with the cur- CubeSats due to the limited space for such attitude control
rent printed circuit board (PCB) technology, which enables elements such as momentum/reaction wheels or thrusters.
manufacturing accuracy. Besides dielectric-based materials, There are ongoing research works regarding passive attitude
the fabrication of more complex and fully metallic structures control using permanent magnet [66] and hysteresis rods or
such as the Bull’s Eye antenna can also be performed using magnetic torques [67] to overcome this limitation, especially
specialized computer automated machinery. However, the for 1 U CubeSats. The following section will describe the
use of such rigid materials limits the capability of these types of antennas available for CubeSats reported in the
antennas’ integration with the CubeSat structure, as they need literature.
10 International Journal of Antennas and Propagation

5.1. Patch Antennas. Several CubeSat antennas are designed A thinner 25.4 𝜇m Mylar film was then used as the holder
based on the patch topology due to its size and mass and to combine the reflector antenna with the CubeSat chassis.
planar compliance. The antenna was developed on the same This reflector antenna and its holder can be inflated using
Rogers substrate with two different thicknesses: 1.52 mm and a small quantity of benzoic acid-based sublimating powder
0.508 mm. A rectangular shape was chosen to comply with placed inside it before the deployment process. This powder
the CubeSat chassis structure, resulting in a gain of 7.3 dBi and will then turn into gas to allow for the inflating of the
directivity of 8.3 dBi at 2.4 GHz [45]. antenna with a pressure of 10−3 Torr, similar to other common
Meanwhile, issues related to deployments can be avoided injectors. The reflector can continue to be inflated using
by using such patch antennas for the antenna to radiate this powder even if leakage occurs on the membrane in
towards the upper half space with a circular polarization [56]. space.
Such antennas are typically mounted on the surface of the
CubeSat and mutual coupling can be avoided when using 5.4. Reflectarray Antennas. Reflectarrays generally consist of
other patch antennas mounted on adjacent surfaces [56]. an antenna and a reflectarray surface. The antenna is placed
facing the reflector, which in turn points the signal towards
5.2. Monopoles/Dipoles. In the earlier stages of CubeSat the direction of CubeSat communication. The 3 U (10 × 10
development, monopoles and dipoles are typically the × 30 cm3 ) ISARA CubeSat was one of the CubeSats which
antenna of choice as part of the communication system [1, 68, uses reflectarrays integrated on its solar panels [72]. The
69]. Their omnidirectionality provides wide signal coverage, downwards facing antenna reflector was placed behind the
especially when the CubeSat operates in the UHF band. upwards facing solar panel of the CubeSat. It is capable of
To cater for the limited space on CubeSats, most develop- stowage via flipping and attachment around the CubeSat. A
ers have tried to maintain the use of a single antenna to main- patch antenna which radiates signals was located opposite the
tain simplicity and avoid the use of deployment mechanism antenna reflector to operate in the Ku-band at 26 GHz. A high
[1, 34, 68]. However, several other researchers implemented resulting antenna gain of 33.5 dB was exhibited.
simple monopole antennas which are deployable using a The similar concept was used in another CubeSat known
tape-spring method [70]. The antenna operates at 250 MHz as MarCO [73]. This 3 U CubeSat consists of several payloads
using a length of 55.88 cm and a ground plane sized at and two large solar panels mounted side by side on the
114.3 × 152.4 cm2 [70]. Repeatability assessments indicate that bottom of the CubeSat [73]. In contrast to the previous work,
the antennas do not exhibit significant reflection coefficient the antenna reflector is mounted on the opposite end of
changes after being deployed for 10 times. The antennas the CubeSat away from the solar panels; see Figures 6(a)
achieved almost 2 dBi gain with an impedance bandwidth of and 6(b). Besides this, the detailed specifications for both
about 8% [70]. antennas (including for ISARA and MarCO) are summarized
in Table 2.
5.3. Reflector Antennas. Similar to parabolic antennas, reflec-
tor antennas are fed from the center of antenna to transmit 5.5. Spiral/Helical Antennas. Several spiral or helical tech-
and receive signals. For CubeSats, such antenna topology niques for CubeSats have also been developed recently [53,
is mainly used in radar applications due to its high gain 54]. One is known as the “Bull’s Eye” antenna consisting
capability. One of such designs is developed for a 6 U CubeSat of several circular rings of different diameters. The smallest
in [71]. It is stowed within one and a half volume of the ring with a diameter of 7.12 mm is located at the center of
intended CubeSat and its ribs are built using very stiff material this structure and surrounded by another seven larger rings
to support the antenna surface. indented at a depth of 0.91 mm on a 3.2 mm thick aluminum
To simplify the deployment configuration, a viable alter- plate to operate at 60 GHz for 59 GHz to 71 GHz intersatellite
native is to introduce axial symmetry to the reflector. The communication [54]. As illustrated in Figure 7, the overall
overall structure will then consist of a subreflector and size of the antenna is 10 cm2 , and additional incisions of
horn antenna within the same deployment mechanism. To 10 mm2 are introduced at each corner of the square shaped
maintain the same level of storage space for the horn antenna, antenna to suit with the CubeSat chassis. Its gain exhibited
the subreflector must be set at a length of 22 cm to ensure at 60 GHz is 19.1 dBi with a 10-dB impedance bandwidth of
it does not exceed the vertex. Meanwhile, a Cassegrainian 8.4%.
design with 0.5 m of reflector and 0.25 m of focal length has Besides rings, helical antennas operating in the UHF
been integrated with deployment mechanism in [71]. Several band has also been introduced for use on CubeSats [53]. Its
specifications of the antenna are summarized in Table 2. operation at 400 MHz resulted in a relatively large antenna
Besides that, a novel design of inflatable antenna has been compared to other high gain antennas for CubeSats. The
developed recently in [35]. The antenna consists of a patch design was integrated on a 1.5 U CubeSat within a stor-
and reflector antenna designed using different materials. age space of 0.5 U. It was designed using a five-turn coil
This antenna specifically operates in the S-band and radiates built using a 0.0889 mm thick adhesive copper conductor
signals for CubeSat communication at 2.4 GHz. Meanwhile, extending outwards from the CubeSat at a 12∘ pitch. It
an inflatable membrane was developed using metalized features a framework of fiberglass/thermoplastic tape strips
Mylar film with a thickness of 50.8 𝜇m and works as the with a column length of 138 cm and a diameter of 37 cm.
reflector for the signals radiated from the patch antenna. The structure utilizes two opposing helical elements’ wound
International Journal of Antennas and Propagation 11

Winglet
panels
folded on
sides of bus

Center
Panel

Panels stowed Panels flip out Panels fully deployed

(a)

Reflectarray
Panels

Deployable
Feed

Stowed

Deployed

(b)

Figure 6: (a) ISARA CubeSat [72]. (b) MarCO CubeSat [73].

Rindented Rhigh

h
L side

W
Dc

L
Figure 7: The “Bull’s Eye” antenna [54].
12 International Journal of Antennas and Propagation

clockwise and counterclockwise terminated at its top section.

The ground plane with a diameter of 60.96 cm2 was made
from a single layer of aluminized Kapton film and supported
by four pieces of fiberglass rods with a diameter of 0.8128 mm.
During storage, the antenna was folded and rolled into a
small structure and is deployed using the release of the stored
strain energy. A gain of 13 dBi and an axial ratio bandwidth of
about 55% are exhibited [53]. Both antennas and their related
information are summarized in Table 2.

5.6. Summary. It can be observed that antennas for CubeSat Figure 8: The deployable antenna used in PolySat [74].
applications have been intensively developed in recent years.
Wire antennas such as dipoles and monopoles were initially
used for the first CubeSat to communicate with the ground 6. Deployment Mechanisms for Picosatellite
station. However, such antennas are known to be limited Antennas
in terms of gain and result in large sizes when using con-
ventional designs. Moreover, their omnidirectional radiation The use of low frequencies, such as the UHF band, typically
behavior may not be suitable for all picosatellite applications, results in large antenna dimensions. Besides implementing
especially when a directive radiation is required. On the con- miniaturization techniques, a more efficient option to main-
trary, antennas based on patches are preferred for picosatellite tain a high gain level is to integrate the large antenna with
communication due to their planar form, simplicity, and cost- deployable mechanisms to comply with the limited CubeSat
effectiveness. Designing patch antennas requires the accurate real estate.
characterization of the substrate and conductive materials, Besides that, reflectors are also needed to improve gain in
as their variation may result in frequency shifting of the higher frequency antennas such as in the S-band, at a cost
already narrowband reflection characteristics. For higher of size. Antenna deployment process typically occurs in a
frequencies, integration of patch antennas on the CubeSat two-step process, namely, stowage and deployment. Latest
developments in deployable mechanisms for CubeSats are
(e.g., on one of its sides) is straightforward due to the compact
discussed in more detail in the following sections.
resulting antenna dimensions. However, for low frequencies
such as VHF or UHF, various miniaturization techniques
are required to ensure that these patch-based antennas are 6.1. Tape-Spring Model Deployment. The tape-spring deploy-
able to be integrated with the CubeSat structure. Another ment model is one of the earliest methods adapted in CubeSat
option would be to design these patches into several sections applications, similar to the method used for OPAL [74]. As
which are foldable or can be combined in some way upon shown in Figure 8, it consists of two independent dipole ele-
the placement of the satellite into orbit. Simple deployment ments located at the corners of the CubeSat chassis operating
methods such as spring-type can also be seen in wire loop in the UHF band [74]. This deployable concept was produced
antenna types such as spiral and helical antennas, which are based on a roller system which is capable of deploying
used for long distance communication. More advanced high the antenna within a few seconds [74]. A monofilament
gain antennas such as reflector antennas and reflectarrays was used to hold the antenna using a small nichrome wire
capable of deep space missions and improved satellite-to- before a small amount of current was produced to heat the
ground station communications are also proposed at the monofilament to release the antennas [74].
expense of increased complexity. These antenna topologies Meanwhile, an improved version of this method has
almost certainly require mechanisms of deployment to cater been developed in [70]. A curved bistable composite tape-
for their sizes. The deployment mechanisms from literature spring was used to deploy the antenna in space using the
may include mechanical components to ensure antenna roll concept. Compared to the normal tape-spring discussed
robustness after deployment while ensuring flexibility during in the previous section, this version utilized two stable tape-
stowage. Considerations also need to be given to metallic springs with an elastic structure. This provides simplification
supporting parts which are part of the deployment mech- as less effort is required for deployment using a single rotary
anism, as this could affect signal radiation or add on the actuator compared to the use of neutrally elastic tape-springs.
stow-to-deployment ratio, as summarized in Table 2. In
short, antennas with deployable capability are very much 6.2. Umbrella-Like Structure. A symmetrical, umbrella-like
needed to comply with CubeSats’ size and performance deployment mechanism is shown in Figure 9. During storage,
requirements. The design process must be balanced between the reflector, feed horn, and subreflector were kept inside the
antenna performance, cost, and space available on the pro- stowage space, with a size of no more than 0.5 U. Upon arrival
posed CubeSat structure, thus making the choice of flexible at the orbit, the mesh reflector opens, releasing the desired
materials a critical factor. Besides these, the main challenge components [71].
in CubeSat antenna design is ensuring the performance of Location of such deployable antenna needs to be selected
the antenna and the deployment mechanism are unaffected with care. From Figure 9, the deployable antenna needs to be
by the CubeSat structure and vice versa. mounted on the other end of the CubeSat chassis to avoid
International Journal of Antennas and Propagation 13

Figure 9: Mechanical deployment [71].

being in the way of the solar panels. Such mechanism is built (a)
using steel spring materials and is flexible enough to be bent
or flipped. Prior to deployment, the antenna is bent 180∘ and
placed in parallel with the CubeSat chassis. The deployment
process is initiated by heating a Nylon wire which is attached
to the antenna and the CubeSat chassis and at the same time
is connected with a nichrome wire. Finally, the antenna will
be fully deployed in a vertical form [71].

6.3. Inflatable Mechanism. Inflatable antennas are advan-

tageous in several aspects, which include efficient cost of
(b) (c)
manufacturing and small mass and requires less stowage
space. In the 1950s deploying inflatable antennas is a sensitive Figure 10: A model of the inflatable antenna proposed in [35, 65].
process due to the unstable inflating gas and the difficulty
in maintaining inflation in space [35]. However, a major
breakthrough in this technology was demonstrated in 1996
by NASA which has successfully launched a 14-m diameter to be implemented along with deployable solar panels to cater
parabolic reflector using an inflatable membrane [75, 76]. to the increased power requirements due to the additional
A recent demonstration of a high gain S-band antenna payloads and efficient space utilization at the same time. A
(up to 21 dBi) was demonstrated [35]. More detailed assess- summary of available CubeSat antennas and their stow-to-
ments of the inflatable mechanisms have also been proposed deployment ratio is tabulated in Table 2.
by analyzing the diameter of the inflatable membrane using
photogrammetric measurements [77–79]. Another inflatable
membrane antenna depicted in Figure 10 was constructed in 7. Conclusions and Future Perspectives
a concave shape using a reflective surface. The membrane This paper presents the review of antennas for picosatellites,
inflation parameters were analyzed in terms of its reflector including its applications and requirements and mechanism
diameter, focal length, and inflation pressure [65]. for deployment. Current applications for CubeSat include
its use for observation, communication, education, and
6.4. Summary. The implementation of antennas, whether research, while its usage in other segments is still currently
deployable or fixed on a CubeSat, must be performed with being studied. Its relatively short development time and
caution to ensure minimal effect of its structure on signal cost efficiency are the attractive features which motivated
radiation. An improperly selected deployment mechanism its increasing popularity. Due to the nonstandard operat-
may result in stowage space overuse in the already limited real ing frequency, small available area, high gain, and circular
estate on CubeSats. On the contrary, efficient space utilization polarization requirements, designing a CubeSat antenna is
for antenna or its stowage enables more physical space for relatively challenging. Due to this, deployable antennas are
payloads such as camera lens, sensors, and other application- becoming more of a necessity due to the electrical length
specific components. Despite their limited sizes, CubeSats at lower VHF/UHF bands and enhancing gain in the S-
are available in multiples of 10 cm3 , which can be cascaded and V-bands. Due to this, deployable antenna must consider
to cater for larger capacities depending on the intended materials which are flexible and robust for operation in space.
applications, at the expense of higher power utilization. As Issues in deployment such as the rigidity of the mechanical
a result, deployment mechanisms for larger antennas with support structures, accuracy of the deployment, storage-to-
umbrella-like deployment and inflatable mechanisms could deployment size ratio, and maintenance of the inflation rate
be realized. Besides that, antennas could also be considered need to be addressed in future investigations. In recent years,
14 International Journal of Antennas and Propagation

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