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- They were having guests that evening.

- He was getting married that afternoon.
4. Be to + Infinitive: (In formal use it can refer to what “was destined” or “was
arranged”
- He was to pay dearly for his ambition.
- The Olympics were to be held the next summer.
- She was later to regret her decision to marry him.
5. Be about to + Infinitive: (Usually conveys the idea that the anticipated
happening did not take place:
- The priceless tapestry was about to catch fire.
- The balloon was about to explode.
- The tree was about to fall.

The Subjunctive Mood

Unlike the other four moods, the subjunctive mood in English does not have a
sentence counterpart, it can be marked only by using a different form of the verb from
the ordinarily called for. There are three categories of the subjunctive:
1. Productive (Mandative): The subjunctive appears in dependent clauses
following main clauses. It occurs with a relatively restricted set of verbs, which
include (advise, ask, demand, insist, request, urge, suggest, prefer and propose).
The subjunctive in that-clauses does not vary, regardless of whether the subject
is first, second or third person or singular/plural, and regardless of time
reference. It has only one form, the base (V); this means that there is lack of the
regular concord between subject and verb in the 3 rd person singular present, and
tenses are indistinguishable.
- I insist that he take the test again.
- We suggest that she stay one more day.
- The department requires that every student study hard.
- He requested that the manager give him extra week to finish the project.
This use of the subjunctive occurs chiefly in formal style (especially in AmE ) where
in less formal contexts one would rather make use of other devices such as (to-inf.) or
(should + inf.) and following main clause adjectives:
- We suggest that she should stay one more day.
- It is necessary for every student to inform himself of the rules.
- It is important for her to be given a second chance.
- It is essential that he be prepared for the exam.

In subjunctive clauses, a negation element is always placed directly before the main
verb rather than after an auxiliary verb:
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- We insist that he not make the phone call.

- We prefer that the plan not be changed.
- He requested that they not execute him with electric chair.
- It is desirable that she not become rude.
2. Formulaic Subjunctive: It consists of the base form of the verb, but is used only
in certain exclamations to express a wish or hope, very often involving
supernatural powers.
- God bless you!
- Heaven help us!
- God save the queen/king!
- Heaven forbid that……..
3. The Hypothetical Subjunctive: It is used in conditional and concessive clauses
and in subordinate clauses after optative verbs like (wish). It occurs at 1 st and 3rd
person singular past of the verb (be), matching the indicative (was) which is the
more in less formal style:
- If I were you, I would enjoy my vacation.
- He spoke to me as if I were deaf.
- I wish I were a king.

Criteria for Identifying Modal Auxiliaries

There are some morphological and syntactic criteria that govern the use of modal
auxiliaries. These criteria are summarized as follows:
1. Construction with bare infinitive: They are normally followed by the bare
infinitive, except with (used) and (ought).
- You will be asked some questions.
- She can do it.
- You ought to come early.
- He used to read for hours.
2. Finite functions only: They can occur as the first element of the verb phrase.
They cannot occur in nonfinite functions, i.e. as infinitives or participles.
3. No third person inflection: They are not inflected in the third person singular of
the present tense, i.e. they have no (s) form.
4. Abnormal time reference: Not only the present forms, but the past forms of the
modal auxiliaries can be used to refer to the present and future time (often with
hypothetical or tentative meaning):
- I think he might/may retire next May.
- Will /would you phone him tomorrow?
The first thing to notice about the meaning of modal auxiliaries is that they form a
semantic opposition with ordinary tensed verb forms. When English speakers use a
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modal, they interject their own perspective and view a proposition more subjectively
than when they simply use present and past tenses. Consider the following examples:
1. (a) John is a teacher. 1. (b) John may be a teacher.
2. (a) John was a teacher. 2. (b) John may have been a teacher.
Many linguists and semanticists have discussed modals as having at least two
distinctly different meanings : (1) Logical Probability (2) Social Interaction. This
means that modals are used for such reasons as : to give a proposition of a degree of
probability, to express one‟s attitude, to perform various social functions, such as
expressing politeness or indirectness when making requests, giving advice, or granting
permission.
3. You may leave the room. (Granting Permission)
4. It may rain tomorrow. (Logical Probability)
When modals are used for social interaction, the speaker using them must take into
account the relevant features of the social context. For example, in sentence (3) above
the speaker should have sufficient status or authority to be able to grant permission to
the interlocutors. Furthermore, the situation should be formal rather than informal, or
the speaker would have used (can) instead of (may) for granting permission.
Knowing all the relevant features of the social context allows the speaker to select
the appropriate modal auxiliary in any given interaction. In contrast, in sentence (4)
above, knowledge of the social context would have no effect on the modal selected.
What the speaker is intending to convey is his assessment that the probability of rain
the following day is relatively low. The speaker would likely use (may) regardless of
the interlocutors or the situation.

Meanings and Uses of (Can)

The modal auxiliary verb (can) is used to express the following meanings:
1. Theoretical Possibility: ( It is possible + for (subject)+ an infinitive clause)
- Even expert drivers can make mistakes (It is possible for even expert drivers
to….)
- Can he be working at this time?
- He can‟t be working at this time.
2. Ability: In this sense (can) may be paraphrasable by ( be able to….), (be capable
of), (know how).
- Bill can cook better than his wife. (Bill is able to cook….)
- Can you remember where they live?
- I can say some words in Italian.
3. Permission (less formal): It is possible to paraphrase (can) in the sense of
permission by (be allowed to) , (be permitted to):
- Can we borrow these books from the library? (Are we allowed to …..?)
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- Can I come in?

Meanings and Uses of (Could )

The modal auxiliary verb (could) is used to express the following meanings:
1. Present Possibility (Theoretical or Factual): ( It is possible+ for (subject)
infinitive clause ……)
- Even expert drivers could make mistakes.
- The road could be blocked.
2. Past ability: In this sense (could) may be paraphrasable by ( be able to….), (be
capable of), (knew how).
- I could swim all the way across the Tigris.
- At the age of six, he could speak English and Italian.
3. Permission: It is possible to paraphrase (could) in the sense of permission by (be
allowed to).
- In those days only men could vote in elections.
- Could I bring my pet dog into the party?
4. Contingent possibility or ability in unreal conditions:
- If we had more money, we could buy a new car.
- You could have asked for help if you had wanted to.

Meanings and Uses of (May )

The modal auxiliary verb (May) is used to express the following meanings:
1. Possibility : ( It is possible that ……)
- You may never succeed. (It is possible that you‟ll never succeed)
- You may be right.
2. Asking for/Granting Permission: (be allowed to/ be permitted to)
- You may borrow my computer if you wish.
- Visitors may reclaim necessary travel expenses up to a limit of 50 dollars.
- May I ask a question?
As permission auxiliary, may is more formal and less common than can. However,
may is particularly associated with permission given by the speaker. That is, a
difference is sometimes felt between (You may leave when you Iike.) ['I permit you ..']
and (You can leave when you like.) ['You are permitted . . .], which can mean
permission in a more general and impersonal sense.

Meanings and Uses of (Might)

The modal auxiliary verb (Might) is used to express the following meanings:
1. Possibility : ( It is possible that ……)
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- There might be some complaints. (It is possible that there will be some
complaints)
- We might go to the movies.
- He might have been telling lies.
2. Asking for Permission: (be allowed to/ be permitted to)
- Might I ask whether you are using the typewriter? (Am I allowed to ask…..?)
- Might I rest in your chair?
- Might I have a copy of the letter?
when used to ask for permission, might indicates greater uncertainty of the answer.

Meanings and Uses of (Shall)

The modal auxiliary verb (shall) is used to express the following meanings:
1. Prediction (with 1st person subjects):
- According to the opinion polls, I shall win easily.
- We shall know the results of the election within a week.
2. Volition (with 1st person subjects). In its volitional use, (shall) expresses the
following meanings:
 Willingness on the part of the speaker with 2nd and 3rd persons subjects.
- He shall get his money.
- You shall do just as you wish.
 Intention/determination on the part of the speaker with 1st person subjects only.
- We shall uphold the wishes of the people.
- We shall defend our country.
 Insistence/giving orders on the part of the speaker with 2nd & 3rd persons
subjects
- You shall do exactly as I say.
- He shall be punished if he disobeys.
 Obligation in legal and quasi-legal injunctions:
- All members shall settle their international disputes by peaceful means.

Meanings and Uses of (Should)

The modal auxiliary (should) may be used to express the following meanings:
1. Obligation & Logical Necessity:
- You should paint your door.
- You should go slowly here, it is a built-up area.
- The floor should be washed at least once a week.
In this sense, the use of (should) implies the speaker‟s authority; however it does not
imply that the speaker has confidence that the recommendation will be carried out. In
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fact, with the perfective aspect, (should) typically has the stronger implication that the
recommendation has not been carried out:
- They should have met her at the airport.
- You should have submitted your assignment two hours ago.
2. Putative use occurs in that clauses "after expressions of emotion (sorrow, joy,
displeasure, surprise, wonder, etc.).
- It is unfair that so many people should lose their jobs.
- I am surprised that he should feel lonely.
- It‟s a pity that he should resign.
- It‟s disgraceful that she should spy on her husband.
3. Contingent use with 1st person subjects only (especially in BrE) in the main
clause.
- If there were an accident, we should report it.
- We should take immediate action, if a serious crisis aroused.
4. In rather formal real condition:
- If you should change your mind, let us know.
- If you should leave, inform me first.

Meanings and Uses of (Will)

The modal auxiliary (will) may be used to express the following meanings:
1. Willingness ('weak volition'), especially 2nd person. It is used to soften the tone
in requests.
- Will you have another cup of coffee?
- Will you (please, kindly, etc) open the window?
2. Intention ('intermediate volition'). Usually contracted 'II; mainly 1st person.
- I'll write as soon as I can.
- We won't stay longer than two hours.
3. Insistence ('strong volition‟ = insist on). In this sense, (will) is stressed, hence no
contraction.
- He 'will do it, whatever you say. ('He insists on doing it,..')
Notice the difference in meaning between the use of (will/shall)
- He shall do whatever you say. (I insist on his doing it…..)
- She 'will keep giving us hard times.
4. Prediction: the similar meanings of other expressions for logical necessity and
habitual present. The contracted form („ll) is common.
A. Specific prediction:
- They will have arrived by now.
- My favorite TV show will be finished by now.
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B. Timeless prediction:
- Oil will float on water.
This sort of prediction with (will) often occurs with conditional sentences:
- If litmus paper is dipped in acid, it will turn red.
C. Habitual prediction:
- A lion will only attack a human being when it is hungry.
- He'll (always) talk for hours if you give him the chance

Meanings and Uses of (Would)

The modal auxiliary verb (Would) is used to express the following meanings:
1. Willingness: It is used to soften the tone in requests.
- Would you help me address these letters?
- Would you lend me your car?
2. Insistence: This somewhat rare use implies willfulness on the part of the subject
referent.
- He would leave the house in a muddle.
- She would keep interrupting me.
3. Intention: in indirect speech
- The manager said he would phone me after lunch.
- My cousin promised that he would help me decorate the office.
Outside indirect speech, however, (would) is not used in the sense of intention;
hence a sentence such as He would meet me the next day is almost inevitably
interpreted as free indirect speech.
4. Contingent use in the main clause of a conditional sentence.
- If you pressed that button, the engine would stop.
- If there were an accident, we would/should have to report it.
Although the conditional sentence is the most typical context in which hypothetical
(would) occurs, there are many other contexts in which hypothetical (would) is used:
- I would hate to lose this pen.
- It would be impossible to estimate how many crimes went undetected since
2003.
5. Probability:
- That would be the postman. (on hearing the doorbell)
- That would be George. (on hearing horn honks)
6. Habitual prediction of a characteristic activity in the past
- My kids would sit in front of the television continuously. [ it was customary of
……]
- They would spend hours playing videogames. [ it was typical of them……]
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Meanings and Uses of (Must)

The modal auxiliary (must) may be used to express the following meanings:
1. Obligation or compulsion: In this sense, it is paraphrasable by (be obliged to)
and (have to) or (have got to).
- You must get up earlier in the morning.
- You must quit smoking.
- Passengers must cross the line by the footbridge.
There are two negatives of (must):
a. (not be obliged to) = needn‟t, don‟t have to:
b. (be obliged not to) = mustn‟t
Must does not have a past form; therefore we use (had to) to express obligation in the
past.
- They had to wear school uniforms when they were kids.
- I had to work late last night.
- Yesterday you said that you [must/had to] be back by 10 p.m.
- * He must leave in a hurry yesterday.
2. (Logical) Necessity:
- Students must pass an entrance examination to study at this school.
- You must have a permit to enter the national park.
- We must wash the floor every day.
- There must be a mistake.
Meanings and Uses of (Ought to)
1. Obligation, (Logical) Necessity or expectation:
- You ought to start at once.
- They ought to be here by now.
- She ought to have arrived at her office by now.
- We ought to have finished painting the house by the end of next week.
Ought to has no past form, but we can use (ought to + perfective aspect) to talk about
things which were supposed to happen but did not.
- I ought to have phoned him this morning, but I forgot.
- They ought to have stopped at the traffic lights.
To express the idea that the subject is not fulfilling his obligations or that he is acting
foolishly or not acting sensibly, ought to + the continuous infinitive (ought to + be+
(v+ing) is used:
- You ought to be studying for your exam.
- We ought to be wearing seatbelts.
2. Advice:
- You ought to read this. It is very good.
- You ought to listen to classical music if you want to relax.
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- If you want to lose weight, you ought to cut out snacks and junk food.

Used To
In grammatical terms, used to is a defective verb which has no present tense and
doesn‟t occur in the progressive. Used always takes to-infinitive and occurs only in the
past tense. It may be constructed like main lexical verbs, in which case, it may take the
do-construction, as a consequence two spelling possibilities are at hand: didn‟t used to
and didn‟t use to. The interrogative construction Used he to …..? is especially in (BrE);
Did he used to …..? is preferred in both (AmE) and (BrE).
Affirmative: used for all persons
Negative: used not/usedn't for all persons
Interrogative: used you/he/they? etc.
Negative interrogative: used you not/usedn't you? etc.
Negative and interrogative can also be formed with did:
didn't use to/ did you use to?/ didn't you use to? This is a more informal form,
common in conversation.
Used to is used to express the following meanings:
1. To express a discontinued habit or a past situation which contrasts with the
present:
• I used to smoke cigarettes; now I smoke a pipe.
• He used to drink tea; now he drinks coffee. Modal Auxiliary uses
• She usedn't to like Tom but she quite likes him now.
• Used he to be that rude?
2. To express a past routine or pattern. Here we are not making a contrast between
past and present; we are merely describing someone's routine during a certain
period.
• Tom and Ann were a young married couple. Every morning Tom used to help
Ann in the kitchen and set off for work. Ann used to stand at the window and
wave goodbye. In the evening she used to welcome him home and ask him to tell
her about his day.

Dare
Dare is another defective verb that can be constructed in two ways, either as a modal
auxiliary with a bare infinitive and without the inflected forms, or as a main verb with
to-infinitive, -s inflection and past form. Its use as a modal auxiliary is mainly
restricted to negative and interrogative sentences.
• She daren‟t tell him what she thinks.
• Dare you jump from the top of that high wall? Modal auxiliary uses
• I daren‟t do it.
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• She doesn‟t dare (to) go out at night.

• The old lady didn‟t dare (to) open the door. Main verb uses
• Did he dare (to) criticize my arrangements?
• Nobody dares (to) tell him the truth.

Need
Need is another defective verb that can be constructed in two ways, either as a modal
auxiliary with a bare infinitive and without the inflected forms, or as a main verb with
to-infinitive, -s inflection and past form. Its use as a modal auxiliary is mainly
restricted to negative and interrogative sentences. Need as an auxiliary is seldom used
in the affirmative except when a negative or interrogative sentence is preceded by an
expression which changes the negative or interrogative verb into an affirmative:

• I don't suppose I need wear a coat.

• Do you think I need tell Tom?
• He needn‟t go now. Modal auxiliary uses
• Need he go now?
• Needn‟t he go now?

• He needs to go now.
• He doesn‟t need to go now.
• Does he need to go now? Main verb uses
• Doesn‟t he need to go now?