A Project report on

DESIGN OF A RIGID PAVEMENT

Submitted by
PRIYANK GODHAT

2017A2PS0856P

AT

LARSEN AND TOUBRO TRANSPORTATION

(L&T, Mumbai)

A Practice School -1 Satiation At

BIRLA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE, PILANI

(JUNE 2019)
 BIRLA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE

PILANI (RAJASTHAN)

Practice School Division

Station: larsen and toubro Centre:Mumbai

Duration: From 21rd May, 2019 To 13th July, 2019

Date of Submission: 19th June, 20169

Title of the Project: design of a flexible pavement for an existing colony

ID No. Name of Student Discipline

2017A2PS0856P Priyank Godhat B.E.(Hons.) Civil
engineering

Name of Mentor : Prateek hagawane

Key words: Flexible Pavement, CBR, Sub-grade, Base, Subbase

 v^r

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This is our privilege to express my deep sense of gratitude

and indebtness to our project guide, Er. Prateek Hagawane, with whose

valuable guidance, encouragement and practical insight, this project has

been completed. I wish my sincere thanks to Er. Satya Kumar, Head of

the Design Department for providing me the facilities to take up the

project.

III
 TABLE OF CONTENT

CONTENT PAGE NO.

CEEITIFIJCATE n
ACKNOWLDGEMENT in
TABLE OF CONTENT iv
LIST OF TABLES viii
LIST OF FIGURES „» xi
1. INTRODUCTION , 1

1.1 General 1

2. METHODS OF DESIGN 7

2.1 General 7

2.2 Present Trend in Concrete Pavement Design 7

2.2.1 AASHTO Method 7
2.2.2 Indian Rxiads Congress Method 11

3. IRC GUIDELINES 16

3.1 General 16

3.2 Concrete Pavement Types 16

3.3 Factors Governing Design 17

3.3.1 Axle Load Characteristics 17
3.3.2 Wheel Base Characteristics 18
3.33 Design Period 19
3.3.4 Traffic Consideration „ 19
iv

3.3.5 Tonperature Consideration 21

3.3.6 Embankment Soil And Characteristics Of Subgrade And Subbase 23

3.4 Design of Slab Thickness 30

3.4.1 Critical stress condition 30
 3.4.2 Calculation of flexural stress 33
3.4.3 Cumulative Fatigue Damage Analysis 37
3.4.4 Design Criterion of Rigid Pavements 38

3.5 Stq)s Followed in Pavement Design 38

4. PAVEMENT DESICT* ~~.40

4.1 General 40

4.2 Design Data 40

4.3 Pavement Design using IRC: 58-2011 41

4.3.1 Dry Lean Concrete of 100 mm Thickness as Subbase Layer with Varying Subgrade
Strength 41

4.4 Pavement Design using IRC: 58-2002 68

4.4.1 Design Data „ 68
4.4.2. Dry Lean Concr^ of 100 mm Thickness as Subbase Layer with Varying Subgrade
Strength ~ 68

V
 6.3.1 Effect of Varying Strength of Subgrade on Thickness of Pavement 97
6.3.2 Effect ofTypeofSubbase on Thickness of Pavement 97
6.3J Effect of Hiickness of Subbase on Pavement Thickness 98
6.3.4 Effect of TrafSc Volume on Pavement Thickness 98

6.4 IRC: 58-2011 v/s IRC: 58-2002 98

6.5 Issues Regarding IRC: 58-2011 99

REFERENCES , „„„„, .-,„•„,-,, . 101

VII
 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
No. Descriptions 2.1 J Factor values for the No^

AASHTO Road test 2.2 Bradbury's 10

coefficients 13

3.1 Recommended temperature differentials for concrete slabs 22

3.2 Relationship between K-Value and CBR Value for Homogeneous Soil Subgrade....25

3.3 K-Values for Granular and Cement Treated Subbases 27

3.4 K-Values for Dry Lean Concrete Subbase 28

4.1 Axle load spectrum 41

4.2 Category Wise Axle Load Rq)etitions 43

4.3 Cumulative Fatigue Damage Analysis for Bottom-up Cracking 45

4.4 Cumulative Fatigue Damage Analysis for Top-Down Cracking 46

4.5 Cumulativefetiguedamage values for different trial thickness 47

4.6 Cumulativefetiguedamage values for different trial thickness 48

4.7 Cumulativefeliguedamage values for different trial thickness 49

4.27 Pavement thickness with CTS subbase (100 mm thick) and tied concrete shoulders. .62

4.28 Pavement thickness with CTS subbase (100 mm thick) and earthen shoulders.. 62
ix

4.39 Axle Lxiad Spectrum 68

4.40 Cumulative Fatigue Damage for Single Axle 70

4.41 Cumulative Fatigue Damage for Tandem Axle 71

4.42 Thickness of the pavement at varying CBR of subgrade soil 73

4.43 Thickness ofthe pavement at varying CBR of subgrade soil 74
4.50 Thickness of pavement with DLC subbase (100 mm) at varying traffic volume .78
 ABSTRACT

Pavements are required for the smooth, safe and systematic

passage of traffic. Pavements are generally classified as flexible and
rigid pavements. Flexible pavements are those which have low flexural
strength and are flexible in their structural action under loads. Rigid
pavements are those which possess note worthy flexural strength and
flexural rigidity.

The profound development in the automobile technology has

resulted heavy moving loads on the existing highways for optimization
of the transport cost. The existing roads which are designed based on the
thumb rules are not able to cater to the heavy wheel loads resulting in the
deterioration of the existing roads.

In the project report, an attempt is made to design a road, based on

the principles of pavement design. \
XII
 CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

Transportation infiastructurc is vital for rapid economic growth of a country. Speedy

transportation of natural resources (such as raw materials), fmished goods and perishable
materials to all parts of the country, including the points of export outlets, are basic inputs
to economic growth. In the last two to three decades there has been a major shift in
transportation mode ftom Railways towarfs Road sector. As per MORTH (2008-11), in
2009-10, about 62.9% offreightand 85.2% of passenger transport was met by road
transport in India which demonstrates the need for development of a good road network.
In 2011, India had a road network of 46.9 lakh kilometers making it the second largest in
the world after USA which had a road network of 65.45 lakh km. In India the road network
consists of Expressways, National Hi^ways, State Hi^ways, Major District Roads, Other
district Roads, Village Roads and some Project Roads. The National Highways extending
over 70934 km act as the main road network in the country (MORTH, 2008-11). Though
the NH accoimt fiar l^s than 2% of the total roads, they cany about 40% of the total traffic.
The National Highways are intended to facilitate medium and long distance inter-city
passenger and Slight traffic across the country. The State Highways are supposed to carry
the traffic along major centers within state. Otho- District Roads and Village roads provide
village accessibility to meet the social needs and also the means to transport agriculture
producefiomvillage to nearby markets. Major District Roads provides the
secondaryftmctionof linkages between main roads and rural roads.
A highway pavement is a structure which consists of superimposed layers of processed materials
above the natural soil sub-grade, whose mainftmctionis to distribute the applied vdtiicle loads to
the sub-grade. The pavement structure should be able to provide a surface of acceptable riding
quality, adequate skid resistance,fti%«rablelight reflecting characteristics, and low noise pollution.
The ultimate aim is to ensure that the transmitted stresses due to wheel load are sufficiently reduc^
so that they will not exceed bearing capacity of the subgrade. Two types of pavements are genoally
recognized to this purpose, namelyflexiblepavements
and rigid pavements. In flexible pavements, wheel loads are transferred by grain-to-grain
contact of the aggregate through the gramilar structure. The flexible pavement, having
negligiblefleaoiralstrength, acts like a flexible sheet. On the contrary, in rigid pavements,
wheel loads are transferred to sub-grade soil by flexural strength of the pavement and the
pavement acts like arigidsheet. In addition to these, con^site pavements are also available.
A thin layer offlexiblepavement overrigidpavement is an ideal pavement with most
desirable characteristics. However, such pavements are rarely used in new construction
because of their high cost and complexity in analysis. In India,flexiblepavements
(bitumen) are more common for both national and state highways. Majority of roads are
also built with conventional bitumen pavements considering its lower initial cost, though
the life cycle cost of these pavements are high compared torigidpavements due
tofrequentrepairs. Also, there is a need for complete resurfedng at interval of 4-5 years.
Further, fuel consumption of vehicles is higher on this type of pavement than that on rigid
pavement. In advanced countries rigid pavement is increasingly being used due to a large
niraiber of benefits. Considering durability of concrete pavements, Noida-Agra and
Mimibai-Pune expressway have been built with jointed cement concrete pavement.

Rigid pavements are so named because the pavement structure deflects very little under
loading due to the h i ^ modulus of elasticity of their surfiice course. Rigid pavements
have sufficient flexural strength to transmit the wheel load stresses to a wider area
below. Compared to flexible pavement,rigidpavements are placed either directly on the
prepared sub-grade or on a single layer of granular or stabilized material.

A typical rigid pavement structure consists of the sur&ce course and the underlying base and sub tese
courses (if used). The surfece course which is made of PQC, is the stiffest and provides the majority of
strei^th. The imderiying layers are less stiff, but still make important contributions to pavemrat
strength. Typical layers of arigidpavement are shown in fig 1.1.
 Pavemexit Quality Concrete Slab 250-3S0 mm

Base/Siibbase 100-150 mm DLC

Dramage Layer 150 mm GSB

Sabgrade 500 mm

Fig.1.1 Typical layers of arigidpavement

There are many factors that affect the rigid pavement design, which can be classified
into four categories as traffic and loading, structural models, material characterization
and enviroimient. Among tliese; subgrade strength, type of the sub base material and
axle load repetitions are the main factors affecting the thickness of a rigid pavement

The design of the various pavement layers is very much dependent on the strength of
the subgrade soil over which they are going to be laid. Subgrade strength is mostly
expressed in terms of CBR (Cahfomia Bearing Ratio). Weaker subgrade essentially
requires thicker layers, whereas stronger subgrade goes well with thinner pavement
layers. The strength of the subgrade is expressed in terms of modulus of subgrade
reaction 'K', which is defined as die pressure per unit deflection of the foundation as
determined by plate load test. Since the plate load test is time consuming and expensive
method, therefore, the design 'K' value is often estimatedfi-omthe soaked CBR value.

The main purpose of the sub base is to provide a stable, uniform and permanent support
to the concrete slab laid over it. It must have a sufficient strength so that it is not
subjected to disintegration and erosion under h^vy traffic and adverse environmental
conditions such as excessive moisture,fi^eezmgand thawing.

For designing the rigid pavement, effective modulus of subgrade reaction is considered
(subgrade and sub base).

Well designed and maintained shoulders are an unportant part of cement concrete pavement.
Th^' do not only give lateral support to the pavement slab, but also protect the edges of high
volume highway pavements by reducing the edge flexural stress. In case of tied concrete
shoulders / paved shoulders, this widened part can be used by vehicles as an extra lane,
thereby maintaining the Level ofservice. The shoulders can also be used for paridng in
popiilated urban areas. If rough texture is provided to paved shoulders it will bring in
additional safety for vdtdcles particularly during ni^t hours. The paved / tied concrete
shoulders will also add to the economy of the future project as this widened part itself
can be extended to make a new lane.

CHAPTER-2

METHODS OF DESIGN

2.1 GENERAL

Although pavement design has gradually evolvedfromart to science,ranpiricismstill plays an

important role. Prior to the 1920's, the thickness of pavements were based purely on
experience. The same thickness was used for a section ofhighway evai though widely different
soils were encountered. As experience was gained throughout the years, various methods were
developed by different agencies for determining the thickness of pavement required. It is
neither feasible nor desirable to document all the methods that have been used so far; however
3 important methods (AASHTO, PCA and IRC) has berai descried briefly.
2.2 PRESENT TREND IN CONCRETE PAVEMENT DESIGN

Since conaete pavementsfoildue to bending stresses, it is necessary that their design is

based onflexuralstrength of concrete.

2JZ.1 AASHTO Method

The AASHTO design method for design of concrete pavements was evolved from the
AASHTO road test. Pavement performance, sub-grade and sub-base strength, traffic,
propaties of concrete, drainage, and reliability were the aspects considered in the
pavement design. The following is the eqiiation for design of rigid pavements
suggested by AASHTO code.

Log(Wia) =Zii+ So + 7.3S/o5io(D +1) - 0.06 + ^^'^ ~ ^'^^

1 n J. /1:624_*10^\

-l-(4.22 - 032pt)logto ''\,^^,^ i8.42 , - • (2.1)

(21S.63J){P° -7S. p"'" )
^ 0.25
Where,
Wig is the pr^cted numbo- of 18 kip equivalent single axle load applications
So is the combined standard error of the trafBc and performance predictions
ZR is the standard normal deviate
Pt is the terminal pavement serviceability
PSI is the Present SCTviceability Index
D is the thickness of the slab (inches)
Sc is the modulus of rupture (Psi) for the cement
concrete Cd is the drainage coefBcient
Ec is the modulus of elasticity (Psi) of the cement concrete
K is the modulus of sub-grade reaction (Psi)
J is the load transfer coefficient

2^.1.1 Inputs

The 1993 AASHTO Guide equation requires a number of inputs related to loads,
pavement structure and subgiade support. These iiq}Uts are:

• The predicted loading: - The predicted loading is simply the predicted number of 80
kN (18,000 lb.) ESALs that the pavranent will experience over its design lifetime.
• Reliability: - The reliability of the pavement design-performance process is the
probability that a pavement section designed using the process will perform
satis&ctorily over the trafBc and environmental conditions for the design period
(AASHTO, 1993). In otho- words, there must be some assurance that a pavement
will perform as intended given variability in such things as construction,
environment and materials. The ZR and So variables account for reliability.
• FCC elastic modulus:- If no value is known, the PCC elastic modulus (Ec) can
be estimatedfiomrelationships:

Ec=570007f^ ....(2.2)

Where:

Ec = PCC elastic modulus and Fck = PCC compressive strength

Slab depth: - The pavement structure is best characterized by slab depth (D). The
number of ESALs a rigid pavement can carry over its lifetime is very sensitive to slab
deptL As a general rule, beyond about 200 mm (8 inches) the load carrying capacity
of a rigid pavement doubles for each additional 25 mm (1 inch) of slab thickness.
Drainage coefScient: - Rigid pavement is assigned a dramage coefficient (Cd) that
represents the relative loss of strength due to its drainage characteristics and the total
time it is exposed to near-saturation moisture conditions. Generally, quick-draining
layers that almost never become saturated can have coefficients as high as 1.2 while
slow-draining layers that are often saturated can have drainage coefficients as low as
0.80. If subsurface drainage is expected to be a problon, positive drainage measures
should be taken. In general, the use ofdrainage coefficients to overcome poor drainage
conditions is not recommended (i.e. more slab thickness does not necessarily solve
water-related problems). Because of the peril associated with its use, often times the
drainage coefficient is neglected (i.e., set as Cd = 1.0).
Serviceable life: - The difference in present serviceability index (PSI) between
construction and end-of-life is the serviceability life. The equation compares
this to default values of 4.2 for the immediately-after-construction value and
1.5 for end-of-life (terminal serviceability). Typical values used now are: Post-
construction: 4.0 - 5.0 depending upon construction quality, smoothness, etc.
End-of-life (called "terminal serviceability" and designated "Ft"): 1.5 - 3.0
depending upon road use (e.g., interstate highway, urban arterial, residential)
Load transfg- coefficioit (J Factor):- This accounts for load transfer efficiency.
Essentially, the lower the J Fkrtor the better the load transfer. The J Factor for
the AASHTO Road Test was estimated to be 3.2. Typical J factor values are as
shown below in Table 2.1.
 Table 2.1 J Factor values for the AASHTO Road test

Condition J
Factor
Undoweled PCC on crushed aggregate surfacing 3.8
Doweled ?CC on crushed aggregate surfecing 3.2
Doweled PCC on HMA (without widened outside lane) 2.7
and tied shoulders
CRCP with HMA shoulders 2.9-3.2
CRCP with tied shoulders 2.3-2.9

• Modulus of subgrade reaction: - The modulus of subgrade reaction (k) is used

to estimate the "support" of the PCC slab by the layers below. Usually, an
"effective" k Oorff) is calculated which reflects base, subbase and subgrade
contributions as well as the loss of siqjport that occurs over time due to erosion
and stripping of the base, subbase and subgrade.

2.2.12 Outputs

The 1993 AASHTO Guide equation can be solved for any one of the variables as long as all
the others are siqjplied. Typically, the output is either total ESALs or the required slab depih
(D). In design, the rigid pavement equation described in this section is typically solved
simultaneously with therigidpavemrait ESAL equation. The solution is an itCTative
process that solves for ESALs in both equations by varying the slab depih (D). The
solution is iterative because the slab depth (D) has two key influences:

a) The slab depth (D) determines the total number of ESALs that a particular
pavement can stqjpoit. This is evident in the rigid pavement design equation
presented in this section.
b) The slab dq)th also determines what the equivalent 80 kN (18,000 lb.) single
axle load is for a given load.

10
 Therefore, the slab depth (D) is required to determine the number of ESALs to
design for before the pavement is ever designed. The iterative design process
usually proceeds as follows:
i. Rigid pavement design ii^uts are gathered and determined (ZR, SO, APSI, Pt, Ec, Sc, J,
Cd and keff).
ii. Rigid pavement ESAL equation i:q)uts are determined,
iii. Slab depth (D) is assumed,
iv. The equivalencyfectorfor each load type is determined by solving the ESAL
equation using the assumed slab depth (D) for each load type.
V. The tiafBc coimt for each load type is estimated for the entire design life of the
pavement and is multiphcd by the calculated ESAL to obtain the total number
of ESALs expected over the design life of the pavement,
vi The assumed slab depth (D) is inserted into the design equation and the total number
of ESALs that the pavement will support ova* its design Ufe is calculated,
vii. The ESAL values in #V and #VI are compared. Ifthey are reasonably close (say within
5 percent) then the assumed slab depth (D) is considered as safe. If they are not
reasonably close, a hi^er slab depth (D) is assumed, and above steps are repeated.

2J2J, Indian Roads Congress Method

2.2.2.1 IRC: 58-2002

The modulus of sub-grade reaction k is the necessary strength parameter used for the
design of concaxte pavements. The k value is derived from the plate load test. The
plate load test is time consuming and expensive and, therefore, the design k-value is
often estimated fix>m soaked CBR value.

The load stress is the highest in the coma- of pavement, less at the edge, and the least in
the interior of the pavement The order in which the temperature stress varies is
maximized and diat die maximum combined stress is considered for design of thickness.
The cumulative &tigue damage is determined for diffo^it axle loads and the value of the
damage should be equal or less than one in orda* to consider the trial thickness to be
safe.

11
2.2.2.1.1 Effect due to load

IRC: 58-1988 has adopted the analysis by Westergaard (modified by Teller and Sutherland).
The load stress in the critical edge region is given by:-

^^_.^z9.(i^^«rt ^^l„g^^L^ + l„g^^b - 0.4048) (2.3)

Where;

oie Is the load stress in the edge region (kg/cm^)

P is the design wheel load (1^)

h is the pavement slab thickness (cm)

\L is the Poisson's ratio of concrete

E is the modulus of elasticity of concrete (kg/cm^)

b is the radius of eqmvalent distribution of pressure

= a for ^> 1.724

h

= (1.6a2+h2)0-5 - 0.675h, for J < 1.724 (2.4)

a is the radius of circular contact area (cm)

The stress due to load can be computed by using HIRIGID Software.

2.2.2.12 Edge Stress due to temperature

The edge stress due to toi^jerature considered by IRC: 58-2002 is;

CEaT
S«=-Y- (2-5)

Where;

Set is the temi^iature stress in the edge region (kg/cm^)

C is the Bradbury's coefficient

12
T is the maximum temperature stress in the edge r ^ o n (kg/cm^)

a is the coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete L

is the slab length between consecutive joints

W is the slab width

The Bradbury's coefficient for different ratios can be obtainedfix)mTable 2.2.

Table 2.2 Bradbury's Coefficients

ITlorB/l C L/lorB/1 C
1 0 7 1.03
2 0.04 8 1.077
3 0.175 9 1.08
4 0.44 10 1.075
5 0.72 11 1.05
6 0.92 12 1

2.2.2.1.3 Comer stress due to load

S.c=^[l-(^)'*'] (2.5)

Where

Sic is the load stress in the comer region (kg/cm^)

P is wheel load (kg)

A is radius of equivalent circular contact area, (cm)

222.1 A Comer stress due to Temperature

The comer stress due to temperature is negligible as comers arefreeto warp.

2.2.2.1.5 Stress Ratio and Fatigue Damage

Due to r^eated application of flexural stresses by the traffic loads, [H-

ogressivefetiguedamage takes place in the cement concrete slab in the form of gradual
development of micro-cracks 13
especially when ratio between the applied flexnral stress and the flexural strength of
concrete is high. This ratio is termed as stress ratio (SR). If the SR is less than 0.45,
the concrete is expected to sustain infinite number of repetitions. As the stress ratio
increases, the number of load rqaetitions required to cause cracking decreases. The
relation between fatigue life (N) and stress ratio is given as:

N = unlimited for SR < 0.45

r 4 2S77 13.268
/V = _ l _ i i l _ For 0.45 <SR< 0.55 (2.6)

0 9718—SR
logioN= -p^^g ForSR>0.55 (2.7)

The cumulative fatigue damage is determined for different axle loads and the value of the
dama^ should be equal or less than one in order to consider the trial thickness to be safe.

2.2.2.1.6 Steps followed in pavement design

The following steps may be followed for design of the concrete slab.

i. Design values for the various parameters are stimulated. The joint spacing and the
lane width are also decided. If there is boxmd base layer put over the sub-grade, a
suitable value of effective k is chosenfiomtheoretical or other considerations.
ii. A trial design thickness of pavement slab is selected.
iii. The repetitions of axle loads of different magnitudes and different categories
during the design life are computed.
iv. The stresses due to single and tandem axle loads is calculated and the
cumulative fatigue damage is determined.
V. If the CFD is more than 1, a higher thickness is selected and the above steps
are repeated.
vi. The temperature stress at tte edge is confuted and ifthe sum ofthe temperature stress
and the flexural stress due to the highest wheel load is greater than the modulus of
rupture, a higher thickness is selected and the above stq)s are repeated.
vii. If dowel bars are not provided then the pavement thickness should be
determined on the basis of como' stresses.

14
15
 CHAPTER-3

IRC GUIDELINES

3.1 GENERAL

The guidelines of IRC: 58-2011 recommend that the following aspects should be
given consideration while designing to achieve better paforming pavements:

1. D^ign of pavements considering theflexuralstress under the simultaneous

action of load and temperature gradient for different categories of axles.
2. Design considering bottom up and top-down cumulative fatigue damage
caused by single, tandem and tridem axle load applications.
3. Consideration of in-built permanent curl in the analysis offlexuralstresses.
4. Design guidelines for pavements without concrete shoulders and with tied
concrete shoulders.
5. Consideration of Concrete slabs with imbonded as well as bonded cement
bound subbase.
6. Design of pavements with widened outer lanes.

3.2 CONCRETE PAVEMENT TYPES

Several types of concrete pavements have been used in different coimtries depending
upon the climate, availability of materials, soil typ^, experience and traffic. Typical cross
sections of a few pavements arc shown in Fig 3.1. When PQC is laid over a bituminous
surfece during the hot weather it is inq)ortant to whitewash the surface of BC/DBM-I (Fig
3.1 (b) &(c)) because black body absorbs heat which may be injurious to concrete.

16
 f>QC PQC PCK:
, f H 2 S M>C3RON PVC SHEET
BC OBMI
OVCJ CBS^NT TREATED
CEMENTTREATED
GRANULAR SUBBASE
GRANULARSUBBASE

(SSe as OaAJNAGE lAYER ORAIMAGE LAYER

OR/MNAGE LAYER

GSBas FrLTER/ SEPARAnON HLreR^EPARWiOej LAYER

FIUnEt|^Ei>ARATION LAYER

SU8GRADE SOOmm SUB6ARDE SOOmm SUB6RAOE Smmm

(i4 Vietow^ttim layer of {b} Debonding layer of 40mm {«j PQC over ^36mn» o l .
}pdtfSmn<t sheet over Be overcemerrt treated OBIVt I and granular subbase
cement treated subbase subbase layer
layer

Fig. 3.1 Typical Cross Sections of Concrete Pavements

33 FACTORS GOVERNING DESIGN

The main fectors governing design of concrete pavements are :- d^ign period, design
commercial traffic volume, composition of commercial traffic in terms of single, tandem,
tridem and multi-axles, axle load spectrum, tyre pressure, lateral placement characteristics,
directional distribution, strength of foundation and climatic considerations.

33.1 Axle Load Characteristics

Thou^ the legal axle load limits in India are 10.2 tons (lOOkN), 19.0 tons (1861cN) and 24.0 tons
(235kN) for single, tandem and tridem axles respectively, a large number of axl^ operating on
National Hi^ways carry much heavier loads than the legal limits. Data on axle load spectrum of the
commercial vehicles is required to estimate the repetitions of single, tandem and tridem axles in
each direction expected during the design period. Minimum percentages of commercial vehicles to
be weighed should be 10% for volume of commercial vehicles per day (CVPD) exceeding
6000,15% for CVPD for 3000 to 6000 and 20% for CVPD less than 3000. Axle load survey may
be conducted for a continuous 48-hour period. The

17
vehicles to be surveyed may be selected randomly to avoid bias. If the spacing of consecutive
axles (wheel base) is more than 2.4 m, each axle shall be considered as a single axle. The
intCTvals at whidi axle load groups shoxild be classified forfetiguedamage analysis are:-

Singleaxle 10 kN

Tandem axle 20 kN

Tridem axle 30 kN

For most of the commercial highway vdiicles, the commonly used tyre inflation pressures
rangefiiomabout 0.7 MPa to 1.0 MPa. It is foimd that stresses in concrete pavements
having thickness of 200 mm or higher are not affected significantly by the variation of
tyre pressure. A tyre pressure of 0.8 MPa is adopted for design in these guidelines.

332 Wheel base characteristics

Infonnation on typical spacing between successive axles of commercial vehicles is necessary

to identify the proportion of axles that should be considered for estimating top-down fetigue
cracking caus«i by axle loads during night period. The slab has the tendency of curling up due
to negative tenqjerature diffCTential. Data on the spacing of axles may be collected during the
traf&c survey. As discussed in subsequent sections of these guidelines, if the spacing between
any pair of consecutive axles is less than the spacing of transverse joints, such axles need to be
considered in the design trafQc for computing top-downfetiguecracking damage. Wheel bases
of trucks of differrat models generally rangefix)m3.6 m to more than 5.0 m whereas the
commonly used spacing of transverse joints is 4.5 m. Thus, axles with spacing of more than
4.5 m will not to contribute to top-down fetigue cracking. However, if the actual spacing of
transverse joints is diSereatfiiom4.5 m, design trafiBc for estimation of top-down cracking
damage may be selected appropriately. The percentage of commercial vehicles with spacing
between thefrontand thefirstrear axle less than the proposed spacing of the transverse joints in
the concrete slab should be establishedfiwmaxle load survey.

18
333 Design Period

Cement concrete pavemaits may be designed to have a life span of 30 years or more.
However, the design engineer should use his/her judgment about the design period
taking into considerationfectorssuch as traffic volume, uncertainty of traffic growth rate,
the capacity of theroadand the possibility of augmentation of capacity by widening.

33.4 Traffic Consideration

3.3.4.1 Design lane

The lane canying the maximum number of heavy commercial vehicles is termed as
design lane. Each lane of a two-way two-lane highway and the outCT lane of multi-
lane highways can be considered as design lanes.

3.3.4.2 Design traffic

Assrasment of average daily traffic should normally be based on seven-day 24-hour count
made in accordance with IRC: 9 "Traffic Census on Non-Urban Roads". The actual value of
annual rate of growth 'r' of commercial vehicles should be determined using appropriate
methods. As per IRC: SP: 84, annual growth rate of commercial vehicles shall be taken to be a
minimum of 5 %. The traffic counts and the corresponding traffic estimates should indicate
the day and night traffic trends as the loading during the day hours is generally responsible for
bottom-iq) cracking whereas the night time traffic may lead to top-down cracking.

The edge flexural stress caxised by axle loads for bottom up cracking is maximimi when the tyre
imprint of the outer wheel touches the longitudinal edge. When the tyre position is away even by
150 mmfix)mthe longitudinal edge, stress in the edge region is reduced substantially. The edge
flexural stress is small when the wheels are close to the transverse joints. Typical lateral distribution
characteristics of wheel paths of commercial vehicles observed on Indian highways indicate that
very few wheels of vehicles are tangential to the longitudinal edge / joint on two-lane two-way
roads and divided multi-lane highways. Some multi-lane divided highways have 8.5 m to 9,0 m
wide carriageways with a single longitudinal joint in the centre. The lane markings in these cases do
not coincide with the longitudinal joint resulting in a larger

19
proportion of wheel patbs being positioned close to the longitudinal joint compared to
the situation where the lane maridngs match with longitudinal joints.
Taking mto considCTation these issues, it is recommended that 25 per cent ofthe total
two-way commercial trafBc may be considered as design traffic for two-lane two-way
roads for the analysis offetiguedamage. In the case of four-lane and other multi-lane
divided highways, 25 per cent of the total traflSc in the direction ofpredominant
traffic may be considered for design of pavement.

The design traffic for top-down cracking analysis will be a portion of the design traffic
considered for bottom-up cracking analysis. Only those commercial vehicles with the
spacing between the front axle and the first rear axle less than the spacmg of
transverse joints should be considered for top-down cracking analysis. This percentage
should be estabUshedfromaxle load / traffic survey. A defeult value of fifty percent of
the design traffic used for bottom-up cracking analysis may be considered.
In case of new higjiway links, where no traffic count data is available, data from roads of
similar classification and in^rtance may be used to predict the design traffic intensity.

Expected number of applications of different axle load groups during the design period
can be estimated using the details of commercial traffic volume, expected rate of growth
of conm^rcial traffic, and the information about axle load spectrum and the number of
single, tandem andtiidemaxles obtainedfromaxle load survey. Front axles (steering axle)
with single wheels on either side cause only negligible bottom-up fatigue damage.

The cumulative numbo- of commercial vehicles during the design period may be
estimated fix)m the following expression.

C= ^^^ (3.1)
r
Where

C = Cumulative number of commercial vehicles during the design period

20
 A=Initial number ofcommercial vehicles per day in the year when the road is opened

to traffic

r = Annual rate of growth of commercial traffic volume (expressed as decimal)

n = Design period in years

3J.5 Temperature Consideration

3.3.5.1 Temperature Differential

Temperature differential between the top and bottomfibersof concrete pavements causes
the concrete slab to curl, giving rise to stresses. The ten^)erature differential is a function
of solar radiation received by the pavement surface, wind velocity, thermal diffusivity of
concrete, latitude, longitude and elevation of the place and is thus affected by geographical
features of the pavement location. Asferas possible, temperature differential values
estimated realistically for the given site usingrelevantgeogrq)hical parameters and material
characteristics should be used for analysis. In the absence of any local data, the maximmn
temperature differential values given in Table 3.1 may be adopted for pavement design.
The variation of temperature with dq}th is non-linear during the day time and nearly linear
during night hours. The maximum temperature differential during the night is nearly half
of the day time maximum temperature differential.
Temperature differentials are positive when the top surface ofa pavement slab has the
tendency to have a convex shape during the day hoiu^ and n^ative with a concave shape
during the night. The axle load stresses should be computed for fetigue analysis when the slab
is in a curled state due to the temperature differential during day as well as night hours.

21
 Table 3.1. Recommended temperature differentials for concrete slabs
Zone State/Regions Max. Temperature Differential °C in
Slab of Thickness
150mm 200mm 250mm 300m
to
400mm
I Hilly region UttaiBnchal, West Bengal, 12.513.1 14.3 15.8 Jammu&
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and

Anmachal Pradesh

n Punjab, UP, Uttaranchal, Gujarat, 12.5 13.1 14.3 15.8

Rajasthan, Haryana and North M.P,
excluding hiUy regions

m Bihar, Jhaikhand, West Bengal, Assam and 15.6 16.4 16.6 16.8
Eastern Orissa, excluding hilly regions and
coastal areas

IV Maharashtra, Kamataka, South M.P., 17.3 19 20.3 21

Chhattisgaih, Andhra Pradesh, Western
Orissa and North Tamil Nadu, excluding
hilly regions and coastal areas

V Kerala and South Tamil Nadu, excluding 15 16.4 17.6 18.1

hilly r^ons and coastal areas

VI Coastal areas boimded by hills 14.6 15.8 16.2 17

vn Coastal areas unbounded by hills 15.5 17 . 19.2

3.3.5.2 Zero stress temperature gradient

Cement concrete slabs laid during day time will have high positive temperature gradients due
to intense solar radiation, high air temperature and chemical reaction in the cemented mass. In
spite of this positive tempoBture differential occurring in concrete laid during day time, the
slab remains flat during ibe hardening process because of its plastic stage. The slab is stress
free in this condition with hightemperatureon the top surface and lower at the bottom fiber and
the corresponding temperature gradient is known as 'zero stress temperature gradient'.

22
Research on in-service concrete pavements indicates that exposure offreshconcrete to sun
and high air tenq)erature during the hardening stage causes building of permanent curl in
the concrete pavements which is nearly equivalent to the curl caused by a negative
temperature differential of about 5 °C. This equivalent negative temperature differential
has to be added algebraically to the actual temperature differential prevailing at any time.
Field investigations on existing pavements located in different regions of the coimtry will
be necessary to establish the zero stress temperature gradient for future guidance.

If the maximiiTn positive temperature differential during the day time is 20 °C, the temperature
differential for stress computation can be taken as 15 °C. However, this 5 °C reduction is generally
not made so that the design for bottom-up cracking will be conservative.

During the night hours, if the temperature differential is 10 °C, the total effective negative
temperature differential can be taken as 15 °C (10 °C + 5 °C). If mist spray of water can be
appUed over the curing compound during the period of intense solar radiation during day
time, the built-in permanent curl will be less. It is safer to consider the effective negative
temperature gradient for checking the slab for top-down cracking caused by the combined
effect of traffic loads and nigjht time negative tenqjerature differential.

It is ideal to carry out hourly cumulative fatigue damage analysis but data for carrying out such
anracerciseis not available. It is suggested that the maximum positive and negative temperature
differentials respectively may be assumed to be constant for the six hour period during the day
between 10 AM and 4 PM and for the six hour period between 0 AM to 6 AM during night hours.
The slab may be assumed to be free of warping stresses for the remaining 12 hours for the purpose
offetiguedamage analysis as the fatigue damage caused by the combined action of load and
tenqierature differential will be insignificant during this period. The timings refer to Indian
Standard time and may be different for diffo-ent geographical locations in India.

33.6 Embankment soil and characteristics of subgrade and subbase

3.3.6.1 Embankment

CBR of onbankment soil placed below the 500 mm select subgrade should be
determined for estimating the effective CBR of subgrade and its 'k' value for design.

23
The nature of embankment foundation strata such as expansive clays, marine clays, soft clays,
black cotton soil, etc. needs to be studied to take special measures like consolidation of the
strata by accelerated pore pressure dissipation, removal of expansive black cotton soil strata
and replacement by non-expansive soil, use of geo synthetics to arrest tension cracks or soil
stabilization etc. Soil swell can be controlled by surcharge loads or by placing the swelling
soils in the lower part of an embankment. Selective grading and soil mixing is also helpfiil. In
deep cut sections, removal of overburden soils causes soils to swell. It is, therefore, advisable
to excavate deep cuts in advance of other grading work to allow expansion to occur and
stabilize. Expansive soils should be compacted at 1-3 percent above Optimum Moisture
Content (OMC) as determined by Standard Proctor. Use of the OMC from the Modified
Proctor will leave the soil too dry and more prone tofiitureexpansion. The soil should not be
allowed to dry out excessively before GSB and other layers are laid. Ifnon-expansive soils are
not available, it may be more economical to modify the existing soil with lime or cement or
both. A thorough study needs to be undertaken on case specific basis and detailed treatment of
foundation strata is beyond the scope ofthese guidelines.

3.3.62 Subsrade

The subgrade is usually considered as a Winkler foundation, also known as dense liquid
foundation. In Winkler model, it is assumed that the foundation is made up of springs
supporting the concrete slab. The strength of subgrade is expressed in terms of modulus of
subgrade reaction, k, which is defined as the pressure per imit deflection of the foundation
as determined by plate load tests. The k-value is determined from the pressure sustained at
a deflection of 1.25 mm. As k-value is influenced by test plate diameter, the standard test is
to be carried out with a 750 mm diameter plate. IS: 9214, "Method of Determination of
Modulus of Subgrade Reaction of Soil in the Field" may be referred to for guidance in this
regard. A fi-equency of one test per km per lane is reconmiended for assessment of k-
value. If the foundation changes with respect to subgrade soil, type of subbase or the
nature of formation (i.e. cut orfill)then additional tests may be conducted.

Though 750 mm is the standard plate diameter, smalls diameter plate can be used in case of
homogeneous foimdationfrompractical considoiation and the test values obtained with plates
of smaller diameter may be converted to the standard 750 mm plate value using equation 3.2.

24
 k750 = k<? (1.21^+ 0.078) .(3.2)

Where;

0 = plate diameter, metre

k0 = modulus of subgrade reaction (MPa/m) with plate diameter 0 metre

k750 = modulus of subgrade reaction (MPa/m) with plate diameter of 750 mm (k)

The estimate obtained from Equation 3.2 is regarded as approximate only. However,
in case of layered construction, the tests conducted with smaller plates give greater
weightage to the stronger top layer, and direct conversion to 750 mm plate values
using Equation 3.2 results in somewhat over-estimation of the foundation strength.

The subgrade soil strength and consequently the strength of the foundation as a whole, is
affected by its moisture content. Since the k-value cannot be determined in thefieldat
different moisture contents and densities, CBR tests may be carried out at field moisture
content and field density both in soaked and im-soaked condition and the measured k-
valuefromplate load test may be corrected in the ratio of CBR values under soaked and un-
soaked conditions to obtain the k-value corresponding to the weakest condition of
subgrade. The plate load test is time-consuming and expaisive and, therefore, the design k-
value is often estimated from soaked CBR value. The relationship between the CBR and k-
value illustrated in table 3.2 can be used for this pinpose.

Table 3.2. Relationship between K-Value and CBR Value for Homogeneous Soil Subgrade

Soaked 2 3 4 5 7 10 15 20 50 100 CBR(%)

k-value 21 28 35 42 48 55 62 69 140 220 (MPa/m)

N<)te: 10() pci=2.77 kg/ain3=27.2 MPa/m

If the CBR of the 500 mm thick compacted subgrade is significantly larger than that of the
embankment below it, the effective CBR of the subgrade can be estimatedfromFigure 3.2. A
minimmn CBR of 8 % is recommended for the 500mm of the select soil used as subgrade.

25
The in-situ CBR of the subgrade soil can also be determined quicklyfiromthe Dynamic
Cone Penetrometer (600 cone) tests xising the following relationship (ASTMD6951)

logio CBR = 2.465 - 1.121ogio N (3.3)

Where N = rate of cone penetration (mm'blow)

It is advised to providefilterand drainage layers above the subgrade for drainage of water
to prevent (i) excessive softoiing of subgrade and subbase and (ii) erosion of the subgrade
and subbase particularly under adverse moisture condition and heavy dynamic loads.

3.3.6.3 Subbase

The main purpose of the subbase is to provide a uniform, stable and permanent support to
the concrete slab laid OVCT it. It must have sufficient strength so that it is not subjected to
disintegration and erosion imder heavy traffic and adverse environmental conditions such
as excessive moisture,freezingand thawing. In the light of these requirements, a subbase
of Dry Lean Concrete (DLC) having a 7-day average compressive strength of 10 MPa
determined as per IRC-SP:49 is recommended. Minimum recommended thickness of
DLC for major highways is 150 mm.

26
Availability of good qxiality aggregates has become a big hurdle in the construction of
pavements because of closures of old quarries, restriction on new queries and crushing of
aggregates from environmental considerations. Similar problems are being faced in other
countries also. In the light of international experience, a minimum characteristic 28-day
compressive strength of 7 MPa is recommended for cement treated subbases while ensuring
that the siqjport is pennanent, uniform and non-erodible. Loss of weight of cement treated
subbases shall not exceed 14% after 12 cycles of "Wetting and Drying Test / freezing and
thawing" tests as per BIS : 4332 (Part IV) - 1968. Freezmg and thawing test is relevant for
snow bound regions of Kashmir, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, etc.

In the case ofproblematic subgrades such as clayey and expansive soils appropriate
provisions shall be made for blanket course in addition to the subbase as pa* the
relevant stipulations of IRC:15.

Effective k-values of different combinations of subgrade and subbase (imtreated granular and
cement treated granular) can be estimatedfromTable 3.3. For concrete pavements laid over a
bituminous subbase, the k-value can be adopted from IRC: SP: 76. k-value for different
combinations of DLC subbase (with DLC having minimum 7-day compressive strength of 10
MPa) thicknesses laid over granular subbase consisting of filter and drainage layers can be
adoptedfromTable 3.4. The contribution of granular subbase placed below the DLC layer can
be ignored for estimating the effective modulus of subgrade reaction of the foimdation. The
values given in Table 3.4 are based on theoretical analysis and an upper lunit of 300 MPa/m is
recommended considering the loss of subgrade support expected to be caused by heavy
trafGc.

Table 33. K-Values for Granular and Cement Treated Subbases

k-value of Effective k (MPa/m) of untreated Effective k (MPa/m) of cement treated
subgrade granular subbase of thickness (mm) subbase of thickness (mm)
(MPa/m)
•

150 225 300 100 150 200

28 39 44 53 76 108 141
56 63 75 88 127 173 225
84 92 102 119 - - -

27
 Table 3.4. K-Values for Dry Lean Concrete Subbase
k-value of Subgrade 21 28 42 48 55 62
(MPa/m)
Effective k for 100 mm 56 97 166 208 278 389*
DLC, (MPa/m) (300)
Effective k for 150 mm 97 138 208 277 412* 300
DLC, (MPa/m) (300)
*Note: The maximum recommended value may be taken as 300 MPa/m in place of
the k-values of 389 MPa/m and 412 MPa/m given in table 3.4.

3.3.6.4 Separation layer between DLC and concrete slab

The interfece layer between the concrete slab and the DLC layer can be made smooth
to reduce the kiss layer Mction thereby allowing relative movement between the slab
and DLC layer. A de-bonding interlayer of polythene sheet having a minimum
thickness of 125 micron is recommended as per the current practice in India. Wax
based compound in place of plastic sheet has popularly been used with success in most
coimtries including India in one of the National Hi^way projects.

3.3.6.5 Concrete Strength

Flexural strength of concrete is required for the purpose of design of concrete slab.
Flexural strength can be obtained after testing the concrete beam as per procedures
given in 18:516. Alternatively, it can be derivedfromthe characteristic conpressive
strength of concrete as per IS 456-2000 using the following relationship:

Fcr = 0.7xVfck (3.4)

Where Fcr =flexuralstrength (modulus of rupture), MPa

fck = characteristic compressive cube strength of concrete, MPa

Usually, concrete design is based on 28 days strengtL In the case of concrete pavement,
90 days strength can be permitted in view of the feet that during initial period of 90 days,
the number of rep^tions of load is very small and has n^gible effect on cumulative fetigue
damage of concrete. Increasing the 28 days flexural strength by a factor of 1.10 is

28
recommended to get 90 days strei^th. In no case 28 days flexural strength ofpavement
quality concrete should be less than 4.5 MPa.

3.3.6.6 Modulus of Elasticity and Poisson's Ratio of Concrete

The modulus of elasticity (E) and Poisson's ratio (n) of cement concrete are known to
vary with concrete materials and strength. The elastic modiilus increases with
increase in strength, and Poisson's ratio decreases with increase in the modulus of
elasticity. While it is desirable that the values ofthese parameters are ascertained
experimentally for the concrete mix and for the materials actually to be used in the
construction, this information may not always be available at tiie design stage. A 25
% variation in E and ]i values will have only a marginal efGxt on the flexural stresses
in the pavement concrete. Following values were adopted for stress analysis for the
concrete with 28-dayflexuralstrength of4.5 MPa (4.95 MPa for 90-day strength).

Modulus of elasticity of concrete, E = 30,000 MPa

Poisson's ratio, }i = 0.15

3.3.6.7 CoeflScient of thermal expansion

The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete (a) is dependent to a great extent on

the type of aggregates used in concrete. Howevo", for design purpose, a value of a =
10 x 10-6 / "C is adopts.

3.3.6.8 Fatigue bdiavior of cement conCTete

Due to repeated application offlexuralstresses by the traffic loads,

progressivefetiguedamage takes place in the cement concrete slab in the form of gradual
development of micro-cracks espa:ially when ratio between the appUedflexuralstress and
thefl^curalstrength of concrete is high. This ratio is termed as stress ratio (SR). If the SR
is less than 0.45, the concrete is expected to sustam infinite number of rq)ctitions. As the
stress ratio increases, the nvmiber of load rqjetitions required to cause cracking decreases.
Therelationbetween fatigue life (N) and stress ratio is given as:

29
N = unlimited for SR < 0.45

-^-^— When 0.45 < 5/? < 0.55 (3.5)

R-0.4325J '

logioN = °'^^3^g^^ ForSR>0.55 (3.6)

Thesefetiguecriteria are used for checking the adequacy of the pavement slab on the
basis of Miner's hypothesis. It is assumed that the fatigue resistance not consumed by
repetitions of one load is available for repetitions of other loads. The fatigue criteria
developed by Portland Cement Association (PCA, 1980) are conservative and these
can be used for the analysis of bottom-up and top-down cracking.

3.4 DESIGN OF SLAB THICKNESS

3.4.1 Critical stress condition

In-service cement concrete pavements are subjected to stresses due to a variety of factors
acting simultaneously. The severest combination of different factors that induce the
maximum stress in the pavement will give the critical stress condition. Theflexuralstress
due to the combined action of traffic loads and tempo-ature differential between the top
and bottom fibres of the concrete slab is consid^ed for design ofpavement thickness. The
effect of moisture change is opposite to that of tenq)erature change and is not normally
considered critical to thickness desigiL Theflexuralstress at the bottom layer of the
concrete slab is the maximum during the day hours whm the axle loads act midway on the
pavement slab while there is a positive temperature gradicxtt as illustrated in Fig 3.3 and
3.4. This condition is likely to produce bottom-up cracking (BUC).

30
Locations ofpoints ofmaximum flexural stress at the bottom ofthe pavement slab
without tied concrete shoulder for single, tandem and tridem axles . The tyre imprints
are tangential to the longitudinal edge. For tied concrete shoulders also, the maximum
stress occurs at the same locations. Single axles cause highest stress followed by
tandem and tridem axles respectively. Spacing between individual axles for tandem
and tridem axles varies from 1.30 m to about 1.40 m. There is practically no difference
in stresses for axle spacing bdween 1.30 m and 1,40 m. A spacing of 1.30 m has been
used in the guidelines for stress computation.

During the night hours, the top surface is cooler than the bottom surface and the ends
of the slab curl up resulting in loss of siq}port for the slab as shown in fig. 3.S. Due to
the restraint

31
provided by the self-weight of concrete and by the dowel connections, temperature tensile
stresses are caused at the top. Fig. 3.6 shows the placement of axle loads close to
transverse joints when there is negative temperature gradient during night period causing
high flexural stresses in the top layer leading to top-down cracking. Positioning of axles of
different configurations on the slab with successive axles placed close to the transverse
joints. These axle positions can initiate top-down cracking (TDC) during the night hours
whai the pavement has the tendency to curl up. Built-in permanent curl induced during the
curing of the concrete slabfiirtheraggravates the problem.

32
3A2 Calculation of flexural stress

Since the loads causing failure of pavements are mostly applied by single, tandem, tridem
and other multiple axles, stresses should be detemiined for the conditions illustrated in fig.
3.3 to 3.6. The nTRIGID software used for the preparation of IRC:58-2002 for
computation of flexural stress in the edge region due to single and tandem axle loads was
based on Picket and Ray (1951)'s work on computation of stresses in infinite slabs. The
software is still valid for a>mputation of load stress in the edgeregionof pavements
without tied concrete shoulders if there is no tenq)erature gradient in the slab. Finite
Element Method (FEM) is more appropriate for stress computation for a wide variety of
load, temperature, geometry and boundary conditions. Finite element analysis has been
carried out using nTSLAB-II, a software developed at HI Khaiagpur, to compute flexural
stress due to the combined action of load (single, tandem and tridem axles) and different
temperature differentials (positive and n^ative).

The finite element analysis results have also been used to develop regression equations for
estimation oftheflexuraltensile stress for bottom-up as well as top-down cracking cases.

For the conq)utation of stress for bottom-up cracking analysis, only the rear axles
(single as well as tandan) with two wheels (dual wheel sets) on eUher side of each axle
have been considered as thefixmtaxles do not contribute to any significant fatigue
damage. For top-down cracking, rear axle is comidered at one end and thefix)ntaxle at
the other end. As shown in fig. 3.6, only one axle ofthe tandem and tridem axles is
assumed to be placed on the slab under consideration. Thus, for a tandem axle, 50 % of
the tandem axle weight is considered for analysis. For a tiidem axle, 33 % of the tridem
axle weight may be taken for analysis. The correspondingfixrataxle is taken as 5G % of
the rear axle, (25 % of rear tandem axle or one sixth of rear tridem axle loads).

3. 4^1 E3q}ressioiis for maxiinam tensUe stress at the bottom of the slab (for bottom-
up cracking case)

33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
53
 68

48
69

49
70

50
71

51
5272
73
74
 75

53
 76

54
77
79

94
95
96
16..

57=
58
=
 REFERENCES

1. MORTH (2008-2011), "Basic Road Statistics of India", New Delhi, August 2012.

2. IRC: 58-2011, "Guidelines for the Design of Plain Jointed Rigid Pavement for
Highways", Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi.

3. IRC: 58-2002, "Guidelmes for the Design of Plain Jointed Rigid Pavement for
Hi^ways", Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi.

4. AASHTO (1993), "AASHTO guide for Design of Pavement Structures", American

Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C.

5. PCA (1984), "Thickness Design for Concrete Highways and Street

Pavements", Portland Cement Association, USA.

101