Cell

Theory
Stephen Taylor
i-Biology.net Image: Cells by Filter Forge on Flickr http://flic.kr/p/ePXpR5
All living things are made of C
E
L
L
S
Longitudinal section of a root tip of Maize (Zea mays)
by Science and Plants for Schools on Flickr (CC) http://flic.kr/p/bNNM6M
All living things are made of C
E
Unicellular organisms are single-
celled and can carry out all of the
functions of life independently.
L
Multicellular organisms have L
specialized cells to carry out specific
functions. S
Longitudinal section of a root tip of Maize (Zea mays)
by Science and Plants for Schools on Flickr (CC) http://flic.kr/p/bNNM6M
C are the smallest
units of
E life.
L
L
S
Paramecium multimicronucleatum
by Proyecto Agua on Flickr (CC) http://flic.kr/p/7W7J3y
C are the smallest
units of
E life.
L Specialized
structures within
L cells (organelles) carry
out different functions.
Organelles cannot
S survive alone.
Paramecium multimicronucleatum
by Proyecto Agua on Flickr (CC) http://flic.kr/p/7W7J3y
 C come
only
E from
L existing
cells.
L
S
4-cell stage of a sea biscuit by Bruno Vellutini on Flickr (CC) http://flic.kr/p/daWnnS
 Cells multiply through

C come division.

All life evolved from

only
E from simpler ancestors.

Mitosis results in
genetically identical diploid
L existing daughter cells.

Meiosis generates haploid

cells.
L gametes (sex cells).

Pasteur disproved the

S theory of spontaneous
generation with his
experiments.
4-cell stage of a sea biscuit by Bruno Vellutini on Flickr (CC) http://flic.kr/p/daWnnS
 Hooke names “cells” in his book
1665 “Micrographia” after observing
cork under a lense.

are made of cells.

All living things

Hooke’s Micrographia in full! http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/nat_hist/id/0

1676
All living things are
made of cells.
van Leeuwenhoek, a master microscope maker identifies
“animalcules” and becomes the father of microbiology.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek
1833 Robert Brown names the cell nucleus.
Cells are the smallest units of life.

He also discovered Brownian motion:

Robert Brown: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Brown_(botanist) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brownian_motion

1855 Robert Remak discovers cell division and confirms the existence
of the plasma membrane. Cells come only from pre-existing cells.

Robert Remak: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Remak

 Pasteur disproves the prevailing theory of “spontaneous
1864 generation” with his swan-neck flask experiments.
Populations need to be seeded by existing populations: cells come
only from pre-existing cells.

Image from Amoeba Mike’s Blog (go read the original post): http://amoebamike.wordpress.com/2009/10/06/spontaneous-
generation-a-brief-history-of-disproving-it
Labeling the parts of the microscope activity:
http://www.biology.ualberta.ca/facilities/multimedia/uploads/intro-biology/microscope.html
Magnification
The image we see through
the light microscope has
been magnified.

Objective lens
x eyepiece lens

Image from wikimedia commons: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Microscope-blank.svg

Modern Microscopy

Image: d2540-6 by USDA on Flickr (CC): http://flic.kr/p/dPqvvY

Modern Microscopy
As we develop more and
more sophisticated and
precise imaging tools, we can
see more detail of the cells
and molecules that make us.

Scanning electron
microscopes deliver high-
resolution, 3D surface
images of structures,
whereas transmission
electron microscopes give us
a view inside cells and
organelles.

Image: d2540-6 by USDA on Flickr (CC): http://flic.kr/p/dPqvvY

Emiliana huxleyi

Image from: http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/earthguide/imagelibrary/emilianiahuxleyi.html

Transmission electron micrograph of HIV particles.

120nm

HIV-1. Transmission electron micrograph, via wikimedia commons: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AHIV-

1_Transmission_electron_micrograph_AIDS02bbb_lores.jpg
Scanning electron micrograph of HIV particles
budding on a human lymphocyte.

1μm

False-coloured scanning electron micrograph of HIV (green) budding on a lymphicoyte (blue)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HIV-budding-Color.jpg OR http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/details.asp?pid=10000
Unicellular Organisms
carry out all the functions of life
M ovement
R espiration
S ensitivity
G rowth
R eproduction
E xcretion
N utrition

Paramecium bursaria
by Proyecto Agua on Flickr (CC) http://flic.kr/p/7WXdFz
Given the right conditions, cells can
survive outside their normal habitat.

Art from Petri dishes_1 by Image in Science and Art on Flickr (CC) http://flic.kr/p/838xjC
VIRUSES
Are they living or non-living?

Hmm…..

Image: Swine Flu H1N1 virus influenza 9.0 by hitthatswitch on Flickr (CC) http://flic.kr/p/74e4SP
Some units that I use & know
Unit abbr. Metric equivalent
kilometer km 1,000m 1 x 103m
X 1,000
meter m 1m 1m
centimeter cm 0.01m 1 x 10-2m ÷1,000
millimeter mm 0.001m 1 x 10-3m
÷1,000
micrometer μm 0.000 001m 1x 10-6m
÷1,000
nanometer nm 0.000 000 001m 1x 10-9m

write this correctly

μm = micrometers
We usually use this in discussion of cells.
There are 1,000μm in one mm.
 50μm

Human egg cell, from Gray’s Anatomy (1858). http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Gray%27s_Anatomy_plates

 5μm

Human sperm cell, from Gray’s Anatomy (1858). http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Gray%27s_Anatomy_plates

 Scanning electron micrograph of
human sperm and egg cells.

5μm

Image from wikimedia commons http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermatozoon

 Which dissolves faster: sugar
cubes or sugar crystals? Why?
Sugar Cubes by Uwe Hermann on Flickr (CC) http://flic.kr/p/cFMMc
 What will go cold faster: French
fries or a baked potato? Why?

French Fries by Ian Britton on Flickr (CC) http://flic.kr/p/6RLQ8j

Which makes green tea faster: tea leaves or powder?

Matcha Latte by Cupcake Murder Aftermatch on Flickr (CC) http://flic.kr/p/fCkpb5

 What type of crisps
delivers more
flavour:

regular-cut
or
crinkle-cut?

Why?
Smiths Plain Chips by Penguin Cakes on Flickr (CC) http://flic.kr/p/5ygb8v
IN:
 Oxygen
 Nutrients
 Water

The plasma membrane

of a cell is the surface of
exchange for materials
between the inside and
the outside of the cell.

OUT:
 Carbon dioxide
 Waste
 Products (e.g. proteins)

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Sphere
 As the cell gets larger, it requires
more resources to be imported and
produces more products (and waste)
to be exported.

Therefore, a larger volume requires

more exchange across the membrane.

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Sphere
As the cell gets larger…

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Sphere
As the cell gets larger…
…the surface area to
volume ratio
actually gets
smaller…

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Sphere
As the cell gets larger…
…the surface area to
volume ratio
actually gets
smaller…
…so the
exchange
processes
become less
efficient with
increasing size. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Sphere
 Diffusion Pathways

are shorter (and

more efficient)
in
with a larger
surface are to
volume ratio.

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Sphere
 Surface are to volume ratio

C D
is a factor that limits the
size of cells.

E I
By dividing to make more,
smaller cells, the efficiency
of the exchange processes
V across the membranes (into
L I
and out of the cells) can be
kept high.

L D Shorter diffusion paths.

More surfaces for reactions.

E
S Removal of heat and waste

4-cell stage of a sea biscuit by Bruno Vellutini on Flickr (CC) http://flic.kr/p/daWnnS

 Natural selection favours adaptations that give an advantage.
Structure/Function Folded structures are everywhere in nature, maximising the surface
area to volume ratio for exchange of materials.

Mammalian liver mitochondria: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mitochondria,_mammalian_lung_-_TEM_(2).jpg

 Big Cell Exceptions

Caulerpa species of algae are

one giant cell with many
nuclei distributed throughout.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caulerpa
Big Cell Exceptions

Epulopiscium is a giant
species of bacteria. Read
more about it here:
NotExactlyRocketScience.

E. coli

100μm

Epulpoiscium, by AJ Cann on Flickr (CC) http://flic.kr/p/4Nzq9t

Is maximising surface area to volume
ratio always an advantage?

Free images from: Presentations ETC, University of Florida. http://etc.usf.edu/presentations/

Two Minute Essay

Explain the importance of surface area to

volume ratio as a factor limiting cell size.

Free images from: Presentations ETC, University of Florida. http://etc.usf.edu/presentations/

Exploration: which cools faster?
Add 30ml hot water to a small cup and to a petri dish.
Predict: Will one cool faster? Why?
Record: Take the temperature of each one every minute.
Describe or plot the results.

30ml 30ml
Design an investigation into the effect of SA:Vol ratio on exchange of…
 Emergent Properties
the whole is
more than the sum
of its parts

Photo by Stephen Taylor: http://www.flickr.com/photos/gurustip/9668701965/in/photostream

Stem Cells

A cluster of nascent retinae generated from 3D embryonic stem cell cultures, by UCL News on Flickr (CC): http://flic.kr/p/ffPBPT
A Stem Cell Story http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2-3J6JGN-_Y
Stem Cells retain the capacity to divide and can
differentiate along divergent pathways.
Totipotent
Can differentiate into any type
of cell.

Pluripotent
Can differentiate into many
types of cell.

Multipotent
Can differentiate into a few
closely-related types of cell.

Unipotent
Can regenerate but can only
differentiate into their
associated cell type
(e.g. liver stem cells can only
make liver cells).

Image from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stem_cell

Stem Cells retain the capacity to divide and can
differentiate along divergent pathways.

By Fwfu at en.wikibooks [Public domain], from Wikimedia Commons

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AStemcelldifferentiaion.jpg
Stem Cells retain the capacity to divide and can
differentiate along divergent pathways.

Screenshot from this excellent tutorial: http://www.ns.umich.edu/stemcells/022706_Intro.html

 Differentiation (specialization) of cells:
All diploid (body) cells have the same chromosomes.
So they carry all the same genes and alleles.
BUT
Not all genes are expressed (activated) in all cells.
The cell receives a signal.
This signal activates or deactivates genes.
Genes are expressed accordingly and the cell is committed.
Eventually the cell has become specialized to a function.

Key Concept: Structure vs Function

How do the structures of specialized cells reflect their
functions? How does differentiation lead to this?
Screenshot from this excellent tutorial: http://www.ns.umich.edu/stemcells/022706_Intro.html
Therapeutic Uses of Stem Cells
Treatment for Leukemia
Cancer of the blood or bone marrow,
Problem resulting in abnormally high levels of poorly-
functioning white blood cells.

Chemotherapy and radiotherapy can be used

to destroy the white blood cells, but these
From: Treatment
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluripotential_hemopoietic_stem_cell need to be replaced with healthy cells. Bone
marrow transplants are often used for this.

Hematopoetic Stem Cells (HSCs) can be

harvested from bone marrow, peripheral
Animation of this process: blood or umbilical cord blood. As these can
differentiate to form any type of white blood
Role of
cell, they can be used to repopulate the bone
Stem Cells marrow and produce new, healthy blood cells.
The use of a patient’s own HSCs means there
is far less risk of immune rejection than with a
traditional bone marrow transplant.

Animated tutorials from: http://outreach.mcb.harvard.edu/animations/thera7c.swf

Two Minute Essay
What is a stem cell?

How do stem cells differentiate into specialized cells?

Outline one therapeutic use of stem cells.

Free images from: Presentations ETC, University of Florida. http://etc.usf.edu/presentations/

 For more resources & links
including many on Stem Cells.
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