CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A. Modal Auxiliaries
1. Definition of Modal Auxiliaries

According to Azar ( 1989 : 68 ) , modal auxiliaries generally express

a speaker‟s attitudes, or “mood”. For example, modal can express that a speaker
feels something necessary, advisable, permissible, possible, or probable; and in
addition, they can convey the strength of these attitudes . These are the modal
verb can, could, may, might, must, will, would, shall, should, ought, and need.
They are different from the other three auxiliary verbs (do, be and have) in two
ways. Firstly, they have special grammatical features (for instance, they have no
infinitive and the third person singular has no s). And Secondly, most modal
verbs have not only a grammatical function, but also a “dictionary meaning”: for
instance, must can mean „be obliged to‟.(do, be and have do not really have
“meaning”) of this kind when they are used as auxiliary verbs.

Modal verb is technical one of these verb form: can, could, may,
might, shall, should, will, would, must, ought to, used to, need, had better, and
dare. They are all used with others verb to change their meaning by expressing
ideas such as possibility, permission, or intension.
And modal verb is different from auxiliary verb (or 'helping') verbs that
are used together with other verbs to 'help' them particular grammatical functions
or meanings (for instance, to make questions, or to form tenses). In English, a lot
of important meanings are expressed by changes in the verb, for example:
questioning, negation, time, completion, continuation, repetition, willingness,
possibility, and obligation. But English verb do not have many different forms,
(e.g. see, sees, seeing, saw, seen). So to express these meanings, a number of
auxiliary verbs are used such as do, be, and have.

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Do is used to make question and negative form of simple tenses, and for
some other purposes. Be is used with participles (-ing and –ed form) to make
progressive and passive verb-form. Have is used to make perfect verb forms. Do,
be, and have also have other 'non-auxiliary' uses , Swam ( 1980 : 91 ).
In conclusion, modal auxiliaries are functional words that help verbs to
express specific meaning such as ability, probability, possibility, obligatory, etc.

2. Kinds of Modal Auxiliary

In English, such verbs have largely replaced the subjunctive mood,

and three kinds of modality can be distinguished for them: (1) epistemic modality,
which expresses a judgment about the truth of a proposition (whether it is
possible, probable, or necessarily true): John may be in his office. (2) Deontic
modality, which involves the giving of directives (in terms of such notions as
permission and obligation): You must leave immediately. (3) Dynamic modality,
which describes such properties as ability and volition to the subject of the
sentence: I can come. Often the same modal verb is used for more than one kind
of modality: may for possibility (It may rain tomorrow) and permission (You may
smoke now);must for necessity (The plane must have landed by now) an obligation
(I must go). Often the same modal verb is used for more than one kind of
modality: may for possibility (It may rain tomorrow) and permission (You may
smoke now); must for necessity (The plane must have landed by now) an
obligation (I must go), Supardi ( 2011 : 7 ).

According to Johanson and Bibes ( 2000 : 485 ) , modal and semi

modals can be grouped into three major categories according to their main
meaning (excluding used to, which relates to past time).

a. Permission/possibility/ability: can, could, may, might.

b. Obligation/ necessity: must, should, had better, Have (got)to, need to,
ought to, be supposed to.
c. Volition/prediction: will, would, shall, be going to.
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3. Sentence Pattern of Modal

According to Aoline ( 2007 : 11 ) , sentence is a group of word that

contains at least object and one verb. A sentence expresses a complete thought.

a. Positive Sentence
The pattern of modal auxilaries in the positive sentence is:

S + Modal auxilaries + V (infinitive without „to‟+o/c)

e.g: You may go home now

b. Negative Sentence

The pattern of modal auxilaries in the negative sentence is:

S + Modal auxilaries + V (infinitive without „to‟+o/c)

e.g: You may not go home now

c. Introgative Sentence

The pattern of modal auxilaries in the introgative sentence is:

S + Modal auxilaries + V (infinitive without „to‟+o/c)

e.g: May you go home now ?

4. Modal Auxiliaries : May, Might , Must and Have to

a. Meaning of Modals Auxiliaries; May and Might

According to Swam ( 1995 : 331 ) , may and might are used mainly
to talk about possibility ( especially the chances of something happening ) , and to
ask for and give permission ( especially in a more formal style ).
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b. Usage of modal : May and Might

The detail functions of May and Might are followed :
1. To express the ability.
a. Chances
We often use may and might to say that there is a
chance that something true, or that there is a possibility
of it happening.
e.g: We may go climbing in the Alps next summer.

b. The difference
Might is not used as a past form of may : both may and
might are used to talk about the present or future.
Might is mostly used as a less difinite or more hesitant
form of may, suggesting a smaller chance – it is used
when people think something is possible but not very
likely. Compare :
e.g: I may go to London tomorrow. ( perhaps a 50%
chance )
e.g: Joe might come with me. ( perhaps a 30% chance )

c. Typical Occurance
May can be used to talk about typical occurance –
things that can happen in certain situations. This is
common ins scientific and academic language.
e.g: The flowers may have five or six petals; colour
may range from light pink to dark red.

d. Questions
May is not normally used in direct questions about
probability.
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e.g : Are you likely to go camping ? ( not may you go

camping ? )
But may is possible in negative questions about
probability.
e.g : May we not be making a big mistake ?
And may is possible in direct questions.
e.g : Do you think you may go camping ?

e. Negatives
Note the difference between may/might not and
cannot/can’t. May/might not means ‘it is possible that.
e.g : It may/might not be true. ( It is possible that it is
not true)

f. Conditional
Might ( but not may ) can have a conditional meaning (
would perhaps ).
e.g : If you went to bed for an hour you might feel
better. ( perhaps you would feel better ).

g. Indirect speech
Might is used as the indirect speech equivalent of both
may and might after a past reporting verb.

e.g : “ What are you doing at the weekend, Anne? ‘oh, I

may go to Scotland or I just might stay at home.’

h. Past
May and might cannot normally be used to say that
something was possible in the past. Other word have to
be used.
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e.g : I couldn’t think clearly, and felt hot. Perhaps I was

ill .( Not I might be ill ).

i. May/ might + perfect infinitive

To say that it is possible that something happened or
was true in the past. A special structure can be used :
may/might + perfect infinitive (have = past participle ).
e.g : ‘Polly’ very late.’ She may have missed her train.’
( ‘It is possible that she missed).

2. Permission
a. Asking for permission
May and might can both be used to ask for permission.
They are more formal than can and could. Might is very
polite and formal ; it is not commen, and is mostly used
in indirect question structures.
e.g : May i put the TV on ?

b. Giving and refusing permission

May is used to give permission ; may not is used to
refuse permission and to forbid.
e.g : ‘May i put the TV on? ‘Yes, of course you may.’

c. Talking about permission

We do not usually use may and might to talk about
permission which has already been given or refused,
about freedom which people already have, or about
rules and laws. Instead, we use can, could or be
allowed.
e.g : These days, children can / are allowed to do what
they like. ( Not children may do what they like ).
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d. Indirect speech
However, may and might can be used in indirect speech
to report the giving of permission. May is used after
present reporting verbs and might after past verbs.
e.g : The manager says that we may leave our coats in
the downstairs toilet.

3. May in wishes and hopes

May ( but not might ) is used in formal expression of
wishes and hopes.
e.g : May you both be very happy!

4. Requests,suggestions and criticism

Might is often used in affirmative clauses to make request
and suggestion.
e.g : You might see if John’s free this evening.
The structure can be used to criticise . Might have + past
participle is used to talk about the past.
e.g : You might as before you borrow my car.

c. Meaning of Modals Auxiliaries; Must

According Swam ( 1995 : 342 ), must is used mostly to express the

conclusion that something is certain and to talk about necessity and obligation.

d. Usage of Modal : Must

1. Concluding that something is certain
a. Statement
Must can be used to express the conclusion that
something is certain highly proble – to suggest that
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there are are excellent argumets for believing

something.
e.g : There is the doorbell. It must be Roger.

b. Question
Must is not used to express certainly in question and
negative clauses. In questions we use can.
e.g : There’s somebody at the door.Who can it be ? (
Not Who must it be ? )

c. Past
We can use must with a perfect infinitive ( have + past
participle ) to express conclusions about the past.
e.g : ‘We went to Rome last month. ‘That must have
been nice .’

d. Indirect speech
Must can be used after a past reporting verb as if it were
a past tense.
e.g : I felt there must be something wrong.

2. Necessity and obligation

a. Statement
In affirmative statements, we can use must to say what
is necessary, and to give strong advice and orders to
ourselves or other people.
e.g : You must be here before eight o’clock tomorrow.
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In questions, British people can use must to ask about

what the hearer thinks is necessary.
e.g : Must I clean all the rooms ?

b. Negative
British people can use must not / musn’t to say that
things should not be done, or tell people not to do
things.
e.g : The government really mustn’t expect people to
work hard for no money.

c. Past
Must is not normally to talk about past obligation (
expect in direct speech ).This is because must is used
mainly for giving orders and advice and for making
recommendations, and one cannot do these things the
past.Had to is used to talk about ‘ outside’ obligation in
the past.
e.g : I had to cycle three miles to school when I was a
child.

e. Usage of Modal : Have (got ) to

a. Concluding that something is certain
Must is unusual in this sense in American English,
especiallyin speech. Have ( got ) to used to be unusual in
British English in this sense, but it is now becoming
common.
e.g : You have ( got ) to be joking.
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b. Question
In questions, British people can use must to ask about what
the hearer thinks is necessary.
e.g : Must I clean all the rooms ?

c. Necessity and obligation

Must and have ( got ) to can both be used in British English
to talk about necessity. In American English, have to is
more common, especially in speech.
e.g : I’ve got to stop smoking.

d. Future obligation
Will have to is used to talk about future obligation, but have
( got ) to is preferred when arrangements for the future have
already been made.
e.g : I’ve got to go for a job interview tomorrow.

e. Past
Had to is used to talk about past obligation. Must is used
with the perfect infinitive ( have + past participle ) to
express certainly about the past.
e.g : Edna isn’t in her office. She had to go home.

f. Negative
Do not have to / have not got to is used to say that there is
no obligation.
e.g : You don’t have to carry identity papers in England.
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5.Students’ Difficulties in Using Modals

According Swam (1995 : 131 ), modal auxilaries are among the more
difficult structure ESL and English teacher have to deal with. One of the reasons
for his is the form of modals. The students,who have been told time to time again
that present-tense verb with third person singular subjects require an-s ending,
overgeneralize this rule to modals this rule to modals.
In English, modals are derived from verb that did carry tense and
take agreement markers during a much earlier stages of the language. It is thus
important to emphasize to learners that English no longer inflects modals for tense
and number. Another formal property of modals that may cause your students
some trouble is that modal directly precede a verb without the intervening
infinitive to that is required when two ordinary verbs follow each other in
sequence. Freeman and Murcia ( 1999 : 137 ) .
Sudirman ( 2011 : 15 ) state that , many of the students will treat
modals like ordinary verbs and produce error by using a superfluous infinitive to:
* Jack must to Study Harder.
The biggest problem of ESL students face with modals is their
meaning. Each modal can have more than one meaning and each meaning is a
member of an inter-related system. When a speaker chooses to use one
modal,she/he is deciding not to use any of the other modals, thereby indicating the
degree of emphasis."The problem lies not in the surface positioning of modals nor
in their wide range of meanings, but in associating the right modal with the right
meaning." The difficulties, in interpreting an already complex system, have often
been compounded by teaching methods that present modals as a list. Students
memorize the modals with their accompanying meanings, but they may have no
idea of the subtle social and cultural information each choice conveys.
Modals can also appear in the perfect aspect with a have + -en
construction. This can also be a difficult area for students. The problems students
experience with the perfect modal construction can be attributed to the fact that
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they often believe the addition of the perfect construction adds "perfectiveness" to
the meaning.
Beside that, the difficulties in learning modal auxiliaries were caused by
internal factor; the factor comes from inside of the students, such as Interest,
motivation, mental health and talent. As Muhibin Syah said “ The internal factor
is divided into aspects; physiological aspect and psychological aspect”.

a. Physiological Aspect
This aspect is about the conditions of the students‟ body from every
part of the body. For instance, when the students got headache, they
could not study well. The condition of the body can influence students‟
intensity and spirits in studying. So, if their bodies are healthy, they
can study well; can receive the information about what they are
learning and can get a good achievement. However, if they are not, it
will influence too. The students become lazy and no spirit to study.
b. Psychological Aspect
This factor emphasize on the inside conditions of the students. It
consists of the students‟ intelligence, talent, interest, motivation,
mental health and special types of learner.