1MRK 505 343-UEN A Section 22

Requirements

Section 22 Requirements

22.1 Current transformer requirements

The performance of a protection function will depend on the quality of the measured
current signal. Saturation of the current transformers (CTs) will cause distortion of the
current signals and can result in a failure to operate or cause unwanted operations of
some functions. Consequently CT saturation can have an influence on both the
dependability and the security of the protection. This protection IED has been
designed to permit heavy CT saturation with maintained correct operation.

22.1.1 Current transformer classification

To guarantee correct operation, the current transformers (CTs) must be able to
correctly reproduce the current for a minimum time before the CT will begin to
saturate. To fulfill the requirement on a specified time to saturation the CTs must
fulfill the requirements of a minimum secondary e.m.f. that is specified below.

There are several different ways to specify CTs. Conventional magnetic core CTs are
usually specified and manufactured according to some international or national
standards, which specify different protection classes as well. There are many different
standards and a lot of classes but fundamentally there are three different types of CTs:

• High remanence type CT

• Low remanence type CT
• Non remanence type CT

The high remanence type has no limit for the remanent flux. This CT has a magnetic
core without any airgaps and a remanent flux might remain almost infinite time. In this
type of transformers the remanence can be up to around 80% of the saturation flux.
Typical examples of high remanence type CT are class P, PX, TPX according to IEC,
class P, X according to BS (old British Standard) and non gapped class C, K according
to ANSI/IEEE.

The low remanence type has a specified limit for the remanent flux. This CT is made
with a small air gap to reduce the remanence to a level that does not exceed 10% of the
saturation flux. The small air gap has only very limited influences on the other
properties of the CT. Class PXR, TPY according to IEC are low remanence type CTs.

The non remanence type CT has practically negligible level of remanent flux. This
type of CT has relatively big air gaps in order to reduce the remanence to practically
zero level. In the same time, these air gaps reduce the influence of the DC-component
from the primary fault current. The air gaps will also decrease the measuring accuracy

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in the non-saturated region of operation. Class TPZ according to IEC is a non

remanence type CT.

Different standards and classes specify the saturation e.m.f. in different ways but it is
possible to approximately compare values from different classes. The rated equivalent
limiting secondary e.m.f. Eal according to the IEC 61869–2 standard is used to specify
the CT requirements for the IED. The requirements are also specified according to
other standards.

22.1.2 Conditions
The requirements are a result of investigations performed in our network simulator.
The current transformer models are representative for current transformers of high
remanence and low remanence type. The results may not always be valid for non
remanence type CTs (TPZ).

The performances of the protection functions have been checked in the range from
symmetrical to fully asymmetrical fault currents. Primary time constants of at least
120 ms have been considered at the tests. The current requirements below are thus
applicable both for symmetrical and asymmetrical fault currents.

Depending on the protection function phase-to-earth, phase-to-phase and three-phase

faults have been tested for different relevant fault positions for example, close in
forward and reverse faults, zone 1 reach faults, internal and external faults. The
dependability and security of the protection was verified by checking for example,
time delays, unwanted operations, directionality, overreach and stability.

The remanence in the current transformer core can cause unwanted operations or
minor additional time delays for some protection functions. As unwanted operations
are not acceptable at all maximum remanence has been considered for fault cases
critical for the security, for example, faults in reverse direction and external faults.
Because of the almost negligible risk of additional time delays and the non-existent
risk of failure to operate the remanence have not been considered for the dependability
cases. The requirements below are therefore fully valid for all normal applications.

It is difficult to give general recommendations for additional margins for remanence

to avoid the minor risk of an additional time delay. They depend on the performance
and economy requirements. When current transformers of low remanence type (for
example, TPY, PR) are used, normally no additional margin is needed. For current
transformers of high remanence type (for example, P, PX, TPX) the small probability
of fully asymmetrical faults, together with high remanence in the same direction as the
flux generated by the fault, has to be kept in mind at the decision of an additional
margin. Fully asymmetrical fault current will be achieved when the fault occurs at
approximately zero voltage (0°). Investigations have shown that 95% of the faults in
the network will occur when the voltage is between 40° and 90°. In addition fully
asymmetrical fault current will not exist in all phases at the same time.

22.1.3 Fault current

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The current transformer requirements are based on the maximum fault current for
faults in different positions. Maximum fault current will occur for three-phase faults
or single phase-to-earth faults. The current for a single phase-to-earth fault will exceed
the current for a three-phase fault when the zero sequence impedance in the total fault
loop is less than the positive sequence impedance.

When calculating the current transformer requirements, maximum fault current for
the relevant fault position should be used and therefore both fault types have to be
considered.

22.1.4 Secondary wire resistance and additional load

The voltage at the current transformer secondary terminals directly affects the current
transformer saturation. This voltage is developed in a loop containing the secondary
wires and the burden of all relays in the circuit. For earth faults the loop includes the
phase and neutral wire, normally twice the resistance of the single secondary wire. For
three-phase faults the neutral current is zero and it is just necessary to consider the
resistance up to the point where the phase wires are connected to the common neutral
wire. The most common practice is to use four wires secondary cables so it normally
is sufficient to consider just a single secondary wire for the three-phase case.

The conclusion is that the loop resistance, twice the resistance of the single secondary
wire, must be used in the calculation for phase-to-earth faults and the phase resistance,
the resistance of a single secondary wire, may normally be used in the calculation for
three-phase faults.

As the burden can be considerable different for three-phase faults and phase-to-earth
faults it is important to consider both cases. Even in a case where the phase-to-earth
fault current is smaller than the three-phase fault current the phase-to-earth fault can
be dimensioning for the CT depending on the higher burden.

In isolated or high impedance earthed systems the phase-to-earth fault is not the
dimensioning case. Therefore, the resistance of the single secondary wire can always
be used in the calculation for this kind of power systems.

22.1.5 General current transformer requirements

The current transformer ratio is mainly selected based on power system data for
example, maximum load and/or maximum fault current. It should be verified that the
current to the protection is higher than the minimum operating value for all faults that
are to be detected with the selected CT ratio. It should also be verified that the
maximum possible fault current is within the limits of the IED.

The current error of the current transformer can limit the possibility to use a very
sensitive setting of a sensitive residual overcurrent protection. If a very sensitive
setting of this function will be used it is recommended that the current transformer
should have an accuracy class which have an current error at rated primary current that
is less than ±1% (for example, 5P). If current transformers with less accuracy are used

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it is advisable to check the actual unwanted residual current during the

commissioning.

22.1.6 Rated equivalent secondary e.m.f. requirements

With regard to saturation of the current transformer all current transformers of high
remanence and low remanence type that fulfill the requirements on the rated
equivalent limiting secondary e.m.f. Eal below can be used. The characteristic of the
non remanence type CT (TPZ) is not well defined as far as the phase angle error is
concerned. If no explicit recommendation is given for a specific function we therefore
recommend contacting ABB to confirm that the non remanence type can be used.

The CT requirements for the different functions below are specified as a rated
equivalent limiting secondary e.m.f. Eal according to the IEC 61869-2 standard.
Requirements for CTs specified according to other classes and standards are given at
the end of this section.

22.1.6.1 Line differential protection

The current transformers must have a rated equivalent limiting secondary e.m.f. Eal
that is larger than the maximum of the required rated equivalent limiting secondary
e.m.f. Ealreq below:

Isr æ S ö
E al ³ E alreq = I k max × × ç R ct + R L + R2 ÷
I pr è Ir ø
EQUATION1409 V2 EN (Equation 554)

Isr æ S ö
E al ³ E alreq = 2 × I t max × × ç R ct + R L + R2 ÷
I pr è Ir ø
EQUATION1410 V2 EN (Equation 555)

where:
Ikmax Maximum primary fundamental frequency fault current for internal close-in faults
(A)
Itmax Maximum primary fundamental frequency fault current for through fault current for
external faults (A)
Ipr The rated primary CT current (A)

Isr The rated secondary CT current (A)

Ir The rated current of the protection IED (A)

Table continues on next page

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Rct The secondary resistance of the CT (W)

RL The resistance of the secondary wire and additional load (W). The loop resistance
containing the phase and neutral wires must be used for faults in solidly earthed
systems. The resistance of a single secondary wire should be used for faults in high
impedance earthed systems.
SR The burden of an IED current input channel (VA). SR=0.020 VA/channel for Ir=1 A
and SR=0.150 VA/channel for Ir=5 A

In substations with breaker-and-a-half or double-busbar double-breaker arrangement,

the through fault current may pass two main CTs for the line differential protection
without passing the protected line. In such cases and if both main CTs have equal
ratios and magnetization characteristics the CTs must satisfy equation 554 and
equation 556.

Isr æ S ö
E al ³ E alreq = I tfdb × × ç R ct + R L + R2 ÷
I pr è Ir ø
EQUATION1411 V2 EN (Equation 556)

where:
Itfdb Maximum primary fundamental frequency through fault current that passes two main CTs (one-
and-a-half or double-breaker) without passing the protected line (A)

If a power transformer is included in the protected zone of the line differential

protection the CTs must also fulfill equation 557.

Isr æ S ö
E al ³ E alreq = 30 × I rt × × ç R ct + R L + R2 ÷
I pr è Ir ø
EQUATION1412 V2 EN (Equation 557)

where:
Irt The rated primary current of the power transformer (A)

22.1.6.2 Distance protection

The current transformers must have a rated equivalent limiting secondary e.m.f. Eal
that is larger than the maximum of the required rated equivalent limiting secondary
e.m.f. Ealreq below:

I k max × Isr æ S ö
E al ³ E alreq = × a × ç R ct + R L + R2 ÷
I pr è Ir ø
EQUATION1080 V2 EN (Equation 558)

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Ikzone1×Isr æ S ö
E al ³ E alreq = × k × ç R ct + R L + R2 ÷
I pr è Ir ø
EQUATION1081 V2 EN (Equation 559)

where:
Ikmax Maximum primary fundamental frequency current for close-in forward and reverse
faults (A)
Ikzone1 Maximum primary fundamental frequency current for faults at the end of zone 1
reach (A)
Ipr The rated primary CT current (A)

Isr The rated secondary CT current (A)

Ir The rated current of the protection IED (A)

Rct The secondary resistance of the CT (W)

RL The resistance of the secondary wire and additional load (W). In solidly earthed
systems the loop resistance containing the phase and neutral wires should be used
for phase-to-earth faults and the resistance of the phase wire should be used for
three-phase faults.
In isolated or high impedance earthed systems the resistance of the single
secondary wire can always be used.
SR The burden of an IED current input channel (VA). SR=0.020 VA/channel for Ir=1 A
and SR=0.150 VA/channel for Ir=5 A

a This factor depends on the design of the protection function and can be a function
of the primary DC time constant of the close-in fault current.
k This factor depends on the design of the protection function and can be a function
of the primary DC time constant of the fault current for a fault at the set reach of
zone 1.
The a- and k-factors have the following values for the different types of distance
function:
High speed distance: (ZMFPDIS and ZMFCPDIS)
Quadrilateral characteristic:
a = 1 for primary time constant Tp £ 400 ms
k = 3 for primary time constant Tp £ 200 ms
Mho characteristic:
a = 2 for primary time constant Tp £ 400 ms (For a = 1 the delay in operation due
to saturation is still under 1.5 cycles)
k = 3 for primary time constant Tp £ 200 ms
Quadrilateral distance: (ZMQPDIS, ZMQAPDIS and ZMCPDIS, ZMCAPDIS and
ZMMPDIS, ZMMAPDIS)
a = 1 for primary time constant Tp £ 100 ms
a = 3 for primary time constant Tp > 100 and £ 400 ms
k = 4 for primary time constant Tp £ 50 ms
k = 5 for primary time constant Tp > 50 and £ 150 ms
Mho distance: (ZMHPDIS)
a = 1 for primary time constant Tp £ 100 ms
a = 3 for primary time constant Tp > 100 and £ 400 ms
k = 4 for primary time constant Tp £ 40 ms
k = 5 for primary time constant Tp > 40 and £ 150 ms

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22.1.6.3 Breaker failure protection

The CTs must have a rated equivalent limiting secondary e.m.f. Eal that is larger than
or equal to the required rated equivalent limiting secondary e.m.f. Ealreq below:

Isr æ S ö
E al ³ E alreq = 5 × Iop × × ç R ct + R L + R2 ÷
I pr è Ir ø
EQUATION1380 V2 EN (Equation 560)

where:
Iop The primary operate value (A)

Ipr The rated primary CT current (A)

Isr The rated secondary CT current (A)

Ir The rated current of the protection IED (A)

Rct The secondary resistance of the CT (W)

RL The resistance of the secondary cable and additional load (W). The loop resistance containing
the phase and neutral wires, must be used for faults in solidly earthed systems. The resistance
of a single secondary wire should be used for faults in high impedance earthed systems.
SR The burden of an IED current input channel (VA). SR=0.020 VA/channel for Ir=1 A and SR=0.150
VA/channel for Ir=5 A

22.1.6.4 Restricted earth fault protection (low impedance differential)

The requirements are specified separately for solidly earthed and impedance earthed
transformers. For impedance earthed transformers the requirements for the phase CTs
are depending whether it is three individual CTs connected in parallel or it is a cable
CT enclosing all three phases.

Neutral CTs and phase CTs for solidly earthed transformers

The neutral CT and the phase CTs must have a rated equivalent limiting secondary
e.m.f. Eal that is larger than or equal to the maximum of the required rated equivalent
limiting secondary e.m.f. Ealreq below:

I sr æ S ö
Eal ³ Ealreq = 30 × I rt × × ç Rct + RL + R2 ÷
I pr è Ir ø
EQUATION2237 V2 EN (Equation 561)

I sr æ S ö
Eal ³ Ealreq = 2 × I etf × × ç Rct + RL + R2 ÷
I pr è Ir ø
EQUATION2238 V2 EN (Equation 561)

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Where:
Irt The rated primary current of the power transformer (A)

Ietf Maximum primary fundamental frequency phase-to-earth fault current that passes the
CTs and the power transformer neutral (A)
Ipr The rated primary CT current (A)

Isr The rated secondary CT current (A)

Ir The rated current of the protection IED (A)

Rct The secondary resistance of the CT ()

RL The resistance of the secondary wire and additional load (Ω). The loop resistance
containing the phase and neutral wires shall be used.
SR The burden of a REx670 current input channel (VA). SR=0.020 VA / channel for IR = 1
A and SR = 0.150 VA / channel for IR = 5 A

In substations with breaker-and-a-half or double-busbar double-breaker arrangement,

the fault current may pass two main phase CTs for the restricted earth fault protection
without passing the power transformer. In such cases and if both main CTs have equal
ratios and magnetization characteristics the CTs must satisfy Requirement (12) and
the Requirement (14) below:

I sr æ S ö
Eal ³ Ealreq = I ef × × ç Rct + RL + R2 ÷
I pr è Ir ø
EQUATION2239 V2 EN (Equation 562)

Where:
Ief Maximum primary fundamental frequency phase-to-earth fault current that passes two
main CTs without passing the power transformer neutral (A)

Neutral CTs and phase CTs for impedance earthed transformers

The neutral CT and phase CTs must have a rated equivalent limiting secondary e.m.f.
Eal that is larger than or equal to the required rated equivalent limiting secondary e.m.f.
Ealreq below:

I sr æ S ö
Eal ³ Ealreq = 3 × I etf × × ç Rct + RL + R2 ÷
I pr è Ir ø
EQUATION2240 V2 EN (Equation 563)

Where:
Ietf Maximum primary fundamental frequency phase-to-earth fault current that passes
the CTs and the power transformer neutral (A)
Ipr The rated primary CT current (A)

Isr The rated secondary CT current (A)

Table continues on next page

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Ir The rated current of the protection IED (A)

Rct The secondary resistance of the CT (Ω)

RL The resistance of the secondary wire and additional load (Ω). The loop resistance
containing the phase and neutral wires shall be used.
SR The burden of a REx670 current input channel (VA). SR = 0.020 VA / channel for Ir
= 1 A and SR = 0.150 VA / channel for Ir = 5 A

In case of three individual CTs connected in parallel (Holmgren connection) on the

phase side the following additional requirements must also be fulfilled.

The three individual phase CTs must have a rated equivalent limiting secondary e.m.f.
Eal that is larger than or equal to the maximum of the required rated equivalent limiting
secondary e.m.f. Ealreq below:

I sr æ S ö
Eal ³ Ealreq = 2 × I tf × × ç Rct + RLsw + R2 ÷
I pr è Ir ø
EQUATION2241 V2 EN (Equation 564)

Where:
Itf Maximum primary fundamental frequency three-phase fault current that passes the
CTs and the power transformer (A).
RLsw The resistance of the single secondary wire and additional load (Ω).

In impedance earthed systems the phase-to-earth fault currents often are relatively
small and the requirements might result in small CTs. However, in applications where
the zero sequence current from the phase side of the transformer is a summation of
currents from more than one CT (cable CTs or groups of individual CTs in Holmgren
connection) for example, in substations with breaker-and-a-half or double-busbar
double-breaker arrangement or if the transformer has a T-connection to different
busbars, there is a risk that the CTs can be exposed for higher fault currents than the
considered phase-to-earth fault currents above. Examples of such cases can be cross-
country faults or phase-to-phase faults with high fault currents and unsymmetrical
distribution of the phase currents between the CTs. The zero sequence fault current
level can differ much and is often difficult to calculate or estimate for different cases.
To cover these cases, with summation of zero sequence currents from more than one
CT, the phase side CTs must fulfill the Requirement (17) below:

I sr æ S ö
Eal ³ Ealreq = I f × × ç Rct + RL + R2 ÷
I pr è Ir ø
EQUATION2242 V2 EN (Equation 565)

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Where:
If Maximum primary fundamental frequency three-phase fault current that passes the
CTs (A)
RL The resistance of the secondary wire and additional load (Ω). The loop resistance
containing the phase and neutral wires shall be used.

22.1.7 Current transformer requirements for CTs according to other

standards
All kinds of conventional magnetic core CTs are possible to use with the IEDs if they
fulfill the requirements corresponding to the above specified expressed as the rated
equivalent limiting secondary e.m.f. Eal according to the IEC 61869-2 standard. From
different standards and available data for relaying applications it is possible to
approximately calculate a secondary e.m.f. of the CT comparable with Eal. By
comparing this with the required rated equivalent limiting secondary e.m.f. Ealreq it is
possible to judge if the CT fulfills the requirements. The requirements according to
some other standards are specified below.

22.1.7.1 Current transformers according to IEC 61869-2, class P, PR

A CT according to IEC 61869-2 is specified by the secondary limiting e.m.f. Ealf. The
value of the Ealf is approximately equal to the corresponding Eal. Therefore, the CTs
according to class P and PR must have a secondary limiting e.m.f. Ealf that fulfills the
following:

E 2 max > max E alreq

EQUATION1383 V3 EN (Equation 566)

22.1.7.2 Current transformers according to IEC 61869-2, class PX, PXR (and
old IEC 60044-6, class TPS and old British Standard, class X)

CTs according to these classes are specified approximately in the same way by a rated
knee point e.m.f. Eknee (Ek for class PX and PXR, EkneeBS for class X and the limiting
secondary voltage Ual for TPS). The value of the Eknee is lower than the corresponding
Eal according to IEC 61869-2. It is not possible to give a general relation between the
Eknee and the Eal but normally the Eknee is approximately 80 % of the Eal. Therefore,
the CTs according to class PX, PXR, X and TPS must have a rated knee point e.m.f.
Eknee that fulfills the following:

E knee » E k » E kneeBS » U al > 0.8 × ( maximum of E alreq )

EQUATION2100 V2 EN (Equation 567)

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22.1.7.3 Current transformers according to ANSI/IEEE

Current transformers according to ANSI/IEEE are partly specified in different ways.

A rated secondary terminal voltage UANSI is specified for a CT of class C. UANSI is the
secondary terminal voltage the CT will deliver to a standard burden at 20 times rated
secondary current without exceeding 10 % ratio correction. There are a number of
standardized UANSI values for example, UANSI is 400 V for a C400 CT. A
corresponding rated equivalent limiting secondary e.m.f. EalANSI can be estimated as
follows:

E alANSI = 20 × Isr × R ct + U ANSI = 20 × Isr × R ct + 20 × Isr × Z bANSI

EQUATION971 V2 EN (Equation 568)

where:
ZbANSI The impedance (that is, with a complex quantity) of the standard ANSI burden for the specific C
class (W)
UANSI The secondary terminal voltage for the specific C class (V)

The CTs according to class C must have a calculated rated equivalent limiting
secondary e.m.f. EalANSI that fulfils the following:

E alANSI > maximum of E alreq

EQUATION1384 V2 EN (Equation 569)

A CT according to ANSI/IEEE is also specified by the knee point voltage UkneeANSI

that is graphically defined from an excitation curve. The knee point voltage UkneeANSI
normally has a lower value than the knee-point e.m.f. according to IEC and BS.
UkneeANSI can approximately be estimated to 75 % of the corresponding Eal according
to IEC 61869-2. Therefore, the CTs according to ANSI/IEEE must have a knee point
voltage UkneeANSI that fulfills the following:

VkneeANSI > 0.75 × (max imum of E alreq )

EQUATION2101 V2 EN (Equation 570)

22.2 Voltage transformer requirements

The performance of a protection function will depend on the quality of the measured
input signal. Transients caused by capacitive voltage transformers (CVTs) can affect
some protection functions.

Magnetic or capacitive voltage transformers can be used.

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The capacitive voltage transformers (CVTs) should fulfill the requirements according
to the IEC 61869-5 standard regarding ferro-resonance and transients. The ferro-
resonance requirements of the CVTs are specified in chapter 6.502 of the standard.

The transient responses for three different standard transient response classes, T1, T2
and T3 are specified in chapter 6.503 of the standard. CVTs according to all classes
can be used.

The protection IED has effective filters for these transients, which gives secure and
correct operation with CVTs.

22.3 SNTP server requirements

The SNTP server to be used is connected to the local network, that is not more than 4-5
switches or routers away from the IED. The SNTP server is dedicated for its task, or
at least equipped with a real-time operating system, that is not a PC with SNTP server
software. The SNTP server should be stable, that is, either synchronized from a stable
source like GPS, or local without synchronization. Using a local SNTP server without
synchronization as primary or secondary server in a redundant configuration is not
recommended.

22.4 Sample specification of communication requirements

for the protection and control terminals in digital
telecommunication networks

The communication requirements are based on echo timing.

Bit Error Rate (BER) according to ITU-T G.821, G.826 and G.828
• <10-6 according to the standard for data and voice transfer

Bit Error Rate (BER) for high availability of the differential protection
• <10-8-10-9 during normal operation
• <10-6 during disturbed operation

During disturbed conditions, the trip security function in can cope with high bit error
rates up to 10-5 or even up to 10-4. The trip security can be configured to be
independent of COMFAIL from the differential protection communication
supervision, or blocked when COMFAIL is issued after receive error >100ms.
(Default).

Synchronization in SDH systems with G.703 E1 or IEEE C37.94

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