Positive Feedback

Positive Feedback Definition

Positive feedback is a process in which the end products of an action cause more of that action to occur
in a feedback loop. This amplifies the original action. It is contrasted with negative feedback, which is
when the end results of an action inhibit that action from continuing to occur. These mechanisms are
found in many biological systems. An important example of positive feedback is the process of labor and
childbirth.

This diagram shows simple feedback. In a feedback loop, different components influence each other.

Parts of a Positive Feedback Loop

Stimulus

A stimulus is something that disrupts the body’s homeostasis, which is the tendency toward equilibrium
in all body systems. A bodily injury or an infection are examples of stimuli. They disrupt normal
processes in the body.

Sensor

A sensor detects the change in homeostasis. For example, nerve cells in the cervix detect pressure
placed on it from the head of the fetus during labor. Nerve impulses from a sensor will travel to the
control center.

Control Center

A control center is the part of the body that responds to the change and takes action. The pituitary
gland, located near the brain, is the control center in many feedback loops; it produces many different
hormones, such as oxytocin, growth hormone, and anti-diuretic hormone (ADH), in response to stimuli.

Effector
An effector is any organ or cell that ultimately responds to the stimulus. For example, in labor, the end
result of the positive feedback loop is that the uterus contracts. In this case, the uterus is the effector
organ.

These four parts are also found in negative feedback loops, but the end result is different because in
negative feedback the effector organs work to hinder the process that caused them to activate. Positive
feedback loops do not go on forever; they are ultimately stopped by negative feedback loops once the
process they were used for is complete.

Examples of Positive Feedback

Blood Clotting

When a part of the body is injured, it releases chemicals that activate blood platelets. Platelets are
responsible for stopping bleeding by forming clots. An activated platelet in turn activates more platelets,
which group together to form a blood clot. (In individuals with hemophilia, the blood lacks enough
blood-clotting proteins, causing excessive bleeding after an injury.)

The Menstrual Cycle

Before a woman ovulates, the hormone estrogen is released by the ovary. The estrogen travels to the
brain, which causes gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) to be released from the hypothalamus and
luteinizing hormone (LH) to be released from the pituitary gland. LH causes more estrogen to be
released from the ovary, which in turn causes an increase in GnRH and LH in the bloodstream through
positive feedback. The rise in these hormones, along with follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), causes
ovulation to occur.

Labor and Childbirth

The process of labor and childbirth is perhaps the most-cited example of positive feedback. In childbirth,
when the fetus’s head presses up against the cervix, it stimulates nerves that tell the brain to stimulate
the pituitary gland, which then produces oxytocin. Oxytocin causes the uterus to contract. This moves
the fetus even closer to the cervix, which causes more oxytocin to be produced until childbirth occurs
and the baby leaves the womb. Breastfeeding is also a positive feedback loop; as the baby suckles, the
mother’s pituitary gland produces more of the hormone prolactin, which causes more milk to be
produced.

Digestion

The stomach uses the molecule pepsin to digest proteins. It first secretes pepsinogen, which is an
enzyme in an inactive form. When food is taken into the body and needs to be digested, pepsinogen is
converted to pepsin. The conversion triggers a positive feedback loop that changes other pepsinogen
molecules in the stomach to pepsin, so that the stomach accumulates enough to it to be able to digest
proteins.
Nerve Signaling

Nerve impulses work through action potentials, which are changes in electrical potential between the
inside and outside of the nerve that propagate signaling. Action potentials are caused by an influx of
sodium ions in the nerve cell. If a small amount of sodium enters the nerve, it causes more channels to
open which cause more sodium to rush in, creating a positive feedback loop that causes a large amount
of sodium to enter the nerve and create an action potential.

Related Biology Terms

 Feedback mechanism – A process that uses one component to regulate another, either through
positive or negative feedback.

 Negative feedback – The result of a process inhibits the process from continuing to occur; it is
the opposite of positive feedback.

 Hormone – A type of molecule that is released by glands and has a specific effect on certain cells
or organs.

 Pituitary gland – A small gland at the base of the brain that produces a variety of hormones.
Negative Feedback

Negative Feedback Definition

Negative feedback is a type of regulation in biological systems in which the end product of a process in
turn reduces the stimulus of that same process. Feedback, in general, is a regulatory mechanism present
in many biological reactions. By allowing certain pathways to be turned off and on, the body can control
various aspects of its internal environment. This is similar to flipping a switch. Feedback allows the
product of a pathway to control the switch. Sometimes referred to as a “negative feedback loop”,
negative feedback occurs when the product of a pathway turns the biochemical pathway off. Positive
feedback, the opposite of negative feedback, is found in other biological pathways in which the product
increases the pathway. Below are examples of negative feedback.

Examples of Negative Feedback

Regulating Blood Sugar

Every time you eat, a negative feedback mechanism controls the level of sugar in your blood. The main
sugar found in your blood is glucose. After you eat something, your body absorbs the glucose from your
bloodstream and deposits it into your blood. This increases the concentration of glucose and stimulates
you pancreas to release a chemical called insulin. Insulin is a cellular signaling molecule which
tells muscle and liver cells to uptake glucose. Liver cells store the excess glucose as glycogen, a chain of
glucoses used as a storage product. Muscle cells can store the glucose or use it to make ATP and
contract. As this process happens, glucose concentrations are depleted in the blood. Glucose was the
main signal for the pancreas to produce insulin. Without it, the pancreas stops producing insulin and the
cells stop taking up glucose. Thus, glucose levels are maintained in a specific range and the rest of the
body has access to glucose consistently. The negative feedback mechanism in this system is seen
specifically in how high glucose levels lead to the pathway turning on, which leads to a product meant to
lower the glucose level. When glucose becomes too low, the pathway shuts off.

Temperature Regulation

All endotherms regulate their temperature. Endotherms are animals which regulate their bodies at a
different temperature than the environment. You can think of mammals and birds as the most common
endotherms. Most of the pathways responsible for temperature regulation are controlled by negative
feedback. As the temperature rises, enzymes and pathways in the body are “turned-on”, and control
various behaviors like sweating, panting and seeking shade. As the animal does these things, the
temperature of their body starts to decrease. The activity of these pathways, which is driven by the
heat, also starts to decrease. Eventually, a temperature is reached at which the pathway shuts off. Other
pathways are present for temperatures that are too cold, and are also shut off once the body reaches
the optimal temperature. These pathways can be shivering, seeking shelter, or burning fat. All these
activities heat the body back up and are shut off by the end product of their reactions, heat.

Filling a Toilet Tank

Many students tend to struggle with abstract biological examples of negative feedback. Have no fear! A
simple and common house-hold item uses negative feedback every day. In the tank on the back of your
toilet is a ball or float, which rests at water level. When you empty the tank, the water level drops. The
pressure from the float that was holding the valve shut releases, and new water flows into the tank. The
valve controlled by the float is like an enzyme that monitors the level of the product it creates. As more
water (product) fills the tank, the float slowly decreases the amount of water being let in through the
valve. The valve is analogous to an enzyme which is regulated by feedback from a product it helps create
or let into a cell.
Positive and Negative Feedback Loops in Biology

Feedback is defined as the information gained about a reaction to a product, which will allow the
modification of the product. Feedback loops are therefore the process whereby a change to the system
results in an alarm which will trigger a certain result. This result will either increase the change to the
system or reduce it to bring the system back to normal. A few questions remain: How do these systems
work? What is a positive feedback? What is negative feedback? Where do we find these systems in
nature?

Biological systems operate on a mechanism of inputs and outputs, each caused by and causing a certain
event. A feedback loop is a biological occurrence wherein the output of a system amplifies the system
(positive feedback) or inhibits the system (negative feedback). Feedback loops are important because
they allow living organisms to maintain homeostasis. Homeostasis is the mechanism that enables us to
keep our internal environment relatively constant – not too hot, or too cold, not too hungry or tired. The
level of energy that an organism needs to maintain homeostasis depends on the type of organism, as
well as the environment it inhabits. For example, a cold-blooded fish keeps its temperature at the same
level as the water around it, and so doesn’t need to control its internal temperature. Compare this to a
warm-blooded whale in the same environment: it needs to keep its body temperature higher than that
of the water around it, and so it will expend more energy in temperature regulation. This is a difference
between ectotherms and endotherms: an ectotherm uses the environmental temperature to control its
internal temperature (e.g. reptiles, amphibians, and fish), whereas an endotherm uses homeostasis to
maintain its internal temperature. Endotherms can maintain their metabolism at a constant rate,
allowing constant movement, reaction and internal processes, whereas ectotherms cannot maintain
their metabolism at a constant rate. This means that their movement, reaction and internal processes
are dependent on adequate external heat, but it also means that they require less energy in the form of
food, as their bodies are not constantly burning fuel.

Feedback loops can also occur to a larger degree: at the ecosystem level, a form of homeostasis is
maintained. A good example of this is in the cycle of predator and prey populations: a boom in prey
population will mean more food for predators, which will increase predator numbers. This will then lead
to over predation, and the prey population will again decline. The predator population will decline in
response, releasing the pressure on the prey population and allowing it to bounce back. See figure 1.
Another example is what is known as the “evolutionary arms race,” wherein a predator and its prey are
continually trying to out compete each other. One such relationship is that of nectarivorous birds and
the flowers on which they feed. The birds evolve long beaks to gain access to the nectar within the
flower. In response, the flower develops a longer and longer trumpet-like shape, in an attempt at
preventing the bird from getting to the nectar. The bird responds by developing an even longer beak.
And so it continues.
Image Source: Wikimedia Commons

Figure 1: The population trends of predator and prey.

Positive Feedback Loops

A positive feedback loop occurs in nature when the product of a reaction leads to an increase in that
reaction. If we look at a system in homeostasis, a positive feedback loop moves a system further away
from the target of equilibrium. It does this by amplifying the effects of a product or event and occurs
when something needs to happen quickly.

Example 1: Fruit Ripening

There is a surprising effect in nature where a tree or bush will suddenly ripen all of its fruit or
vegetables, without any visible signal. This is our first example of a positive biological feedback loop. If
we look at an apple tree, with many apples, seemingly overnight they all go from unripe to ripe to
overripe. This will begin with the first apple to ripen. Once ripe, it gives off a gas known as ethylene
(C2H4) through its skin. When exposed to this gas, the apples near to it also ripen. Once ripe, they too
produce ethylene, which continues to ripen the rest of the tree in an effect much like a wave. This
feedback loop is often used in fruit production, with apples being exposed to manufactured ethylene gas
to make them ripen faster.
Figure 2: The process of apples ripening is a positive feedback loop.

Example 2: Childbirth

When labor begins, the baby’s head is pushed downwards and results in increased pressure on the
cervix. This stimulates receptor cells to send a chemical signal to the brain, allowing the release of
oxytocin. This oxytocin diffuses to the cervix via the blood, where it stimulated further contractions.
These contractions stimulate further oxytocin release until the baby is born.

Figure 3: The contractions experienced in childbirth come about as a result of a positive feedback
loop.

Example 3: Blood Clotting

When tissue is torn or injured, a chemical is released. This chemical causes platelets in the blood to
activate. Once these platelets have activated, they release a chemical which signals more platelets to
activate, until the wound is clotted.
Figure 4: The process of wound clotting is a positive feedback loop.

Negative Feedback Loops

A negative feedback loop occurs in biology when the product of a reaction leads to a decrease in that
reaction. In this way, a negative feedback loop brings a system closer to a target of stability or
homeostasis. Negative feedback loops are responsible for the stabilization of a system, and ensure the
maintenance of a steady, stable state. The response of the regulating mechanism is opposite to the
output of the event.

Example 1: Temperature Regulation

Temperature regulation in humans occurs constantly. Normal human body temperature is

approximately 98.6°F. When body temperature rises above this, two mechanisms kick in the body
begins to sweat, and vasodilation occurs to allow more of the blood surface area to be exposed to the
cooler external environment. As the sweat cools, it causes evaporative cooling, while the blood vessels
cause convective cooling. Normal temperature is regained. Should these cooling mechanisms continue,
the body will become cold. The mechanisms which then kick in are the formation of goose bumps, and
vasoconstriction. Goosebumps in other mammals raise the hair or fur, allowing more heat to be
retained. In humans, they tighten the surrounding skin, reducing (slightly) the surface area from which
to lose heat. Vasoconstriction ensures that only a small surface area of the veins is exposed to the cooler
outside temperature, retaining heat. Normal temperature is regained.
Figure 5: The process of temperature regulation in humans is a negative feedback loop.

Example 2: Blood Pressure Regulation (Baroreflex)

Blood pressure needs to remain high enough to pump blood to all parts of the body, but not so high as
to cause damage while doing so. While the heart is pumping, baroreceptors detect the pressure of the
blood going through the arteries. If the pressure is too high or too low, a chemical signal is sent to the
brain via the glossopharyngeal nerve. The brain then sends a chemical signal to the heart to adjust the
rate of pumping: if blood pressure is low, heart rate increases, while if blood pressure is high, heart rate
decreases.

Example 3: Osmoregulation

Osmoregulation refers to the control of the concentration of various liquids within the body, to maintain
homeostasis. We will again look at an example of a fish, living in the ocean. The concentration of salt in
the water surrounding the fish is much higher than that of the liquid in the fish. This water enters the
fish diffusion through the gills, through food consumption, and through drinking. Also, because the
concentration of salt is higher outside than inside the fish, there is passive diffusion of salt into the fish
and water out of the fish. The salt concentration is then too high in the fish, and salt ions must be
released through excretion. This occurs via the skin, and in very concentrated urine. In addition, high salt
levels in the blood are removed via active transport by the chloride secretory cells in the gills. The
correct salt concentration is thus maintained.

Figure 6: The process of osmoregulation in saltwater fish is a constant negative feedback loop.

Positive vs. Negative Feedback

The key difference between positive and negative feedback is their response to change: positive
feedback amplifies change while negative feedback reduces change. This means that positive feedback
will result in more of a product: more apples, more contractions, or more clotting platelets. Negative
feedback will result in less of a product: less heat, less pressure, or less salt. Positive feedback moves
away from a target point while negative feedback moves towards a target.
[bctt tweet=”The key difference between positive and negative feedback is their response to change.”]

Why is Feedback Important?

Without feedback, homeostasis cannot occur. This means that an organism loses the ability to self-
regulate its body. Negative feedback mechanisms are more common in homeostasis, but positive
feedback loops are also important. Changes in feedback loops can lead to various issues, including
diabetes mellitus.

Figure 7: In a normal glucose cycle, increases in blood glucose levels detected by the pancreas will
result in the beta cells of the pancreas secreting insulin until normal blood glucose levels are reached.
Whereas if low blood glucose levels are detected, the alpha cells of the pancreas will release glucagon
to raise blood glucose levels to be normal.

In type 1 diabetes, beta cells don’t work. This means that when blood glucose levels rise, insulin
production is not triggered, and so blood glucose levels continue to go up. This can result in symptoms
such as blurred vision, weight loss, hyperventilation, nausea and vomiting, among others. In type 2
diabetes, chronic high blood glucose levels have occurred as a result of poor diet and lack of exercise.
This results in cells no longer recognizing insulin, and so blood glucose levels continue to rise.

Wrapping Up Positive and Negative Feedback Loops

Feedback loops are biological mechanisms whereby homeostasis is maintained. This occurs when the
product or output of an event or reaction changes the organism’s response to that reaction. Positive
feedback occurs to increase the change or output: the result of a reaction is amplified to make it occur
more quickly. Negative feedback occurs to reduce the change or output: the result of a reaction is
reduced to bring the system back to a stable state. Some examples of positive feedback are contractions
in child birth and the ripening of fruit; negative feedback examples include the regulation of blood
glucose levels and osmoregulation.