Book 5 Module 5

CATEGORY B1 B2
ELECTRONIC DISPLAYS
ELECTRONIC/DIGITAL
SYSTEMS - 3

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issue number.

Licence By Post © Copyright B EASA 66 5.15 ISSUE 05 0611

© Licence By Post
No part of this study book may be re-produced or distributed in any form or by
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AUTHORITY

It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training

purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST

always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer’s handbook.

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the
CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording,
report writing, documentation etc.

For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/guidelines
as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety
authorities and national governments.
CONTENTS

Page

Digital flight data recording system 1

Digital air data computer (DADC) 12
Maintenance practices 20
Inertial reference system (IRS) 22
Radar 39
Primary radar 39
Weather radar 40
Secondary radar 42
Distance measuring equipment (DME) 44
Flight management system (FMS) 45
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

This book is for the category B1 and B2 licensed engineer with the topics
covered to level 2 as required by the CAA syllabus. The category A line
mechanic and the category B3 engineer should read our books specifically
written for that syllabus.

Again, the examples of aircraft systems used are mainly those of Boeing and
Airbus (topics as listed in the syllabus). If you are currently working on aircraft
then you should look at the systems on your aircraft. If it has a similar
system, like a DADC, or IRS for example, then you should study it so that you
can compare it with the systems described in this book. You should note the
similarities and differences.

You should be able to describe each of the systems in this book to a person
who has little knowledge of them, so that person understands the function and
testing of the system.

The CAA will ask questions on the principles of these systems so if you have
any problems after studying each system then do contact your tutor. There
should be no need to commit to memory specific to type details.
 DIGITAL FLIGHT DATA RECORDING SYSTEM (DFDR)

Flight data recording is designed to provide crash investigators with data from
a recording system designed to record many aircraft parameters and be
reasonably crash proof. Some airlines now use this data as a matter of routine
to check on aircraft performance, engine performance etc.

Recording time can be 17 to 25 hours and recorded data includes:

* Time
* Pressure altitude
* Airspeed
* Vertical acceleration
* Magnetic heading
* Control column position
* Control wheel position
* Rudder bar position
* Tailplane (horizontal stabiliser) position
* Fuel flow
* Engine performance

Data is recorded on wire, tape or a solid state device (these can hold more data
channels than wire or tape).

The Flight Data Recorder (FDR) or Accident Data Recorder (ADR) is housed in
the tail section of the aircraft which is likely to sustain less damage than the
rest of the aircraft in an accident. It is built to withstand impact damage;
painted in bright orange and has a locator beacon fitted for under-water
detection. There have been some talks to fit ejectable FDRs to civil aircraft.

Electromagnetic Recording

The electromagnetic recording uses analogue signals from transducers and

converts them into a digital code. The signal is then conditioned, multiplexed
and fed to the recording heads for recording on to either stainless steel wire or
plastic-based tape coated with a ferrite material.

The tape or wire is wound onto spools and is transported over the recording
head by a synchronous motor (constant speed).

Figure 1 shows the principle of recording on tape or wire. Whenever a signal is

applied to the head a magnetic flux is created between the pole pieces. As the
tape or wire is transported past the head, magnetically polarised sections are
produced in a serial manner on the tape or wire. Thus, as shown in figure 1, a
binary word is polarised onto the tape or wire. This binary number represents
the parameter and parameter data.

-1-
 Fig. 1 PRINCIPLE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RECORDING

Usually, there are a number of recording heads to enable a number of tracks

to be recorded simultaneously. The tape is approximately ½” (13mm) wide,
and in this type of recorder it is a continuous loop. This means it will overwrite
previous data on the tape. The tape or wire is approximately 850ft (260m) long,
and has 25 hours of recording time as required by the ANO and JAR-OPS. For
helicopters the ANO and JAR-OPS 3 require at least 8 hours of recording time.

Other recording devices can be used including disc and solid state.

The DFDR system consists of the following components:

* Digital Flight Data Recorder (DFDR)

* Digital Flight Data Acquisition Unit (DFDAU)
* Flight Recorder Control Panel
* Accelerometer
* Test Connector

With reference to figure 2 note the inputs to the system:

* DITS - is digital information past along the Digital Information

Transfer System (ARINC 429). For example, data from the
electronic engine control monitor unit and left Inertial Reference
Unit (IRU).
* Analogue data, eg accelerometer signal.
* Discrete data, eg communication transceivers and slat position.
* Synchro inputs, eg left and right flap position transmitters.

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 Fig. 2 DFDR SYSTEM

The inputs will be those mandatory parameters required by the ANO plus
other parameters required by the operator. Certain pins may be shorted to feed
in a discrete input identifying aircraft fleet, aircraft identification and aircraft
type. The total number of parameters recorded may be up to 500. So on the
aircraft you work on it is important that you know the types of input to the
system, and where they come from.

It is a requirement that there must be some form of isolation between the data
sources used for controlling or indicating flight path and the flight data
recorder.

The accelerometer in the system is a three axis accelerometer that measures

acceleration along the vertical, lateral and longitudinal axis of the aircraft for
the purpose of supplying data to the DFDR.

Digital Flight Data Acquisition Unit (DFDAU)

This is the heart of the system. It receives all the inputs from the aircraft
systems, and has the necessary circuitry to precondition, multiplex and
convert them into a standard digital format. These signals are then
transmitted to the recorder in the Harvard Bi-phase format. The unit’s power
requirement is 115V ac single phase.

-3-
 Fig. 3 TYPICAL DFDAU

Mounted on the front of the unit is a 3½” floppy disc drive, the disc stores
reports. The nature and format of the reports depends upon the software in
the DFDAU. The airline chooses the software it wants to use.

On the front of the unit there is a:

* Status display (fault) finding - provides a 3 digit readout of failure

codes.
* READ button - initiates fault display.
* FAIL light - amber light – indicates a fault in:
power supply
output data
EPROM fault CPU1
* CAUTION light - amber light – indicates a fault in:
analogue input circuit
digital input circuit
failure of inter CPU
communications
EPROM fault CPU2
* DFDR FAIL light - amber light indicates a DFDR fault.

ARINC 573

In a digital flight data recording system the transfer of information from the
DFDAU to the Flight Recorder is in accordance with the ARINC 573 system.
Figure 4 shows the frame/work/bit relationship.

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Study figure 4 and note the following:

Frame - Duration time 4 seconds. All parameters recorded at

least once per frame.

Sub-frame - Duration time 1 second, therefore 4 sub-frames to a

frame. Each sub-frame is divided into 64 words.

Word - Word 1 of each sub-frame is the sub-frame synch

word and has an ARINC assigned format. Words 2 to
64 are used for data, all words have 12 bits.

Bit - This is one discrete element of data. Logic 1 or logic 0.

Data is supplied to the recorder in a serial digital binary format. All inputs
being converted into 10 or 12 bit data words. ARINC 573 specifies particular
signals and signal sources for every data word.

Figure 5 shows the various codes used to transmit the information from the
acquisition unit to the recorder. Pay particular attention to the Harvard Bi-
phase code, this is the code used by many digital flight data recorders.

blank

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Fig. 4 FRAME/WORD/BIT RELATIONSHIP – ARINC 573

blank

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 Fig. 5 FDR SYSTEM CODES

With reference to figure 5, read the following and make sure you understand
how the codes work.

NRZ Varies between 0 and +5 volts dc, but a third line is required to
carry the clock pulses for the data to be intelligible, therefore it is
mainly used inside components.

Bipolar RZ Varies between +5 volts and –5 volts dc. The first half of the clock
cycle is used for information, the second half is always zero.
During the first half cycle, logic 1 is +5 volts and logic 0 is –5 volts.
The signal always returns to zero during the second half of the
clock cycle, therefore clock and data can be transmitted on one
line.

Harvard Varies between 0 and +5 volts dc, but always changes state at the
Bi-phase end of each clock cycle. Logic 1 is identified by change of state in
the middle of a clock cycle. Clock and data can be transmitted on
one line.

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Fig. 6 DFDR FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAM

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Digital Flight Data Recorder (DFDR)

May be called an Air Data Recorder (ADR) or an Accident Data Recorder.

The legal requirements are:

* It must meet the requirements of ICAO eg TSO G124b.

* It must be fitted to aircraft to record the minimum number of
channels (parameters) as laid down in Scales P, S and SS of the
ANO (Air Navigation Order) (can be viewed on the net).
* For fixed wing aircraft it must start recording at the beginning of
the take-off run and not stop recording until the end of the
landing run.
* For helicopters it must start recording when the rotors start to
turn for the purpose of a flight and not stop until the rotors are
next stopped.
* It must be placed in the aircraft in the safest position (usually in
the empennage for most fixed wing aircraft).
* Be made reasonably crash-proof in that it must meet Eurocae
specification ED55, ED56 and ED112. Must withstand 3400g for
6.5 milliseconds and a crushing distance of 450cm. The outer case
is double shelled, insulated and made of stainless steel or
titanium.
* Must resist low and high (fire) temperatures.
* Must resist deep sea pressures and fluid immersion.
* Must have a location beacon that will operate for a minimum
period of 30 days.
* Be brightly coloured (usually orange) to aid identification at a
crash scene. It will have black lettering on the left and right sides
with strips of reflective tape on the top and sides.

A yellow fault indicator (LED) indicates a DFDR fault (figure 7). Fitted at the
front of the unit is an Underwater Location Beacon (ULB). This is battery
operated and transmits pulses when immersed in water.

The ULB has a detection range of 2000 to 4000 yards (1828m to 3658m) and
an operating life of approximately 30 days. Also located on the front is a copy
recorder connector to allow high speed data retrieval via a portable copy
recorder.

The recorder is switched on automatically, usually by the starting of an engine

via engine start relays. However, other methods may be used, eg Engine oil
pressure switch, anti-collision lights switch on etc.

The flight recorder control panel has a three position switch ON, NORM and
TEST (figure 8).

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 Fig. 7 DIGITAL FLIGHT DATA RECORDER

Fig. 8 DFDR CONTROL PANEL

Using the test switch on the flight recorder control panel will initiate the
system test. If no fault is detected the flight recorder ‘OFF’ light will go off and
remain off. If a fault is detected the ‘OFF’ light will stay on. It will then be
necessary to go to the DFDAU and press the READ switch to find the possible
fault. The following notes give the procedure to carry out a DFDAU test.

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DFDAU Ground Test - Fault Isolation

Press and hold the READ switch on the DFDAU front panel. The DFDAU fail,
DFDAU caution and DFDR fail indicators will illuminate and the 3-digit
hexadecimal display will show the following:

Code Duration Remarks

888 4 seconds FFF may appear for 1 second.

000 as long as Indicates no failure. Fail light goes out.
READ held A code other than 000 shows a failure and
Fail light stays on.
108 4 seconds DFDAU power supply bit.

NOTE 1. If there is more than one failure code set, each will display in
sequence for 4 seconds. Other failure codes are shown in the
graphic.

NOTE 2. The CAA issue specification documents which state the technical
requirements for installation of a Flight Data Recording System. It
is specification number 10.

Fig. 9 GROUND TEST- SCREEN INDICATIONS

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 TABLE 1 – SUMMARY OF STATUS INDICATIONS

Data Retrieval

As you may have seen, there is a test connector on the flight deck and a copy
connector on the DFDR. The low speed playback is received at the test
connector on the flight deck at the same speed at which they are received at
the DFDR. This connection would be made for test or monitoring purposes and
requires a special test set.

High speed data retrieval is from the DFDR copy connector by connecting a
copy recorder to the DFDR. The eight tracks of data are simultaneously fed to
the copy recorder.

Analysis of this data can be used to investigate re-occurring in-flight faults

and deterioration trends in systems so that a component or system can be
overhauled before failure occurs. It can also be used to monitor flight
procedures.

DIGITAL AIR DATA COMPUTER (DADC)

The purpose of the DADC is to store air data in digital form for use by other
systems such as cabin pressure control, flight instruments etc.

Figure 10 shows the front elevation of a typical DADC. Note the pipeline
connections for Pitot and static. Note also the BIT button. Figure 11 shows a
simplified schematic of the inputs and outputs to/from the DADC, and figure
12 shows the same information but in more detail.

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Fig. 10 TYPICAL DADC FRONT VIEW

Fig. 11 DADC - INPUTS & OUTPUTS

- 13 -
 Fig. 12 DADC SIGNAL CONDITIONING

The Pitot and static pressures are applied to pressure sensor assemblies, one
Ps (measuring static pressure changes) the other Pt (measuring dynamic
pressure). The other main inputs are electrical power and Total Air
Temperature (TAT), some additional inputs may be found, eg discrete (status
signals from systems such as probe heater), angle of attack and baro-
correction inputs.

The pressure sensors work on the principle that when air pressure is applied
to a diaphragm, it will have a natural resonant frequency that is a function of
pressure loading. A small permanent magnet is attached to the centre of the
diaphragm, and beneath the diaphragm is a coil. When pressure is applied
the vibration of the diaphragm, and therefore magnet, will cause an induced
emf into the coil. The frequency induced into the coil is proportional to
pressure.

The outputs from these assemblies is fed to a frequency to digital convertor.

This digital signal is fed, via the multiplexer, to the microprocessor. Other
inputs to the multiplexer are program function, discrete signals, angle of
attack and TAT (after being converted to a digital signal by the analogue to
digital convertor).

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Fig. 13 DADC SCHEMATIC

- 15 -
Fig. 14 DADC INPUTS/OUTPUTS SCHEMATIC

- 16 -
The memory of the DADC stores the static source error corrections which has
a volatile and non-volatile section (fault data storage). The microprocessor
feeds the ARINC 429 transmitter to output the following data to the four data
buses:

* Altitude
* Altitude Rate
* Computed Airspeed
* Mach Number
* Static Air Temperature
* Total Air Temperature
* Angle of Attack
* Velocity maximum operating Vmo limits
* Mach maximum operating Hmo limits
* True Airspeed

Figure 13 shows the full schematic of the DADC and figure 14 shows the
inputs/outputs to/from the DADC and the interfacing systems. You would not
normally be expected to memorise the details of these drawings but when
studying them you should be able to follow each path through the drawing and
understand how it works.

The TAT probe (figure 15) in the system uses platinum resistance elements.
The drawing is unusual in that bleed air into the ejector fitting creates a
negative pressure and assists the airflow – also helps to keep the unit free of
ice. This pressure draws air across the sensing elements such that the anti-ice
heaters have no effect on the indication.

Fig. 15 TAT PROBE

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 Fig. 16 FRONT VIEW OF ALTIMETER

Fig. 17 ALTIMETER SCHEMATIC

The altimeter in this system is a microprocessor controlled instrument with

normal presentation and flag displays.

The input from the DADC is received in an ARINC 429 format and fed to the
microprocessor, from there it is fed to a digital/analogue convertor to an
output driver circuit to the motor.

The motor drives the pointer and digital display. Feedback is via two synchros
to an input multiplexer, then to a comparator, then converted back to a digital
signal through the analogue to digital convertor to null the original signal.

- 18 -
As the BARO knob is rotated two resolver synchros send baro correction
signals to the DADC and the two baroscales rotate to display current settings.

The Mach Airspeed indicator is a similar microprocessor controlled

instrument.

The input is fed to the ARINC 429 receiver from the DADC where it is fed via
the direct access memory to the microprocessor. After being converted from a
digital to an analogue signal it is fed to the motor drives via the output
multiplexer. The motors drive the mach display, Vmo pointer, airspeed display
and the command airspeed but.

Fig. 18 FRONT VIEW OF MACH AIRSPEED INDICATOR

Fig. 19 MACH AIRSPEED INDICATOR SCHEMATIC

- 19 -
Feedback is via synchros, input multiplexer, comparator, analogue/digital
convertor back to the microprocessor.

The TAT, Static Air Temperature (SAT) and True Airspeed (TAS) are displayed
on one indicator, the push button on the front being pushed sequentially to
obtain the desired parameter.

The input is once again from the ARINC 429 digital bus to the ARINC 429
receiver in the instrument, this feeds into the microcomputer and then
through an LCD driver to the LCD display.

Fig. 20 TAT/SAT/TAS INDICATOR SCHEMATIC

MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

BITE

In the computer shown the self test switch checks that the:

(1) Air data modules are functioning correctly.

(2) Interface and failure warning system between computer and air
data instruments is operating.
(3) Air data instruments respond to input signals without major
internal failures.

When studying figure 21 note the functional test of the system. In particular
note the fault monitor which will display a code if a fault is found. Note that
TAT is read on the EICAS (Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System) CRT
display.

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Fig. 21 FUNCTIONAL TEST

- 21 -
The operational test is as before, ie using an air data test set to check the
instruments at various test values and ensure they are within the tolerances
laid down in the AMM.

NOTE. In the DADC system covered you will have noticed no VSI output, this
is because the system described is based on an aircraft that has an IRS
(Inertial Reference System) and the VSI is fed from this system.

THE INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM (IRS)

Principles of the Strapdown Inertial Navigation System (INS)

Inertial navigation is the process of determining an aircraft’s location using

internal sensors rather than external references (such as satellites). A
microprocessor calculates velocity, position, and attitude from the inertial
sensor’s acceleration rate and angular rate measurements. Three
accelerometers and three gyros are required because the aircraft can
simultaneously accelerate longitudinally, laterally and vertically, and rotate
about the same three orthogonal (at right angles to) axes – pitching, rolling,
and yawing.

The INS (Inertial Navigation System) uses accelerometers and gyros mounted
on a gimballed platform. This is stabilised in the horizontal position –
irrespective of aircraft attitude.

In a strapdown Inertial Reference System (IRS) the gyros and accelerometers

are mounted rigidly in the system chassis which is mounted to the aircraft
structure. There are no gimbals to keep the sensors level horizontally with the
surface of the earth. The accelerometers are mounted such that the axis of one
accelerometer is on the aircraft longitudinal axis, one is along the lateral axis,
and the other is on the vertical axis. Likewise, the gyros are mounted such
that one gyro senses roll, one senses pitch, and the other senses yaw.

The accelerometer produces an output that is proportional to the acceleration

applied along the sensor’s input axis. This accelerometer is a mass mounted so
that it is free to move along one axis, but constrained by a spring.

It relies on the application of Newton’s laws of motion, with his second being
the most relevant. Newton’s second law (force equals mass times acceleration)
can be written as:

F = ma

where F = force in N
m = mass in kg
a = acceleration

- 22 -
As the aircraft accelerates so the mass, because of it’s inertia (Newton’s first
law), will not want to move and will be deflected against the spring which is
fixed. This means that the amount of deflection of the spring is a measure of
the amount of acceleration of the aircraft. As the mass is constant then F ∝ a.
In other words, the more the aircraft accelerates the more force is produced.

So we have a measure of acceleration (which we do not really want). So how

can we get speed and distance (which we do want)?

A Mathematical Aside

If we wanted to know the speed of a car for example, then provided we knew
the distance travelled (d) and the time taken (s) then we could find the velocity
(v). (v = d/s). For example distance travelled = 30 miles (48km), time taken = 1
hour, velocity = 30 miles per hour (48 km/h).

If the car was accelerating and we knew the velocity (V1) at a particular time
(T1) and recorded the new velocity (V2) at time (T2) then we can work out the
acceleration.

That’s all very well but what good does that do us here? Well, if we can work
out the acceleration knowing the time and the distance then we should be able
to do the calculations in reverse and work out time and distance from
acceleration. If we know the distance and can tell the computer where we
started from (latitude and longitude) and then we will know where we are
anywhere around the globe.

The process of calculating distance from acceleration is called INTEGRATION. If

acceleration is integrated once the result is velocity, if it is integrated a second
time the result is distance.

The process can be done by hand using pen and paper but a computer can do
the calculation many thousands of times a second giving an accurate continuous
readout of aircraft speed (in mph) and distance travelled, and latitude and
longitude positional readout.

The microprocessor integrates the acceleration signal to calculate a velocity.

Integration is a function that can be viewed as a multiplication by time. For
example, a vehicle accelerating at 3 feet per second squared (3ft/s2) (0.9m/s2)
would be travelling at a velocity of 30 feet per second (30ft/s) (9.1m/s) after 10
seconds if it started from rest.

Although it is used to calculate velocity and position, acceleration is

meaningless to the system without additional information. For example,
consider an accelerometer strapped down to the longitudinal axis of the
aircraft and measuring a forward acceleration. Is the aircraft accelerating
north, south, east, west, up or down?

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In order to navigate around the world, the system must know how this aircraft
acceleration is related to the earth’s surface.

Because accelerations are measured by accelerometers that are mounted to

the lateral, longitudinal, and vertical axes of the aircraft, the IRS must know
the relationship of each of these axes to the surface of the earth. The laser
gyros in a strapdown system make the measurements necessary to describe
this relationship in terms of pitch, roll and heading angles.

These angles are calculated from the angular rates measured by gyros though
an integration – similar to the manner in which velocity is calculated from
acceleration.

Given the knowledge of pitch, roll, and heading that the gyros provide, the
microprocessor resolves the acceleration signals into earth-related
accelerations, and then performs the horizontal and vertical navigation
calculations.

Under normal flight conditions, all six sensors sense motion simultaneously
and continuously, thereby entailing calculations that are substantially
complex. A powerful, high-speed microprocessor is required in the IRS in
order to rapidly and accurately handle this complexity.

Gravity

Vertical velocity and altitude are calculated using the acceleration that is
measured perpendicular to the earth’s surface. However, an inertial
accelerometer cannot distinguish between gravitational force and actual
aircraft acceleration.

Consequently, any accelerometer that is not perfectly parallel to the earth’s

surface will measure a component of the earth’s gravity in addition to the true
aircraft acceleration. Therefore, the IRS microprocessor must subtract the
estimated local gravity from the measured vertical acceleration signal. This
prevents the system from interpreting gravitational force as upward aircraft
acceleration.

Earth’s Rotation

As described previously, the purpose of the gyros is to measure rotational

motion of the aircraft with respect to the earth. However, the laser gyro in a
strapdown configuration inherently measures movement of the aircraft with
respect to inertial space (a sort of fixed point in space).

Another way of looking at this is that the gyros measure the motion of the
aircraft with respect to the earth, plus the motion of the earth with respect to
inertial space.

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The earth rotates with respect to inertial space at a rate of one rotation per 24
hours as it spins from west to east on its own axis, plus one rotation per year
as it revolves around the sun.

The sum of these two rates is equivalent to an angular rate of 15.04° per hour.
The microprocessor compensates for this rate by subtracting this value, which
is stored in memory, from the signal measured by whichever gyro or gyros are
pointed eastward.

Without this ‘earth rate’ compensation, an IRS operating at the equator would
mistakenly think that it is upside down after 12 hours of navigation. At other
places on the earth, the system would develop similar errors in pitch, roll and
heading.

Earth’s Spherical Shape

The major effect imposed by the earth’s spherical shape is somewhat similar to
that caused by the earth’s rotation. As an aircraft travels across the surface of
the earth, its path becomes an arc due to the shape of the earth.
Consequently, the gyros – particularly the pitch axis gyro – measure a
rotational rate, because travelling in a curved path always involves rotation.

This rate, called the transport rate is being measured by the gyros, and
subtracts that value from their measurements.

There are many other effects that are compensated for in commercial inertial
reference systems, and even more in systems used in military applications.
These effects have not been considered in this book as they get more
complicated the higher the precision required.

Inertial Reference Unit

The Inertial Reference Unit (IRU) is the heart of the IRS. It provides all the
required inertial reference outputs for the aircraft avionics. The outputs are:

* Primary attitude - pitch, roll.

* Heading - true, magnetic.

* Body linear accelerations - lateral, longitudinal, normal.

* Body angular rates - pitch, roll, yaw.

* Inertial velocity - N-S, E-W, ground speed, track angle, vertical

rate.

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 * Navigation position - latitude longitude, inertial altitude.

* Wind data - wind speed, wind angle, drift angle.

* Calculated data - flight path angle and acceleration, along track

and cross track acceleration.

* Flight management computer.

* Flight control computer.

* Thrust management computer.

* Stability augmentation system.

* Weather radar.

* Anti-skid and auto brake system.

* Attitude Director Indicator (ADI).

* Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI).

* Radio direction magnetic indication.

* Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI).

* Flight Data Recorder (FDR).

The primary sources of information for the IRU are its own internal sensors –
three laser gyros, and three inertial accelerometers. The other inputs required
are initial position, barometric altitude, and true airspeed. Initial position is
required because present position is calculated from the distance and direction
travelled from the starting point (initial position).

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 Fig. 22 IRS INTERFACE WITH OTHER SYSTEMS

Barometric altitude stabilises the vertical navigation and thereby stabilises the
vertical velocity and inertial altitude outputs. The true airspeed input allows
the IRU to calculate wind speed and wind direction.

In the IRS the principle is exactly the same as in the INS. Accelerations are
sensed by the accelerometers and the values are integrated to provide velocity
and distance data.

The signal is obtained from the accelerometer by measuring the amount of

force required to re-centre the mass. This being proportional to the
acceleration (force balance).

The signal is integrated once to give velocity and a second time to give
distance. Providing starting position was entered then present position can be
calculated, exactly like the INS.

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 Fig. 23 SINGLE AXIS COMPUTATION

So in general, the gyro’s sense the attitude of the aircraft and pass this
information to the microprocessor to allow it to adjust the accelerometers
output.

The accelerometer output needs to be adjusted as it is hard mounted on the

aircraft, it will be sensing acceleration effects other than just horizontal
accelerations.

The compensated output from the three (triple-axis) accelerometers are

vectorially added to determine the actual direction of travel and the distance
travelled.

When the system has to go through an alignment procedure the alignment

determines the local vertical and the direction of true north.

The accelerometers are sensing accelerations due to the earth’s gravity at this
time, but as these are always perpendicular to the earth’s surface then the
microprocessor can use this to establish the local vertical.

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 Fig. 24 TRIPLE AXIS COMPUTATION

Fig. 25 NAVIGATION ALIGNMENT

With the aircraft stationary the gyros will only sense the angular rate due to
the earth’s rotation. The microprocessor uses this to determine the direction of
true north. The magnitude of the earth’s rotation vector allows the
microprocessor to estimate latitude. It cannot determine longitude however, so
it compares inputted longitude to that stored in the memory the last time the
IRU was shut-down.

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The alignment procedure takes approximately ten minutes.

We shall now look at a typical system on an aircraft. The system consists of

three IRUs which have three laser gyros and three force balance
accelerometers.

The IRS is a strapdown Schuler tuned system. The inputs to the system are
barometric altitude for altitude dampening, altitude rate and TAS for wind
computations.

The inertial reference mode panel (IRMP) provides system mode selection.
Figure 26 shows a block schematic of the system.

Fig. 26 INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM

The IRMP is used for system control and navigational data display and system
status display. Note there is only one panel to control and display data from
the three IRS with some similarity to the INS control panel.

The ON-ALIGN-NAV-ATT position of the switches are similar to the INS and the
status annunciators for each IRU are:

* ALIGN – illuminates white in align mode, flashes if alignment fails.

* ON DC – illuminates amber to indicate IRU is on battery power.
Normal power is 115 V ac with battery back-up.
* DC FAIL – illuminates amber when battery voltage drops below
18V.
* FAULT – illuminates amber when failures are detected.

The system display switch selects one of the 3 IRUs for display of navigational
data. The display select switch selects the navigational data to be displayed on
the numeric display.

- 30 -
Examples are:

* TK/GS (Track Angle/Ground Speed) – True track angle from 0 through

359.9 degrees is displayed in digits 3 through to 6, with a resolution of
0.1 degree. Ground speed from 0 through 2,000 knots is displayed in
digits 10 through to13, with a resolution of 1 knot.

Example: _ _ 123.4° _ _ _ _ 321

* PPOS (Present Position) – Latitude from 90°S to 90°N is displayed in

digits 1 through to 6, and longitude from 180°E to 180°W is displayed in
digits 7 through to 13. Resolution is 0.1 minute.

Example: N89°99.9’ W170°99.9’

This switch position is also used to enter present position if the IRS is
initialised from the IRMP.

* BRT – The brightness control knob is concentric with the DSPL SEL
switch and is a potentiometer to control brightness of the numeric
display.

Fig. 27 INERTIAL REFERENCE MODE PANEL

- 31 -
Keyboard

The twelve-key keyboard allows entry of initial latitude and longitude (lat and
long) when in ALIGN, and set-magnetic-heading when in ATT. The keyboard
has 12 panel lamps for keyboard lighting, which use the variable zero-to-five
volts ac signal provided by the aircraft light dimming control circuits.

Fig. 28 INERTIAL REFERENCE UNIT

The IRU contains three laser gyros, three accelerometers and a digital
computer. On the front panel is a fault ball to indicate system faults, valid is
black, invalid is yellow.

The test switch causes the IRU to output data from the test program stored in
the memory to the flight instruments, where test values are displayed for 2
seconds, fault messages for 8 seconds, followed again by test values from the
memory (figure 29). Also on the IRU is the total time indicator.

During the test procedure all annunciators on the IRMP illuminate for 2
seconds, all segments are illuminated for 2 seconds, after ten seconds the IRS
outputs go to pre-set test values briefly. Values on the IRMP display depend on
display selector switch position.

Acceleration along the input axes moves the proof mass, which causes the
magnet to move nearer one plate and farther away from the other, this causes
an electrical error signal to be sent to the amplifier. The output current from
the amplifier is the current required to re-centre the mass by passing it
through the torquer coil on the mass. The interaction of the torquer coil,
magnetic field and the magnets produce a torque to re-centre the mass.

- 32 -
Fig. 29 FLIGHT INSTRUMENT DISPLAYS – IRS TEST

Fig. 30 ACCELEROMETER

- 33 -
The current required to do this is proportional to acceleration and is fed across
a resistor where an output signal (acceleration) is fed to the first integrator in
the IRU.

Normal IRS Alignment Procedure

During the alignment process the IRU determines the local vertical and the
direction of true north. The aircraft cannot be moved during alignment though
passenger transfer can go ahead.

Set mode select switches to ALIGN. Normally alignment takes a minimum of

ten minutes at which time the IRUs are ready to be switched into the NAV
mode.

The pilot must insert ‘present position’ lat and long (often shown on
illuminated signs at the ramp position at airports and given in airport
information manuals) sometime during the alignment process using either the
FMC CDU or the IRMP.

Problems with the alignment process are indicated by a flashing ALIGN

annunciator or steady FAULT annunciator on the IRMP.

The alternative alignment procedure is to move the IRMP mode select switch
directly into NAV. The IRU automatically advances to the navigate mode on
completion of the ten minute alignment period if present position has been
entered. If a problem occurs during alignment the fault annunciator
illuminates, and if present position has not been entered by the time
alignment is complete the ALIGN annunciator flashes.

Time-To-Navigation Mode Display

The time interval, in minutes, for an IRU to enter the navigation mode may be
displayed (figure 31).

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- 34 -
 Fig. 31 IRS TIME TO NAV DISPLAY

IRS Initialisation Using IRMP

The IRMP can also initialise the inertial reference system. Present position is
entered into all IRUs that are aligning, as indicated by ALIGN annunciators.
Initialisation must occur before the IRUs will complete the alignment process.

Place mode select switches for the IRUs in ALIGN or NAV. Check that the
ONCD annunciators illuminate momentarily and then the ALIGN
annunciators.

Place DSPL SEL in PPOS position (to verify IRU has been initialised).

Enter the lat and long of present position using the keyboard. Either latitude
or longitude can be entered first.

For latitude, press N2 or S8 key. The letter N or S will appear on the left digit
of the left display and the rest of the display will blank.

Continue to enter latitude. As a key is pressed, the digit appears in the right
digit of the left display and remaining digits shift one to the left. Press ENT to
enter the latitude into the IRU computer.

Longitude is entered in the right display in a similar way, starting with the W4
or E6 key. Press ENT to enter the display information into the IRU computer.
The IRU selected by the SYS DSPL switch should return the entered latitude
and longitude to the display.

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 Fig. 32 IRS CONTROL PANEL

Figure 33 shows details of the FMC CDU. You should be able to identify the
keys and know the operation of the CDU, though you should not try and
commit them to memory. Figure 34 shows the mode select panel and lists the
failure codes.

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- 36 -
 Fig. 33 FMC CDU

Fig. 34 IRS MODE PANEL FAILURE CODES

- 37 -
Fig. 35 IRS INITIALISATION

- 38 -
 RADAR

Radar is an acronym for Radio Detection And Ranging and was initially
developed and used during the second world war.

Radar works on the same principle as an ‘echo’. In nature, an excellent

example of this echo principle is the bat's ability to navigate with little sight
capability by using the reflected echoes of its cries to determine the location of
obstacles.

Similarly, in its basic form, the electromagnetic energy radiated by a radar

system strikes a reflective object (called a target) and is echoed back to a
receiver.

Radar Systems

There are two types of radar systems – Primary and Secondary. Both rely on a
burst, or pulse, of radio energy that is intended to strike a target.

Primary radar relies on reflections, or echoes, from the target being received
back at the transmitter. It measures the time taken from the transmission of
the pulse to its return. The direction of the transmitted signal indicates the
bearing of the target, while the measured time difference gives the range, as
the speed of radio waves is a known constant.

Secondary radar works differently as it completely ignores any reflected pulses

or echoes. In general, secondary radar relies on the transmitted signal
activating a transponder (on the target aircraft) which replies to the signal by
sending pre-programmed data back to the transmitter.

Radar, like all air transmission systems, uses radio waves. The frequency
spectrum is wide and has different characteristics in each of the frequency
bands. Radar systems operate at and above the L-Band range, ie above 1,000
MHz.

PRIMARY RADAR

Uses the rf (radio frequency) pulse technique principle to determine the range
and bearing of a target. A transmitter transmits a beam of pulses and all
objects in the path of the pulses will reflect and scatter the energy. The
reflected energy received back by the antenna (normally part of the
transmitting antenna) is processed and sent to a CRT or flat screen colour
display.

Primary radar has many non-aircraft uses, for example: the domestic
microwave cooker and the traffic policeman’s speed gun.

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In civil aircraft, primary radar has four uses:

1. To detect adverse weather conditions whilst airborne, ie Weather

Radar.

2. At low power, to measure the distance of an aircraft above the

terrain, ie a Radio Altimeter.

3. At low power, also to measure the height of an aircraft above the

terrain but using Frequency Modulated Carrier Wave (FMCW), ie a
Radio Altimeter.

4. Doppler navigation. Doppler radar measures the frequency shift of

any moving target.

These systems do not function identically, but have their own attributes and
operations. As an example of primary radar, an airborne weather radar system
is discussed in general terms below.

WEATHER RADAR

Weather radar systems are fitted to aircraft and used for detecting and locating
weather targets (clouds) that exhibit some form of precipitation, ie moisture.
Areas with high moisture or rainfall rates are usually associated with
turbulence and so flying through these areas should be avoided if possible.

A pulsed beam is sent out from the antenna and the clouds reflect some of the
beam back to give a display on a dedicated CRT (usually green) or a coloured
display as part of the Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator (EHSI), where
the colours indicate the density of the cloud.

Weather radar can also be used to provide a ground map of the terrain directly
in front of the aircraft. However, it really only gives a broad-brush picture, eg
outline of coastlines etc, and cannot be used for detailed navigation. Maximum
range is usually about 170° and 300 nautical miles with antenna tilt control of
plus or minus 15° maintained by the INS during aircraft attitude changes.

Aircraft Equipment

Smaller aircraft have a single weather radar system. Larger aircraft have dual
systems using a single antenna and operating one system at a time.

- 40 -
 Fig. 36 WEATHER RADAR SYSTEM – GENERAL VIEW

However, most modern system will allow the use of two separate controllers
which timeshare the other system components.

Weather radar systems come in all shapes and sizes; some have combined
controller/indicators, some have several LRUs for processing data, but most
systems usually consist of the following component parts:

* Transmitter/Receiver (Transceivers – duel on large aircraft).

* Weather radar display (dedicated green CRT – or colour display on
EHSI).
* Flight deck control panel.
* Antenna – with wave-guides from the antenna to the transceivers.

In addition, the weather radar system needs to interface with other aircraft
systems such as EFIS, GPWS and TCAS.

Depending on the size of the aircraft some of the above components may be
combined into integrated units to save space or simplify the installation.
Figures 36 and 37 show examples of a typical installation.

- 41 -
 Fig. 37 TYPICAL WEATHER RADAR SYSTEM

An Example – B747

The weather radar transceiver transmits rf pulses through the antenna and
the reflected pulses back from the targets (clouds) are processed and
superimposed in colour on the EHSI.

The system buses used are:

ARINC 798 – Airborne weather radar.

ARINC 600 – Avionic equipment interfaces.
ARINC 453 – Very high speed digital transfer system.
ARINC 429 – Digital transfer system.

Each EFIS control panel has a control bus feeding the weather radar
transceiver via the ARINC 429 low speed bus. The input bus from the inertial
reference unit is an ARINC 429 high speed bus.

The two input buses from the transceiver to the display units are ARINC 453
very high speed buses.

SECONDARY RADAR

Primary radar systems operate on the principle of a passive echo from the
target. Secondary radar systems do not work on the echo principle but use the
reception of a radar pulse at the target object, ie aircraft or ground station, to
trigger a pulse response from a transponder fitted to the target.

Secondary radar can be used over a longer range than primary radar, and
information about the target object can be obtained from the triggered return
pulse.

- 42 -
With secondary radar, any return pulses, or echoes, are completed ignored but
the returned signal is used in one of two ways, depending on the aircraft
system:

1. A series of pulses transmitted from a ground station is received and

decoded by the aircraft. The aircraft decodes these pulses and uses
them to trigger a response from one of its on-board systems, which
transmits reply pulses on a different but adjacent frequency. The
ground radar receives the reply signal, and determines the aircraft’s
range and direction in a similar way to the primary radar. In this
case, the ground station is called a Secondary Surveillance Radar
(SSR).

2. An on-board aircraft system transmits a series of pulsed pairs in an

omni-directional pattern to a ground station on a specific frequency,
unique to each ground station. The ground station (ground
transponder) receives and decodes these pulses and uses them to
trigger an identical response to the one it received, again on a
different but adjacent frequency.

The transponder replies to the aircraft on a frequency 63MHz

removed from the interrogation signal frequency sent from the
aircraft. The aircraft system uses this information to calculate its
distance from the ground station but not its direction. The aircraft
system counts the time it takes to receive the reply and is able to
work out the slant distance to the DME station.

The name of the aircraft system used in 1. above is an ATC Transponder; while
the system in 2. above is known as Distance Measuring Equipment (DME). The
following paragraphs discuss DME in general terms.

CONCLUSION

Primary and Secondary radar systems can interface with several other aircraft
systems through discrete wiring or through one of the data buses found
throughout today’s modern aircraft, eg ARINC 429/629, CSDB (Commercial
Serial Data Bus – Collins), ASCB (Avionics Standard Communication Bus –
Sperry), etc.

The main differences between primary and secondary radar systems are:

* Unlike primary radar, secondary radar requires the active co-

operation of another system (transponder).
* Secondary radar information is exchanged in the form of a group
of pulses and not by an individual pulse.
* Secondary radar requires a transmitter and a receiver – one on the
ground and one in the aircraft – unless it is an aircraft to aircraft
system.

- 43 -
Remember when maintaining these systems always refer to the AMM (Aircraft
Maintenance Manual) and keep safety distances for personnel from all
antenna.

DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME)

DME is an aircraft system that measures the Slant Range distance from the
aircraft to a ground based station. This rather complicated term simply means
that a ground based station replies to specific interrogations from each
aircraft's DME system within its range.

The aircraft DME transmitter initiates the process, and then calculates the
slant range by timing the signal from the aircraft to the ground station and
back to the aircraft.

It is also used, with other navigation equipment, to:

* Help fix an aircraft's position.

* Provide a count-down of the distance to waypoints or airfields.
* Provide a readout to the flight-crew of the aircraft's ground speed
(GS).
* Provide a readout of the Time To Go (TTG) to a waypoint or airfield.

Fig. 38 DME SYSTEM

- 44 -
Aircraft DMEs operate in the ‘L’ band of frequencies around 1,000MHz. The
aircraft transmits its interrogations on one frequency, and the ground station
replies on a different frequency, 63MHz above or below it, depending on the
selected channel.

An aircraft’s DME system usually has the following component parts:

* DME transmitter/receiver.
* DME indicator or some other method of presentation such as an
Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS).
* DME controller.
* ‘L’ band, omni directional antenna.

Most modern aircraft have dual DME systems.

There are many types of DME indicator; some are standalone instruments,
whilst others are part of a combine indicator such as an EHSI and RDMI and it
is also used by the FMC.

A DME indicator can usually also display Ground speed (GS) and Time To Go
(TTG) information as well as slant range distance.

On the B747 the DME interrogator has an ARINC 429 output bus.

DME ground stations are usually located with VOR transmitters or ILS glide
slope localisers.

FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (FMS)

The FMS is a combined flight control, guidance and navigation system. It

provides a single focal point which enables the crew to select, activate and
modify a three dimensional route structure from data stored internally and
transmits steering and thrust commands to automatically fly the selected
route and displays data for visual monitoring of current dynamic conditions
referenced to the route.

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- 45 -
The FMS is comprised of five major subsystems:

1. Digital Flight Control System (DFCS)

Two Flight Control Computers (FCC)
Mode Control Panel (MCP)

2. Auto-throttle (A/T) System

Auto-throttle computer (ATC)
Two servo actuators

3. Flight Management Computer System (FMCS)

Flight Management Computer (FMC)
Two Control and Display Units (CDU)
Thrust Mode Annunciator (TMA)

Stored within the FMC is a Navigation Data Base – used to

define route selection and contains airports, procedures,
waypoints, navaids etc. This portion of the internal data is
inputted and updated by a portable data base loader and
connector in the flight deck area.

4. Inertial Reference System (IRS)

5. Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS)

The CDU provides the interface between the crew and the FMC, and data
exchange is provided by ARINC 429 busses.

Sequence of Operation (assuming flight plan entered)

Take-off Pilot pushes TO/GA button, the thrust levers automatically

advance to N1. After take-off at the appropriate altitude the
auto-pilot is engaged. When stabilised on the climb, LNAV
and VNAV are engaged. The flight profile, as entered in the
FMC, will then be flown to automatically.

Climb The FMC can provide complete auto-pilot and auto-throttle

control during climb.

Level off Smooth transition to level flight is accomplished

automatically in accordance with the flight plan. The FMC
adjusts airspeed and continually adjusts for changing
conditions to optimise performance.

- 46 -
Fig. 39 FMS SCHEMATIC

- 47 -
 Fig. 40 TYPICAL FLIGHT SCENARIO

Cruise The FMC continuously computes recommended altitude, the

aircraft follows the pre-set route and the FMC automatically
tunes into the navigational aids as required.

Descent Because descending too early or too late can have a

significant impact on fuel economy, the FMC computes the
optimum start of descent point.

Approach The auto-pilot system provides guidance using localiser and

glide-slope signals to provide a system that is capable of
landing in category 3 weather conditions.

Go- Go-around guidance initiated by TO/GA button on throttle,

around if selected prior to touchdown throttle will advance and the
auto-pilot will command heading or pitch attitude.

Transition to each control mode is made automatically by the FMC at each

change in the flight phase.

Figure 40 shows a typical flight profile and figure 41 (repeat of figure 33)
shows the controls of the CDU.

- 48 -
Supplementary normal operation modes, other than those used in normal
operation, may be used by the pilot.

The FMS BITE is initiated and controlled through the FMCS CDU. The CDU
acts as a focal point for actuating and evaluating the FMCS, DFCS, auto-
throttle, IRS and EFIS BITE.

Once the test has been initiated from the CDU, the system under test will
transmit plain text messages for the display on the CDU. In response to the
messages the operator can set flight deck controls and/or perform data entries
through the CDU. Test pass or fail is indicated on the CDU.

Fig. 41 FMS CDU (REPEAT OF Fig. 33)

- 49 -
The CDU

This provides the primary means of flight profile selection/modification and

display of associated parameters.

The front of the CDU as the keyboard buttons with integral lighting. The CDU
data displays are presented to the operator on a small (five inch - 127mm)
CRT.

The display format consists of an array of 14 lines x 24 characters per line. A

variety of alphanumeric characters and symbols can be presented on each line
in the form of an intensity-modulated raster scan.

The top line is the page title and number of pages associated with the display.

The bottom line is the ‘scratch pad’ which is used for:

* Data entry.
* Message display.
* Transferring data field information.

Six lines of data is divided into right and left data fields with associated data
titles.

The key functions are:

Line select keys. (1L – 6L and 1R – 6R). When pressed with:

* Scratch pad empty, enters the associated data field into the scratch
pad.
* Data in the scratch pad, transfers the data to the
associated data field.
* A page title in the data field, calls up the display associated
with the page title.

Alpha keys. Pressing a key enters the alphabetic character into the
scratch pad.

Numeric keys. Pressing a key enters the selected number into the scratch
pad.

Mode keys. These are:

* INIT/REF (Initialisation/Reference). Provides access to pages of

data required for initialisation of the FMCS and IRS for flight plus
approach data.

- 50 -
* RTE (Route). Provides clearance language access to both routes
entered in the FMCS. With no active flight plan designated
pressing the key will display RTE 1. With an active route
designated pressing the key will display current leg of the route
and continuation of active route in clearance language.

* LEGS. Provides detailed data concerning every leg of the flight

plan. Allows for data entry for each leg.

* DIR/INTC (Direct/Intercept). Provides for development of a

guidance path to fly aircraft from present position direct to any
designated geographic reference point (waypoint) or to intercept a
designated course to a specified waypoint. The function is
performed utilising the RTE LEGS page.

* DEP/ARR (Departure/Arrival). To enable selection of terminal

departure/arrival procedures an index will be displayed. With an
active route and aircraft on the ground a departure page for the
origin will be shown. After take-off and before travelling 50 miles
(80km) an arrival page for the origin airfield will be displayed. With
an active route, in-flight, and after travelling more than 50 miles,
or more than halfway, whichever is the less, a listing of arrival
procedures for the destination airport will be displayed.
Procedures can then be selected into the route.

* FIX. Allows the creation of waypoint fixes from the intersection

points between the present route and selected radials from known
waypoints and is used in conjunction with the EFIS map display.

* HOLD. Provides for definition of a holding pattern at any

designated waypoint

* PROG (Progress). Displays current dynamic flight and navigation

information. Distance to go, ETA and fuel remaining data relating
to crew entered alternate destinations can be obtained for
comparative purposes.

* CLB (Climb). Pressing this key will display current or planned

climb mode. Evaluation and selection of other climb modes as the
commanded climb mode can be made.

* CRZ (Cruise). This key will display current or planned cruise

mode. Evaluation and selection of other cruise modes as the
commanded cruise mode can be made.

* DES (Descent). Pressing this key will display current or planned

descent modes as the commanded descent mode can be made.

- 51 -
Function Keys. These are:

* EXEC (Execute). The “command” key of the FMGS. Used for

activating the flight plan, changing the active flight plan or
changing the active guidance mode.

* NEXT PAGE . Causes the CDU to display the next higher page
number of a multiple display. Inactive on the last page of a
sequence (except PROG).

* PREV PAGE (Previous page). Causes the CDU to display the next
lower page of a multiple display. Inactive on the first page of a
sequence (except PROG).

* CLR (Clear). A single brief press of the key (< 2 sec) will cause the
last character of data entry in the scratch pad to be erased. A
longer press will erase the entire entry.

* DEL (Delete). Pressing this key inserts DELETE into the scratch
pad. Line selection replaces entered data with computer predicted
or default values as defined in the CDU pages.

CDU Annunciators). These are:

* MSG (Message). Illuminates when the FMC generated message is

displayed in the scratch pad. This signal (discrete) is set whenever
an ALERT message is shown in the CDU scratchpad. It causes an
EICAS message and turns on the FMC annunciator (amber light)
on the flight deck.

* DSPY (Display). Illuminates if the current display is not the active

(in use) data.

* FAIL. Illuminates with an “ONSIDE” FMC or CDU failure. A signal

is sent to give a level C warning on EICAS. This output is called a
discrete signal.

* OFST (Offset). Illuminates if not flying the course selected.

Figures 42 and 43 show how access to the BITE index is obtained and the
power-up sequence.

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- 52 -
Fig. 42 FMC POWER UP & ACCESS TO BITE

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- 53 -
 Fig. 43 BIT INDEX

FLIGHT MANAGEMENT COMPUTER (FMC)

The primary function of the FMC is the in-flight management of the flight-plan.
It uses data from the GPS, ILS and radio navigation aids. This data is put onto
a navigation data base which is used to calculate aircraft position and
determine the complete flight path. Data includes:

* Waypoints.
* Airways.
* Radio nav aids data: DME (Distance Measuring Equipment); VOR
(VHF Omnidirectional Range); NDBs (Non Directional Beacons)
and ILS (Instrument Landing System).
* Airports.
* Runways.
* SID (Standard Instrument Departure).
* STAR (Standard Terminal Arrival).
* Holding patterns.

Access and control is via a CDU (figure 41) and details are shown on flat
screen colour displays/navigational displays (NDs)/EFIS/multifunctional
displays (MFDs).

- 54 -
The FMC depends on two separate data buses to perform its functions - the
navigation database and the performance database. The following is a
description of a system as fitted to the Boeing 737 – but can be considered as
typical for large aircraft.

Navigation Data Base

This is stored in the non-volatile RAM of the FMC in two parts; a main body of
active data which is effective until a specified expiration date, and a set of data
revisions for the next period of effectivity. The effectivity dates for both sets of
data are displayed for reference on the systems configuration definition page
(IDENT). The current one of the two sets of data is selected as the active
navigation database when the system is initially energised. Database updates
are to be accomplished at intervals of 28 days. This is achieved by a Database
Loader; this is a self-contained lightweight entry device used to transfer data
from magnetic tape to the disc storage unit in the FMC, which is plugged into
the database loader input connector on the flight deck. This loading operation
can be performed on the ground only and takes approximately 10 minutes.

Fig. 44 FLIGHT MANAGEMENT COMPUTER

- 55 -
Contained within the data is information such as:

VHF NAVAID (VOR, VOR/DME, DME) data:

ICAO identifier
Frequency location
Location (Latitude/Longitude)
Elevation
Magnetic variation

Airport data includes:

ICAO identifier
Designator location (latitude/longitude)
Elevation
Runway threshold position, heading, length
Middle Marker - location, (latitude/longitude)
Outer Marker - location, (latitude, longitude)
Magnetic variation

Waypoints (enroute and terminal):

ICAO identifier
Location (latitude/longitude)

Airways data:

Waypoints
Intersections

The navigation database may be either permanent (the airline route structure)
or temporary (altered by pilot through the CDU) or a combination of both.

Performance Database

This database is contained in the permanent programme memory of the FMC.

It consists of a detailed aerodynamic model of the aircraft, which includes
basic high speed drag details, a buffet limit envelope, and values of the
aircraft’s certified operating limits. It also contains a fuel flow, thrust and N1
limit model for the type of engine on the aircraft. The model is used during
computations of fuel flow, thrust, engine limits and target values, and for
corrections for the effects of air-conditioning and anti-icing bleeds.

- 56 -
Fig. 45 FMC SYSTEM LAYOUT

- 57 -
The Operational Programme is an integral portion of the FMC as received, and
determines which sensors are used for internal computations, how the
computations are performed and programmes any errors from the selected
lateral and vertical profile into steering requests to maintain the selected route.

FMC Inputs

The FMC receives data in digital format from different sources. Two of the
inputs, the Digital Analogue Adapters (DAA’s) collect data from various
analogue sensors and reformat it into ARINC 429 format. The remaining
inputs are as shown in figure 45.

FMC Outputs

With reference to figure 46, it can be seen that four output buses (ARINC 429)
are used, and it also shows where the output data is fed.

Fig. 46 FMC SYSTEM OUTPUT BUSES

- 58 -
FMCS Messages

These are displayed in the scratch pad line of the CDU. There are three
categories of messages, and they have a defined priority for display should
their set conditions occur at the same time. The three types listed in order of
priority are:

1. Alerting Messages
2. Entry Error Advisory Messages
3. Advisory Messages

Existence of a message in the scratch pad will illuminate the CDU’s, Message
(MSG) light and FMC Message will appear on the top CRT of EICAS. If the
FMC fails then CDU ‘FAIL’ light illuminates and ‘FMC Fail’ appears on EICAS.

””’’’’’’’’’’’

- 59 -