Gas Turbine Training

Kapitel 4: Gasturbine
1. Beschreibung des Gasturbinenprozesses

2. Flugtriebwerk
3. Gasturbinenkühlung
4. Variation des GT-Prozesses mit IPSEpro
5. STIG und HAT Gasturbine
6. A Study of Humidified Gas Turbines for Short-Term Realization in Midsized Power
Generation – Part 1
7. Gas Turbine Inlet Cooling (GTW-Handbook 2010)
8. Heavy Duty vs. Aeroderivative
9. Gas Turbine Combustion
10. Market Drivers of Electric Power Gas Turbines: Reasons for the Revolution
11. Simple Cycle Prices
12. Rating Factors
13. Gas Turbine Models
14. GE Power Systems Gas Turbine Products
15. LMS100: 46 % in Simple Cycle
16. First H System Gas Turbine Planned for Baglan
17. GE: New Air-Cooled H-Class
18. Mercury 50 introduces high efficiency recuperation to stationary gas turbines
19. Alstom Gas Turbines
20. Alstom GT24/GT26 Technology
21. Siemens SGT5-8000H
22. Alstom/Siemens Gasturbinen: Daten
23. Performance Benefits Using Siemens Advanced Compressor Cleaning System
24. Mikrogasturbine
25. State of direct fuel cell/turbine systems development (2004)
26. Performance comparison of three solid oxide fuel cell power systems (2013)
27. An optimal configuration for a solid oxide fuel cell-gas turbine (SOFC-GT) hybrid
system based on thermo-economic modelling (2017)
Institute for
Thermal Turbomaschinery Graz University of Technology
and Machine Dynamics Erzherzog-Johann-University
Gas Turbine Technology

Lecture at the
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Middle East Technical University
Ankara, April 2008
Wolfgang Sanz
Institute for Thermal Turbomachinery and Machine Dynamics
Graz University of Technology
Austria
Basic Principle
Exhaust
gas
Fuel
Air Power shaft
50 – 70 % of turbine power to generator
Turbine
Compressor
Pressure ratio: usually about 15, but up to 40 and more

Turbine inlet temperature (TIT): 900° - 1700°C
Turbine exit temperature (TET): 400° - 600°C
Power: 100 kW – 300 MW
1
Jet engine
Exhaust
gas
Fuel
Air Power shaft
to generator
Turbine
Compressor
Jet engine
Exhaust
gas
Fuel
Air
Turbine
Compressor
Useful power is the kinetic energy of high-speed jet
2
Stationary Gas Turbine
Stationary Gas Turbine
3
Silo-type combustion chamber
Aero Engine
4
Twin-spool and Triple-spool design
Gas turbine history

• 18th century: First patents of John Barber, Dumpell and Bresson
• 1902: Moss (USA) built a gas turbine with „negative“ output
• 1904: Stolze (Germany) hot air turbine, not successful
• In 1930s: heat resistant steels, aerodynamic knowledge -> modern
design
• In Switzerland Escher-Wyss, BBC and Sulzer built gas turbines up to
20 MW power with TIT of 650°C
• Strong impetus from the development of jet engines during and after
WWII
• Since 1950: jet engine became dominant propulsion system
• Since 1960: strong development of stationary gas turbines, at the
beginning mostly modified jet engines
The world‘s first industrial

gas turbine set –
Neuchatel, Switzerland
(1939-2002)
Source: Alstom
5
T-s diagram of gas turbine process
Combustion
Expansion
Compression
Enthalpy difference is higher between 3 and 4 than between 1 and 2 !
Characteristics of gas turbine process

Dimensionless Power
Efficiency
3 ... pressure ratio

4 ... ratio of peak temperature
to inlet temperature
6
Development of peak temperature
Thermal barrier
coatings
Development of turbine
Effusion cooling
inlet temperauture
Convection, impingement and

film cooling
Film cooling
Convection cooling
Single cristall Development of admissible

Cast alloy material temperauture
Turbine blade cooling
Convection Convection
cooling cooling
Film cooling Film cooling
Film cooling Film cooling

Impingement
cooling Inner radial directed
Flow
Effusion cooling
Effusion cooling
Convection Outer porous
Impingement
cooling layer
cooling
Detail of effusion
cooling
7
Turbine blade cooling
Cooled turbine blade
8
Overheated Turbine Blades
Thermal barrier coatings
APS ceramic thermal

barrier coating (ZrO2)
with an intermediate
adhaerance layer
Surface temperature can

be reduced by 300K
Source: Werner Stamm, Siemens PG, Turbinenschaufeln mit Keramikbeschichtung, Technik in Bayern, Sept, Okt.2006, S. 12-13
1
Optimisation by controlled solidification
Multi-cristall Single cristall

Directionally solidified
Increased creep strength, i.e. higher temperatures
Quelle: Cerjak
Optimisation by controlled solidification
2
Gas turbine cycle options
Recuperator
Reheat Intercooler
combustor
Carnot Cycle: The higher the temperature of

heat input and the lower the temperature of
Source: IEA Coal Research, 1995 heat extraction the better the cycle efficiency!
Comparison of gas turbine cycles

EU project NEWAC: Intercooled
recuperated aero engine (IRA)
Source: IEA Coal Research, 1995
3
Intercooled recuperated gas turbine
Recuperated gas turbine cycle
3
T T
'p
3 'p 2
2 4 4
Turbine exit temperature Turbine exit temperature
above compressor 1 below compressor
exit temperature exit temperature
1
s s
Small pressure ratio: Large pressure ratio:
Regeneration possible Regeneration not possible
4
Intercooled gas turbine
Gas Turbines
5
Steam Injected Gas Turbine (STIG)
STIG cycle takes waste heat from the gas turbine, converts water into
steam and then injects this steam into the gas turbine (water treatment)
Source: www.otsg.com Steam-Injected Kawasaki M7A-01ST Gas Turbine
1
Steam Injected Gas Turbine (STIG)
• Steam/air flow ratio up to 0.2
• Power can be nearly doubled
• Efficiency increase by 15% - points
• NOx emissions are reduced by up to 80%
• Less investment costs than CC plant
• Suitable for small power output ( - 100 MW)
• High efforts for water treatment
• 5 – 10 % steam flow allowed for many models without adaptations
Source: www.otsg.com
HAT (Humidified Air Turbine)
1
A Study of Humidified Gas
Turbines for Short-Term
Michael A. Bartlett
Realization in Midsized Power
Mats O. Westermark Generation—Part I:
Department of Chemical Engineering and
Technology/Energy Processes,
Nonintercooled Cycle Analysis
The Royal Institute of Technology,
SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden Humidified Gas Turbine (HGT) cycles are a group of advanced gas turbine cycles that use
water-air mixtures as the working media. In this article, three known HGT configurations
are examined in the context of short-term realization for small to midsized power genera-
tion: the Steam Injected Gas Turbine, the Full-flow Evaporative Gas Turbine, and the
Part-flow Evaporative Gas Turbine. The heat recovery characteristics and performance
potential of these three cycles are assessed, with and without intercooling, and a prelimi-
nary economic analysis is carried out for the most promising cycles.
关DOI: 10.1115/1.1788683兴
Introduction This configuration has been investigated thoroughly in the litera-

ture, with Larsson and Williams 关8兴 and Tuzson 关9兴 presenting
Humidified Gas Turbine 共HGT兲 cycles are a group of advanced
good overviews. In 1978, Cheng patented the Cheng cycle 关10兴, a
gas turbine cycles that have been studied as an alternative to the
variation on the steam-injected cycle, which has since been com-
combined cycle and reciprocating engines for power generation.
mercialized based on the Allison 501 KM gas turbine. Kellerer
HGT cycles can be classified as gas turbine cycles that utilize
and Spangenberg 关7兴 report on operating experience from such a
water-air mixtures as the working fluid through the expander. Wa-
plant in Munich. Other gas turbine cycles with varying degrees of
ter vapor is obtained from evaporative processes in the cycle, for
steam injection have been commercialized by General Electric,
example, a heat recovery boiler, a humidification tower, or Aquarius, and Kawasaki. Macchi and Poggio 关11兴 and dePaepe
through water injection into the working fluid. As the expander and Dick 关12兴 have addressed water recovery systems for steam-
flow increases without increasing the compressor flow, higher spe- injected cycles.
cific power outputs and efficiencies are achieved than those for the Evaporative gas turbine cycles can be defined as cycles which
simple gas turbine cycle. evaporate water directly into the working fluid. Water injection,
Many variations of the HGT have arisen, for example, the hu- i.e., spraying fine, warm droplets into the working fluid, was pro-
mid air turbine 共HAT兲 cycle, the Steam Injected Gas Turbine posed by Gasparovic and Stapersma 关13兴 and was further studied
共STIG兲 cycle, the Cheng cycle, the recuperated water injection and developed by Mori et al. 关14兴, and Frutschi and Plancherel
共RWI兲 cycle, and the Evaporative Gas Turbine 共EvGT兲 cycle. The 关15兴. Nakamura et al. 关16兴 first patented an evaporative cycle
main advantages identified with HGT cycles are electrical effi- which utilizes a humidification tower instead of direct water in-
ciencies similar to the combined cycle 共CC兲 with higher specific jection to evaporate the water. Fluor Daniel, Inc. investigated the
power outputs 关1–3兴 and significantly higher total efficiencies in humid air turbine 共HAT兲 cycle 关1,17兴, which also features a hu-
combined heat and power 共CHP兲 applications 关4,5兴. Furthermore, midification tower instead of water injection, and patented some
because the HGT cycles do not require a steam turbine for the variations 关18兴. Amongst others, Chiesa et al. 关19兴, Eidensten
bottoming cycle, specific investment costs ($/kWe) are signifi- et al. 关20兴 Stecco et al. 关21兴, Rosén 关22兴, and Yan, Eidensten, and
cantly lower than those for the CC 关6兴. Rydstrand, Westermark, Svedberg 关23兴 have evaluated different configurations of evapora-
and Bartlett 关4兴 showed this to be especially true in combined heat tive gas turbine cycles.
and power applications due to the HGT’s superior total efficien- In Sweden, evaporative gas turbine 共EvGT兲 system studies
cies. Short start-up times and good load following characteristics were initiated at the Royal Institute of Technology 共KTH兲 and
have been reported 关3,7兴 in addition to very low NOx emissions Lund Institute of Technology 共LTH兲, leading to the formation of
with the use of only a diffusion burner 关3兴. Given this combination the EvGT Consortium with industry and the Swedish Energy
of characteristics, the focus of HGT commercialization falls natu- Agency in 1993. This consortium has concentrated on cycles with
rally on distributed generation, peak-load plants, and industrial- humidification towers for evaporation and has demonstrated the
sized applications (1 – 80 MWe). Above this size, the flexibility EvGT-technology for the first time in Lund, Sweden. A small-
and low investment costs of the HGT cycles become less impor- scale (600-kWe) pilot plant was constructed with a humidification
tant in the face of the mature performance and market position tower and recuperator, and later complemented with an after-
associated with large combined cycle. cooler. Ågren et al. 关24兴, Lindquist 关3兴, Bartlett and Westermark
The steam-injected gas turbine cycle uses exhaust gas heat to 关25兴, Dalili and Westermark 关26兴, and Thern, Lindquist, and Tor-
raise steam in a boiler that is then injected into the working fluid. rison 关27兴 have addressed different aspects of the EvGT pilot
plant, including performance, operation characteristics, air and
Contributed by the International Gas Turbine Institute 共IGTI兲 of THE AMERICAN water quality, water recovery, humidification, and modeling.
SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS for publication in the ASME JOURNAL OF Economic and technical simulation studies of midsize plants
ENGINEERING FOR GAS TURBINES AND POWER. Paper presented at the Interna-
tional Gas Turbine and Aeroengine Congress and Exhibition, Atlanta, GA, June
共70– 80 MW兲 are also included in the EvGT project 关6,28兴 along
16 –19, 2003, Paper No. 2003-GT-38402. Manuscript received by IGTI, October with application studies. Rydstrand, Westermark, and Bartlett 关4兴
2002; final revision, March 2003. Associate Editor: H. R. Simmons. investigated natural gas-fired humidified gas turbines in district
Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power JANUARY 2005, Vol. 127 Õ 91
Copyright © 2005 by ASME
Downloaded 22 Apr 2009 to 129.27.112.61. Redistribution subject to ASME license or copyright; see http://www.asme.org/terms/Terms_Use.cfm
Fig. 1 Cycle layout of the nonintercooled HGT concepts to be studied
heating applications, while Bartlett et al. 关29兴 examined cofired a thermodynamic analysis of intercooled HGT cycles 共HGT-IC兲
humidified cycles, also in district heating applications. Simonsson and an economic comparison of the alternatives 关36兴.
et al. 关30兴 presented an analysis of EvGT cycles for industrial
cogeneration using waste heat sources.
One important concept to arise from the EvGT project is the Outline of the HGT Cycles for Analysis
part-flow EvGT cycle 共PEvGT兲, whereby only a fraction of the The STIG Cycle. In the STIG cycle, shown in Fig. 1共a兲,
compressor air is used in the humidification tower. Westermark steam is raised in a heat recovery steam generator 共HRSG兲 and
patented the concept 关31兴 and Ågren 关2兴 first introduced it to the then injected into the working fluid after the compressor. Feed
literature. The authors studied this configuration with varying water preheating occurs in an economizer 共B-ECO兲, evaporation
part-flow ratios for an industrial and an aeroderivative core engine in a boiler 共BOIL兲, and high temperature heat recovery in a su-
and found that the optimal part-flow lies within the range 10–30% perheater 共B-SH兲. Water vapor in the flue gas can be recovered in
关2兴. These studies, however, should be extended to a general ther- a flue gas condenser 共FGC兲, then treated and recycled to the
modynamic and economic comparison with competing HGT con- HRSG, making the cycle water self-sufficient. As the boiler is
cepts in power generation.
Scope
This two-paper series aims to identify the short-term thermody-
namic and economic potential of HGT cycles with newly designed
gas turbine machinery under 80 MWe. An analysis is presented of
three HGT concepts—the steam-injected cycle, the full-flow
EvGT 共FEvGT兲 cycle, and the PEvGT cycle—with and without
intercooling. Favorable conditions for the different HGT concepts
and configurations are identified and promising cycles are ex-
tracted for economic analysis. This paper, Part I, presents the
background to the modeling and a thermodynamic analysis of the
nonintercooled cycles, while the following paper, Part II, presents
Table 1 Core engine characteristics
Inlet conditions ISO

Inlet flow 50 kg/s
Compressor inlet ⌬ P 1%
Compressor isentropic 0.9
efficiency
Intercooler ⌬ P 共Part II cycles 2%
only兲
Compressor outlet ⌬ P 1%
Combustion chamber ⌬ P 3%
Turbine polytropic efficiency 0.87
Turbine exit ⌬ P 1.8% Fig. 2 STIG cycle used for the cost of electricity „CoE… analy-
sis in Part II
92 Õ Vol. 127, JANUARY 2005 Transactions of the ASME
Table 2 Pressure losses in the different HGT cycles
Area STIG PEvGT FEvGT

Flue gas 3% 4% 7%a
HC — 0b 5%
c c
BC —
a
recuperator ⌬ P⫽6% 关32兴.
b
a steam ejector is used to overcome the pressure loss in the humidification circuit.
c
5 bar overpressure is used to compensate for steam circuit pressure losses and the
ejector.
Table 3 The modeling characteristics of cycle areas
Applicable Modeling
Area Item cycle characteristic Value
Boiler B-ECO STIG, Outlet sub 10K
circuit PEvGT cooling
BOIL STIG, Pinch at drum 15K
PEvGT
a
B-SH STIG, Effectiveness 85%
PEvGT
H-SH
Humidification H-ECO PEvGT, Cold approach 15K

circuit FEvGT temperature
AC PEvGT,
FEvGT
IC PEvGT,
FEvGT
H-FWPH PEvGT, Hot approach 15K
Fig. 3 PEvGT cycle used for the CoE analysis in Part II FEvGT temperature
HT PEvGT, Minimum 4K
FEvGT driving force
(t⫺t ad)
limited to one pressure, superheated-STIG cycles typically have Recuperator REC FEvGT Effectivenessa 90%
difficulty accessing low-quality heat and the flue gas can leave the
HRSG at quite high temperatures. One way to increase heat re- Water WRU All Self- —
covery is to introduce steam cooling where slightly superheated recovery supporting
steam is used to cool the gas turbine components instead of com- temperature
a
The effectiveness quoted is the enthalpy effectiveness. This expresses the heat trans-
ferred as a percentage of complete, ideal heat exchange.
pressed air. This decreases the amount of steam for superheating,

allowing more boiling and feed water preheating, thus increasing
the amount of heat recovered.
The FEvGT Cycle. Instead of boiling the water separately,
the EvGT cycle raises water vapor through evaporating water di-
rectly into the working medium in a humidification tower. In what
is called the FEvGT concept in this article 关see Fig. 1共c兲兴, the
entire compressor outlet passes through the humidification circuit,
where it is cooled and humidified before being reheated and in-
troduced to the combustion chamber. A primary surface recupera-
tor 共REC兲 is usually suggested for high-temperature heat recovery.
The evaporation duty is extracted using an economizer 共H-ECO兲
and an aftercooler 共AC兲. In the humidification tower 共HT兲, simul-
taneous mass and heat transfer takes place. Water heated to
slightly below the boiling point is distributed across a packed bed
where it is brought into countercurrent contact with compressed
air. As the vapor pressure of the water exceeds the partial pressure
Table 4 The core engine parameters
Parameter Values
CDP Compressor discharge 20, 25, 30, 35
pressure 共bar兲
TIT Firing temperature 共°C兲 1200, 1350, 1500
Fig. 4 FEvGT cycle used for the CoE analysis in Part II
Fig. 6 Comparison of the performance maps of the air-cooled
„ac… and steam cooled „sc… STIG cycle
The PEvGT Cycle. Ågren 关2兴 presented and investigated the

PEvGT concept introduced by Westermark 关31兴. The guiding prin-
ciple of this concept is to reduce the heat exchange area and
pressure drop penalties compared to a full-flow configuration
while achieving the same heat recovery. To achieve this, only a
part of the compressor outlet is extracted, cooled, humidified, re-
heated, and reinjected. The PEvGT cycle is illustrated in Fig. 1共b兲
and can be seen to combine features of the STIG and FEvGT
cycle in one cycle. Like the STIG cycle, a HRSG is used to raise
superheated steam, utilizing flue gas heat above the system boiling
point. To fully exploit the heat remaining below the boiling point,
a humidification tower with a part-flow from the compressor is
used. Hence, the humidifier’s purpose in this cycle is akin to the
low-pressure boiler in a CC. The humidified part-flow is then
heated with, or parallel to, the steam in a humid air superheater
共H-SH兲. As the water vapor content is very high in the H-SH,
excessive surface areas will not be required, nor the transition to a
recuperator. Other PEvGT cycle configurations have been studied:
Fig. 5 Composite curves of the nonintercooled HGT cycles
of water in the air, evaporation takes place. This diabatic process

takes most of the heat for evaporation from the water film, cooling
the water as it flows down the tower. Hence a cold exit water
stream from the HT is obtained, which can act effectively as an Fig. 7 The performance maps of the nonintercooled STIG and
internal heat sink. PEvGT cycles
first with a recuperator and two-stage humidifier but no boiler, and
second with a recuperator, humidifier and boiler 关2兴. However, we
have chosen to study the concept in Fig. 1共b兲 due to its simplicity.
As an improvement over past configurations, we suggest using a
steam ejector instead of a booster fan to overcome the pressure
drop caused by the humidification process and heat exchangers.
Modeling the Cycles

The parameters for the cycle simulation have been chosen to
represent current gas turbine technology in the midsize range.
Furthermore, the heat exchangers and the humidification tower are
modeled with somewhat conservative parameters so that their di-
mensions and costs are reasonable. GATECYCLE is used to model
the gas turbine, heat exchangers, and cycle performance. The hu-
midification tower and flue gas condensers are modeled using in-
house programs linked with GATECYCLE through MS Excel.
The cycle can be divided into four areas: the core engine, the
boiler circuit, the humidification circuit, and water recovery. Each
section is discussed below and refers to both Parts I and II.
The Core Engine. The core engines for the different HGT
Fig. 8 The performance maps of the nonintercooled FEvGT
and PEvGT cycles
cases are assumed to be purpose-built for humidified operation,
i.e., they operate at their design point with a flow imbalance. The
design constant is a compressor capacity of 50 kg/s air at ISO
conditions. Consequently, the size of the turbine expander varies
between cases following the degree of humidification, giving a
cycle power output of 30– 50 MWe. As the heat exchange network
is modeled conservatively, giving good driving forces and low
costs, the thermodynamic data presented in the results may be
scaled directly to smaller gas turbine cycles (5 – 15 MWe) without
adjusting the heat exchange network. However, the lower firing
temperatures and pressures presented in this article are perhaps
more applicable to smaller core engines. Table 1 outlines the con-
stants used to model the core engine.
HGT cycles have cooling media other than the compressor air
available, for example, saturated steam or cool humid air from the
humidification tower. For reasons outlined in the section entitled
‘‘Results and Discussion,’’ the STIG cycle presented is steam
cooled, while the evaporative cycles are cooled with compressor
air. The cooling flow to the nozzle 共stator兲 of the turbine is deter-
mined by GATECYCLE using the metal temperature of the turbine
blades as expressed in Eq. 共1兲. The reference parameters are taken
from previous simulations 关2兴. The cooling flow to the rotor is set
as equal to the cooling flow to the nozzle, a conservative assump-
冉冉冊冊
tion as rotor cooling flows are usually less than nozzle flows.
冉冊
T g ⫺T metal 1.1
Fig. 9 The performance map of the nonintercooled PEvGT

M cool ⫽M cool,re f 冉冊冉冊
C p,re f
Cp cool
Cp
C p,re f gas
T g ⫺T cool
T g ⫺T metal
,
cycles for varying working pressures and part flows at a con- T g ⫺T cool ref
stant firing temperature of 1350°C
(1)
where M is the cooling flow rate, C p is the specific heat, T is the
temperature, and subscripts gas denote inlet gas value, cool de-
notes cooling gas value, and ref denotes the value at the reference
Table 5 Approach temperature and pressure drop sensitivity condition.
of the HGT cycles While Eq. 共1兲 is limited as heat transfer properties are not ac-
counted for, it was judged to be more realistic than other GATE-
⌬ ␩ el 共%, abs.兲 CYCLE options. Typical cooling flows are given in the flow sheets
Config- Low Low flue contained in Figs. 2– 4 and Figs. 6 –9 in Part II 关36兴.
Cycle uration Base ␩ el Low ⌬t HC ⌬p gas ⌬p
The Heat Recovery Circuits. The boiler circuit 共BC兲 is clas-
STIG-sc 30 bar 50 ⫹0.4 ¯ ⫹0.2 sified as the section of the HGT cycle which raises steam for
1350°C delivery to the combustion chamber, in other words, the HRSG.
PEvGT 35 bar 52.1 ⫹0.4 ¯ ⫹0.2
1350°C
This includes the B-ECO, the BOIL, and the superheaters 共B-SH
FEvGT 25 bar, 50.9 ⫹0.75 ⫹0.3 ⫹0.3 and H-SH兲.
1350°C The humidification circuit 共HC兲 is the heat recovery section that
delivers energy to the humidification process. This consists of the
HT, aftercooler 共AC兲, humidification circuit economizer 共H-ECO兲, which in turn have a critical consequence on the choice of turbine
and feed water preheater 共H-FWPH兲. An intercooler is also in- cooling media. In the STIG cycle, steam cooling is used to re-
cluded in paper II. cover more low temperature heat. By decreasing the amount of
Table 2 shows the pressure drops resulting from the heat recov- steam for superheating, the amount of water that may be boiled
ery systems, while Table 3 shows the performance characteristics and preheated is increased. For example, switching to steam cool-
of these items. The water flows through the AC, intercooler 共IC兲, ing for the STIG cycle in Fig. 5共a兲 decreased the flue gas exit
and H-ECO were adjusted such that the water outlet temperature temperature from 167 to 150°C. The effect of this on the STIG
was 10 K subcooled compared to the humidification tower performance is significant, as shown in Fig. 6. In the evaporative
pressure. cycles, the humidification tower already allows the recovery of
practically all the useful heat contained in the exhaust. Conse-
Humidification Model. While GATECYCLE contains a humidi-
quently, switching to direct steam- or humid air-cooling will not
fication tower model, which satisfactorily performs overall energy
lower the flue gas temperature further, nor benefit the cycle effi-
and mass balances, it does not check the internal conditions of the
ciency greatly. Hence direct air-cooling was chosen for the evapo-
tower packing. Therefore, the model may converge on inoperable
rative cycles and direct steam-cooling was chosen for the STIG
conditions where a point in the packing actually contravenes equi-
cycle.
librium. As such an in-house humidification tower model is inte-
The recovery of low temperature heat in the humidifier affords
grated into the cycle calculations through a link with MS Excel
for performance and dimensioning. The model is based on the PEvGT cycle 1.9% points more efficiency than the STIG cycle
working-line theory common in unit operations 关33,34兴 and uses a at an increased power density. The FEvGT cycle, however, only
humid air properties model that account for nonideal mixing ef- gains 0.8% points due to the pressure and temperature loss 共the
fects 关35兴. Importantly, the model has been experimentally veri- humid air enters the combustor colder than the compressor air兲
fied for use with packed-bed and tubular humidifiers 关26兴. A de- associated with the humidification process.
scription of this model can be found in Ågren 关2兴 and Dalili and The Performance Maps. Figures 7–9 present the perfor-
Westermark 关26兴. mance maps of the nonintercooled HGT cycles. As with all per-
formance maps presented in this article, they show the power
Parameter Study output versus the electrical efficiency of the cycle. The specific
Currently, there is a push for higher working pressures and power output (kJ/kgia) is gained by multiplying the power output
firing temperatures for industrial midsized gas turbines. The pa- value (MWe) by 20 共constant intake air flow for all cycles兲. The
rameters for this study are chosen to reflect these trends and are isobars 关constant compressor discharge pressure 共CDP兲兴 and iso-
presented in Table 4. It was deemed infeasible to increase the therms 共constant firing temperature兲 outline an area in the map for
working pressure beyond 35 bar without intercooling. each type of cycle. Only the optimal PEvGT cycles are consid-
The optimal part-flow ratio in the PEvGT cycle will also vary ered, see the next section for details on this choice. It is useful to
with each core engine parameter. Ågren 关2兴 showed that the prob- keep in mind the example composite curves in Fig. 5 when inter-
able optimum lies at lower part-flow ratios. Therefore, the part- preting these maps.
flow ratio 共␺兲 in the PEvGT cycle is varied from 5– 40%. Note In Fig. 7, the STIG cycle exhibits substantial increases in both
that ␺ is defined as the mass fraction of compressor intake air that specific power and efficiency with an increasing firing tempera-
is lead to humidification circuit. ture. Increases in the turbine inlet temperature 共TIT兲 imply a
higher turbine outlet temperature 共TOT兲, which allows more flue
Results and Discussion gas heat to be recovered by the single-pressure HRSG. Hence,
This section examines and compares the performance of the more steam expands in the turbine and therefore the efficiency and
nonintercooled HGT cycles. The results for the intercooled HGT specific power output increase. Increases in the compressor dis-
cycles and a final economic analysis may be found in paper II. charge pressure also lead to higher efficiencies, but with falling
specific power outputs. The higher efficiencies are attributable to
Heat Recovery Comparison. Before analyzing the response more work being extracted from the steam when at higher work-
of the HGT cycles to changes in pressure and the firing tempera- ing pressures. However, because the TOT sinks with increases in
ture, it is important to appreciate the nature of each cycle’s heat the pressure, steam generation falls, and an efficiency maximum is
recovery system. Figure 5 presents composite curves produced therefore found on the isotherms 共constant TIT and increasing
from the simulations at 30 bar and a combustor outlet of 1350°C. CDP兲.
These curves show the amount and nature of the heat transferred The PEvGT area can be considered a projection of the STIG
in the cycle, including the aftercooler and flue gas. Composite area into a smaller region at higher electrical efficiencies 共see Fig.
curves are obtained through adding the m•cp values of all the heat 7兲. This projection is especially marked when there are significant
sources or heat sinks for a temperature region, respectively, and amounts of heat left by the HRSG that the humidification tower in
multiplying the sum by the temperature change in that region. the PEvGT can utilize, i.e., at low turbine outlet temperatures. As
Examining the three diagrams, it is clear that the FEvGT trans- the PEvGT can utilize low temperature heat, the efficiency
fers the most heat between the streams 共50 MW兲, nearly twice the maxima on the isotherms lie at much higher pressures than the
amount of the STIG cycle 共27 MW兲 and 35% more than the STIG cycle because water vapor generation does not decrease as
PEvGT 共37 MW兲. This reflects the extra heat transfer required in markedly with increases in the CDP. Compared to the STIG cycle,
the FEvGT’s humidification circuit to cool and heat the entire the specific power increases with an increased TIT are more mod-
airflow from the compressor in the aftercooler and recuperator. As erate. The higher temperature of the turbine outlet, which follows
the PEvGT passes only a fraction of the compressed air through a higher TIT, is mainly utilized for increased superheating and
the HC, it requires less heat transfer for this purpose. The STIG efficiency gains in the PEvGT rather than water vapor generation
cycle has no humidification circuit. Importantly, the FEvGT cycle and power gains, as in the STIG cycle. Furthermore, steam cool-
共16.6 MW兲 has seven times as much gas-gas heat transfer as the ing gives the STIG cycle an advantage in specific power 共see
STIG 共2.4 MW兲 and double that of the PEvGT 共8.3 MW兲. There- Fig. 6兲.
fore, due to the amount of heat exchange in the FEvGT and the The FEvGT area, Fig. 8, resides mostly within the PEvGT area
domination of gas-gas heat transfer therein, the FEvGT will re- and is a twisting, narrow, and steep surface. The isotherms show
quire considerably more heat exchange area than either the STIG that the FEvGT efficiency only improves with pressure increases
or the PEvGT. when the TIT is high. This is because a positive difference is
It is important to note the different strategies to utilize low required between the turbine outlet and compressor outlet tem-
temperature heat in the different HGT cycles. It is these strategies peratures for the recuperator to contribute positively to the effi-
ciency. This factor is also reflected in the marked efficiency in- cycle. Hence the pressure drops and pinch points were chosen
crease along the isobars with an increasing TIT, which increases such that the HGT cycles’ performances are not overstated nor the
the TOT and hence the recuperator’s impact. Unlike both the heat exchange size and costs ignored. Table 5 presents a study of
STIG and PEvGT cycles, the specific power of the FEvGT in- the potential of the HGT cycles when these two parameters are
creases with the CDP, albeit marginally. This is attributable to the lowered. For the case of low approach temperature differences,
balance between the humidifier and recuperator. As the working ‘‘low ⌬t’’, water–gas heat exchangers have an approach ⌬t of 5
pressure increases, the TOT decreases while the temperature out K, the boiler drum pinch point is reduced to 5 K, the recuperator
of the humidifier increases. Hence the recuperator recovers pro- effectiveness is raised to 95%, and the effectiveness of the super-
portionately less flue gas heat at higher CDPs, allowing more heaters are raised to 90%. In the case ‘‘low HC ⌬p,’’ the pressure
humidification and therefore an increased power output. From Fig. drop associated with the humidification circuit is halved. Simi-
8, we can conclude the FEvGT has a lower efficiency than the larly, the flue gas pressure drop in the heat exchangers is halved in
PEvGT at CDPs over 25 bar and only a marginally better effi- the case ‘‘low flue gas ⌬p.’’
ciency at a lower power output at lower CDPs. Table 5 shows that the FEvGT benefits the most from all mea-
sures. This demonstrates that the FEvGT is the most sensitive
Optimizing the PEvGT Cycle. Figure 9 shows the perfor- HGT cycle to changes in approach temperatures and pressure
mance map of the PEvGT cycles 共nonintercooled兲 at a constant drops. Therefore the FEvGT is more exposed to technology levels
firing temperature of 1350°C with varying pressures and part flow than the other cycles. A significant portion of the 0.75-point in-
ratios. The trends are similar for the different firing temperatures crease that occurs when improving the FEvGT’s approach tem-
studied. The stars represent the optimal part flow ratios chosen for peratures comes from the improved recuperator performance.
use in the performance maps presented in Figs. 7 and 8. Similarly, the recuperator contributes to most of the pressure drop
It can be seen in Fig. 9 that at higher pressures 共30–35 bar兲 an penalties in the flue gas and humidification circuit. Therefore, the
efficiency maximum exists, whereas a power maximum is found recuperator is essentially the determining factor of the competi-
at lower pressures 共20 bar兲. The characteristic of the part-flow tiveness of the FEvGT.
curve is found to be dependent on two factors: the TOT and It is important to stress that the potential of the HGT cycles
the temperature difference between the turbine and compressor cannot be found by adding the three end columns in Table 5. If the
outlets. approach temperatures are reduced, then heat exchange area will
At a higher working pressure, the TOT encountered is low and increase and the pressure drop will also rise. Thus, in reality, any
colder than the compressor outlet temperature. The low TOT approach temperature changes will be partly counteracted by in-
means large amounts of heat cannot be recovered by the high- creased heat exchange pressure drop penalties.
pressure HRSG boiler and should be adsorbed by the H-ECO. As
more air is passed through the humidification tower, the water
outlet temperature is lowered and more heat is recovered from the Conclusions
flue gas, hence improving the efficiency and power output. How- In part I of this two-paper series, nonintercooled HGT cycles
ever, as the turbine outlet is colder than the compressor outlet, the were examined for use in midsized power applications. The heat
air sent to the humidifier will never recover its original tempera- recovery characteristics of the STIG, FEvGT, and PEvGT cycles
ture level, costing the cycle fuel and efficiency. The balance be- were analyzed using composite curves. Furthermore, the cycles’
tween these two factors will create an efficiency maximum, as performances were mapped across a range of pressures and firing
seen for the 30- and 35-bar PEvGT cases in Fig. 9. While extra temperatures, with the PEvGT also examined with differing part
power may be gained at ␺ values higher than the maximum, the flow ratios. The following points may be concluded.
gains become smaller while the heat exchanger area and thus costs • The full-flow EvGT 共FEvGT兲 cycle is unsuitable for noninter-
increase linearly with ␺. A detailed economic study is required to cooled cycles. Much larger quantities of heat are transferred in the
find the optimal part-flow rate; however, in this article the maxi- FEvGT cycle than the other HGT cycles, especially in gas–gas
mum efficiency is chosen for further evaluation. Jonsson and Yan heat exchangers. This fact points to higher costs. Furthermore, the
关28兴 carried out a detailed economic analysis of part-flows for performance of the FEvGT cycle was found to be only moderate,
three different core engines. with the part-flow EvGT cycle superior to the FEvGT for most
At low pressures, high TOTs and low COTs are found. In this relevant working pressure and firing temperature combinations.
case, the HRSG is well suited to the flue gas and little heat is left • The STIG cycle shows good potential, with the lowest amount
for the humidification tower. Therefore only a small part-flow per- of heat transfer of the HGT cycles and very low amounts of gas–
centage is needed to complete the heat recovery. Leading more air gas exchange; thus promising low heat exchange costs. The effi-
than this amount through the HC serves only to shift heat away ciency of the STIG cycle was not significantly lower than the
from the HRSG to the H-SH, thus increasing sensible heat recov- other cycles, especially at high firing temperatures and working
ery and decreasing the humidity. As the power output is heavily pressures.
dependent on the humidity, there is accordingly a power maxi- • Steam cooling the turbine, rather than using air cooling, sig-
mum at low to moderate part-flow ratios, illustrated by the 20-bar nificantly benefits the STIG cycle by allowing more boiling and
PEvGT case. Higher ␺ values may deliver higher efficiencies, but low-temperature heat recovery from the flue gas. The efficiency of
again the heat exchange area and hence costs also increase. Hence the other cycles showed a lower dependency on the cooling media
the power maximum is chosen for evaluation in this study. as the humidification tower already allows them to recover low-
At moderate pressures 共25 bar兲 both of the above effects are temperature heat.
present. The turbine outlet temperature is low, but still slightly • The part-flow EvGT 共PEvGT兲 cycle is the most promising
warmer than the compressor outlet. Hence sending more air HGT cycle for nonintercooled core engines. Higher efficiencies
through the humidification circuit in general, and the H-SH in than the other cycles are obtained, especially at moderate to high
particular, increases the efficiency weakly. Moreover, the HRSG pressures, and good power densities. The total amount of heat
also leaves significant amounts of heat available for the humidifier transfer is kept 35% lower than the FEvGT, with gas–gas transfer
that is more effectively accessed with high ␺, due to a lower water 50% lower. The optimal part-flow ratio is dependent on the rela-
temperature from the HT. Thus both the power output and the tionship between the compressor and turbine outlet temperatures,
efficiency increase quickly with the part-flow ratio to an efficiency but was found to always be under 30%.
maximum at 30%, after which the gains are marginal. • HGT cycles are quite sensitive to how the heat exchange
network is modeled, i.e., choices of approach temperatures and
Sensitivity Analysis. The parameters used in this study were pressure drops. The FEvGT is especially sensitive and thus most
chosen to conservatively model a feasible mid-sized gas turbine dependent on component technology levels.
This article showed that the performances of the HGT cycles Based Cycles With Humidification,’’ Ph.D. Thesis, Lund University, Dept. of
Heat and Power Engineering, Lund, Sweden, ISBN 91-628-5330-9.
are quite similar, with at most a 2-percentage-point difference in 关4兴 Rydstrand, M., Westermark, M., and Bartlett, M., 2002, ‘‘An Analysis of the
the efficiency between the different optimized FEvGT, PEvGT, Efficiency and Economy of Humidified Gas Turbines in District Heating Ap-
and STIG cycles. Furthermore, the power output at the optimal plications,’’ Proc. ECOS 2002, Vol. II, pp. 695–703.
efficiencies also varied modestly. These facts point to the impor- 关5兴 Poggio, A., and Strasser, A., 1996, ‘‘CHENG Cycle Cogeneration System Ap-
tance of an economic analysis to find the most attractive cycle. plication and Experience of Exhaust Gas Condensing,’’ Proc. POWERGEN
’96, June 26 –28, Budapest.
In Part II of this series, intercooled HGT cycles examined and 关6兴 Nilsson, P. A., ed., 1996, ‘‘EvGT—evaporative Gas Turbine—Block 3,’’ Tech-
both intercooled and nonintercooled cycles are selected for eco- nical report, Lund Institute of Technology, Dept. of Heat and Power Technol-
nomic analysis and comparison. ogy, Lund, Sweden.
关7兴 Kellerer A., and Spangenberg C., 1998, ‘‘Operating Experience With a Cheng-
Cycle Unit,’’ VGB PowerTech, November 1998, pp. 16 –22.
关8兴 Larson, E. D., and Williams, R. H., 1987, ‘‘Steam-Injected Gas Turbines,’’
Acknowledgments ASME J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power, 109, pp. 55– 63.
关9兴 Tuzson, J., 1992, ‘‘Status of Steam-Injected Gas Turbines,’’ ASME J. Eng. Gas
The authors would like to thank the financial and technical Turbines Power, 114, pp. 682– 686.
support of the EvGT Consortium members during this work: the 关10兴 Cheng, D. Y., 1978, ‘‘Regenerative Compound Dual-Fluid Heat Engine,’’ US
Swedish Energy Agency, Vattenfall AB, Sydkraft AB, Energy E2, Patent No. 4,128,994.
ALSTOM Power AB, and Elforsk. 关11兴 Macchi, E., and Poggio A., 1994, ‘‘Cogeneration Plant Based on Steam Injec-
tion Gas Turbine With Recovery of Water Injected: Design Criteria and Initial
Operating Experience,’’ ASME Paper No. 94-GT-17.
关12兴 dePaepe, M., and Dick, E., 1999, ‘‘Water Recovery in Steam-Injected Gas
Nomenclature Turbines: A Technological and Economical Analysis,’’ European J. Mech. En-
viron. Eng., 44, pp. 195–204.
Cycle Abbreviations. 关13兴 Gasparovic, N., and Stapersma, D., 1973, ‘‘Gas Turbine With Heat Exchanger
and Water Injection in the Compressed Air,’’ Combustion, 45, pp. 6 –16.
CC ⫽ Combined cycle 关14兴 Mori, T. R., Nakamura, H., Takahashi, T., and Yamamoto, K., 1983, ‘‘A Highly
EvGT ⫽ Evaporative gas turbine Efficient Regenerative Gas Turbine System by New Method of Heat Recovery
FEvGT ⫽ Full-flow evaporative gas turbine With Water Injection,’’ Proc. 1983 Tokyo International Gas Turbine Congress,
Vol. 1, pp. 297–303.
HAT ⫽ Humid air turbine 关15兴 Frutschi, H. U., and Plancherel, A., 1988, ‘‘Comparison of Combined Cycle
HGT ⫽ Humidified gas turbine With Steam Injection and Evaporation Cycles,’’ Proc. 2nd Sym. on Turboma-
PEvGT ⫽ Part-flow evaporative gas turbine chinery, Combined-Cycle Technologies and Cogeneration, IGTI, Vol. 3, pp.
RWI ⫽ Recuperated-water-injected gas turbine 137–145.
关16兴 Nakamura, H., Takahashi, T., Narazaki, N., Yamamoto, F., and Sayama, N.,
STIG ⫽ Steam-injected gas turbine 1981, ‘‘Regenerative Gas Turbine Cycle With Water Addition and Method of
Operation Therefore,’’ U.S. Patent No. 0,053,045 B1.
Heat Exchanger Abbreviations. 关17兴 Day, W. H., and Rao, A. D., 1992, ‘‘FT4000 HAT With Natural Gas Fuel,’’
AC ⫽ Aftercooler ASME COGEN-TURBO, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Inter-
national Gas Turbine Institute, Vol. 7, pp. 239–245.
BC ⫽ Boiler circuit 关18兴 Rao, A. D., 1989, ‘‘Process for Producing Power,’’ U.S. Patent No. 4,829,763.
B-ECO ⫽ Boiler circuit economizer 关19兴 Chiesa, P., Lozza, G., Macchi, E., and Consonni, S., 1995, ‘‘An Assessment of
B-SH ⫽ Boiler circuit superheater the Thermodynamic Performance of Mixed Gas-Steam Cycles: Part B—Water-
FGC ⫽ Flue gas condenser Injected and HAT Cycles,’’ ASME J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power, 117, pp. 499–
508.
HC ⫽ Humidification circuit 关20兴 Eidensten, L., Svedberg, G., Yan, J., and Ågren, N., 1994, ‘‘New Heat and
H-ECO ⫽ Humidification circuit economizer Power Production Processes 共Nya el- och värme-produktionsprocesser兲,’’
H-FWPH ⫽ Humidification circuit feed water preheater Technical Report 共in Swedish兲, Royal Institute of Technology, ISSN-1104-
H-SH ⫽ Humid air superheater 3466/TRITA-KET R19.
关21兴 Stecco, S. S., Desideri, U., Frachini, B., and Bettagli, N., 1993, ‘‘The Humid
HT ⫽ Humidification tower Air Cycle: Some Thermodynamical Considerations,’’ ASME Paper No. 93-GT-
IC ⫽ Intercooler 77.
REC ⫽ Recuperator 关22兴 Rosén, P., 1993, ‘‘Evaporative Gas Turbine Cycles—A Thermodynamic Evalu-
ation of Their Potential,’’ Licentiate Thesis, Department of Heat and Power
Parameters. Technology, Lund Institute of Technology, Lund, Sweden, ISRN LUTMDN/
TMVK-7010-SE.
CDP ⫽ Compressor discharge pressure, bar 关23兴 Yan, J., Eidensten, L., and Svedberg, G., 1995, ‘‘Investigation of the Heat
COT ⫽ Compressor outlet temperature, °C Recovery System in Externally Fired Evaporative Gas Turbines,’’ ASME Pa-
LHV ⫽ Lower heating value per No. 95-GT-72.
关24兴 Ågren, N. D., Westermark, M. O., Bartlett, M. A., and Lindquist, T., 2000,
P el ⫽ Power output, MWe 共net兲 ‘‘First Experiments on an Evaporative Gas Turbine Pilot Plant—Water Circuit
t ⫽ Temperature Chemistry and Humidification Evaluation,’’ ASME Paper No. 2000-GT-168.
TIT ⫽ Turbine inlet temperature 共combustor outlet tem- 关25兴 Bartlett, M., and Westermark, M., 2001, ‘‘Experimental Evaluation of Air Fil-
perature兲, °C ters and Metal Ion Migration in Evaporative Gas Turbines,’’ ASME Paper No.
JPGC2001/PWR-19119.
TOT ⫽ Turbine outlet temperature, °C 关26兴 Dalili, F., and Westermark, M., 2002, ‘‘Experimental Study on a Packed Bed
␩ el ⫽ Cycle electrical efficiency, % LHV Humidifier in an Evaporative Gas Turbine,’’ ASME Paper No. IJPGC2002-
␻ ⫽ Cycle humidification rate, kgH2 O /kgintake air 26106.
关27兴 Thern, M., Lindquist, T., and Torrison, T., 2003, ‘‘Theoretical and Experimen-
␺ ⫽ Part-flow ratio, per kg compressor intake air tal Evaluation of s Plate Heat Exchanger Aftercooler in an Evaporative Gas
Turbine Cycle,’’ ASME Paper No. GT2003-38099.
Subscripts. 关28兴 Jonsson, M., and Yan, J., 2003, ‘‘Economic Assessment of Evaporative Gas
ad ⫽ adiabatic Turbine Cycles With Optimized Part Flow Humidification,’’ ASME Paper No.
GT2003-38009.
i.a. ⫽ intake air 关29兴 Bartlett, M. A., Wikman, K., Holmgren, K., and Westermark, M., 2002, ‘‘Ef-
fective Waste Utilisation in Hybrid Cycles for CHP Applications—A Cycle
and System Study,’’ Proc. ECOS 2002, Vol. II, pp. 804 – 813.
References 关30兴 Simmonsson, N., Anheden, M., Eidensten L., and Tollin, J., 2002, ‘‘Evapora-
关1兴 Rao, A. D., and Joiner, J. R., 1990, ‘‘A Technical and Economic Evaluation of tive Gas Turbines—Humidified Air Gives Flexible Power for the Future,’’
the Humid Air Turbine Cycle,’’ Proc. 7th Annual International Pittsburgh Coal Proc. POWERGEN 2002, Milan, Italy.
Conference, September 10–14. 关31兴 Westermark, M., 1996, ‘‘Method and Device for Generation of Mechanical
关2兴 Ågren, N. D., 2000, ‘‘Advanced Gas Turbine Cycles With Water-Air Mixtures Work and, if Desired, Heat in an Evaporative Gas Turbine Process,’’ Interna-
as Working Fluid,’’ Ph.D. thesis, Royal Institute of Technology, Dept of tional Patent Application No. PCT/SE96/00936.
Chemical Engineering/Energy Processes, Stockholm, Sweden, ISSN 1104- 关32兴 Utriainen, E., 2001, ‘‘Investigation of Some Heat Transfer Surfaces for Gas
3266 ISRN KTH/KET/R—120—SE. Turbine Recuperators,’’ Ph.D. thesis, Lund University, Dept. of Heat and
关3兴 Lindquist, T., 2002, ‘‘Evaluation, Experience and Potential of Gas Turbine Power Engineering, Lund, Sweden. ISBN 91-7874-118-1.
Environmental Influence
• Air temperature and altitude have a strong influence on the power
produced and on efficiency (influence on density)
• Small effect also of humidity
Air inlet cooling
• Temperature decrease leads to a higher air mass flow swallowed.

Relative humidity of the air increased to nearly saturation.
• Water evaporation inside compressor reduces compression work.
• Turbine power output is increased proportionally to the increased
mass flow
Source: Soares, Gas Turbine Handbook, 2005
1
Gas Turbine Inlet Cooling
Scope, cost and performance for new
and retrofit power plant projects
Turbine inlet cooling has reduction in plant heat rate Fig. 1. Ballpark estimates of TIC system costs for an
always been prized for its (Btu/kWh), and associated F-Class combined cycle plant
ability to increase power suppression of generating

output and improve the with less efficient machines $830/kW
efficiency of simple cycle in order to meet system
and combined cycle gas demands.
turbines in hot day opera-
tion. Capital cost. Installed
costs can range from $15
$185/kW
Increasingly, operators per kW for evap/fog water
have also come to see spray inlet cooling to $185
cooling as a low cost alter- per kW for refrigerated chill- $95/kW
native for providing up to ing, as referenced to the $16/kW $15/kW

25% more zero-emissions gas turbine plant’s standard
Gas Turbine Wetted Fogging Wet Electric
plant capacity without the ISO base load rating.
Cost Media Compression Chilling
environmental hassle, delay
Source: TICA White Paper, November 2009
and cost of building a new Aside from the consider-
plant. More specifically: able spread in capital
cost of different cooling Relative capital cost
Capacity. Nominal technologies (see Fig. 1) of turbine inlet cooling
increase in kW output on there is wide variation in
system installations
a 90F day can range from their ability to enhance gas
referenced to the
5% to 25% of gas turbine turbine performance during
nameplate rating depend- hot, cool or humid operat- $/kW cost of a new
ing on the inlet cooling ing conditions. F-Class combined
technology, gas turbine cycle power plant prior
design and ambient air Ultimately, the optimum to the addition of gas
conditions. choice of technologies is
turbine inlet cooling.
largely determined by site
CO2 emissions. The weather conditions, but
added capacity is accom- it also depends on what
panied by a decrease in you want to accomplish
site or regional CO2 and and how much you have
other fuel-related emissions to spend. Basic choices
directly proportional to the include:
increase in kW output, a
32 2010 GTW Handbook

Wetted media. Turbine intake as micro-sized drop- Fig. 2. Generic response of gas turbine power to changes
lets. Typically 3x to 4x more in ambient air temperature
inlet air flowing through a
continuously wetted hon- fogging is added than can Power
eycomb type fiber material be evaporated in the inlet Changes
(normally cellulose) evapo- (sometimes referred to as

+10%
rates water off surrounding high fogging or overspray). 59F ISO
design rating
surfaces of the wet medium The air stream carries over 0
thereby cooling itself. Wet- the excess water fog into
Hea
ted media can cool the inlet the compressor section vy
-10%- Fra
me
to within 85% to 95% of the of the gas turbine where Ae s
ro
it further evaporates for der
difference between ambi- -20% iva
tiv
ent dry bulb and wet bulb compressor inter-cooling es
temperature. In low humidity and mass flow enhance- -30%
areas, the evaporative cool- ment. Combination of inlet Compressor Inlet Temperature
ing can boost power output and compressor cooling 40°F 60 80 100
by up to 15%, while in high can boost power output by

Source: GE Energy Oil & Gas
humidity areas the increase upwards of 25% indepen-
is more likely to be under dent of ambient temperature
10%, approaching zero conditions. All gas turbines lose
at the point of saturation power as ambient
(100% relative humidity). Chilling. Refrigeration air temperature
based system where the increases, with
Fogging. Very fine droplets ambient intake air is cooled
higher pressure ratio
of water are sprayed into by chilled heat transfer fluid
the warm inlet air stream circulating through cooling
aeroderivative designs
where the droplets evapo- coils placed inside the inlet losing almost twice as
rate to cool the air (similar ductwork. Electrically driven much per degree rise
to wetted media systems). mechanical chillers or in temperature than
In this case, the fogging absorption chillers (steam
do lower pressure
can be controlled to pro- or hot water) may be used
ratio heavy frame
duce droplets of various to cool the heat transfer
sizes, depending on desired fluid. Chilling is not limited units.
evaporation and inlet resi- by humidity so it is possible
dence time under prevailing to cool ambient air below its
ambient air temperature and wet bulb temperature, typi-
humidity conditions. Fogging cally down to around 45F to
can cool inlet air by 95% 55F, for upwards of a 25%
to 99% of the difference increase in power output.
between ambient dry bulb
and wet bulb temperatures Gas turbine sensitivity
which makes it a bit more The power output of any
effective than wetted media. gas turbine is very sensi-
tive to ambient temperature.
Wet compression. More Maximum power typi-
finely atomized water than cally drops by about 0.3% to
needed for inlet cooling 0.5% for each degree Fahr-
alone is sprayed into the enheit increase in ambient
2010 GTW Handbook 33

Fig. 3. Impact of temperature on MS7001 power output,
temperature (0.5% to 0.9% demand periods and are
exhaust flow and heat rate
for each degree Celsius especially detrimental dur-
Percent
Design rise). ing hot summer days when
the reduction in power
120% Heavy frame machines output is greatest.
are less sensitive than
110
aeroderivative units. Typi- Inlet cooling offers a low
Heat Rate
100 cally, they operate at lower cost solution to offset
Exh pressure ratios than aero power loss at high ambient
aus
90 t Flo
w units but with much higher temperatures. Cooling the
Ou
tpu mass flow, so that temper- inlet air below 59F allows
80 t
ature changes have pro- gas turbines to exceed
70 Compressor Inlet Temperature
portionately less impact. their rated output.
0°F 20 40 60 80 100 120

For example, on a 95F day, In addition, inlet cooling
Source: GE Energy Oil & Gas the power output of an old and particularly wet com-
heavy frame unit operat- pression helps minimize
ing at a pressure ratio of the degradation in heat
Each gas turbine
around 10 to 1 will decline rate with increases in am-
model has its own by 7 or 8% (off its standard bient temperature. Since
temperature-effect 59F nameplate rating) as gas turbine heat rate is in-
curve determined compared to a 15% drop versely proportional to fuel
by cycle parameters for a new aeroderivative efficiency, any increase
gas turbine operating at a in heat rate means higher
(such as pressure
30 to 1 pressure ratio (see fuel consumption – along
ratio) and component Fig.2). with fuel related CO2 emis-
efficiencies as well as sions and other pollutants.
air mass flow. The chart shows the
generic sensitivity of heavy Inlet cooling also has a
frame and aero gas turbine positive effect on steam
output to changes in ambi- production and power
ent temperature. In real life, output of combined cycle
each gas turbine model plants. Increased gas
has a unique temperature- turbine mass flow enter-
effect curve specific to its ing the heat recovery
design parameters and boiler produces more
component efficiencies steam which, in turn, helps
with respect to change in increase steam turbine kW
power output, heat rate output.
and exhaust flow (see
Fig.3). Retrofitting a high efficien-
cy combined cycle plant
How inlet cooling with inlet cooling is also an
helps effective way of increas-
High ambient temperatures ing peak power output and
usually coincide with peak reducing the cost of elec-

tricity (COE) compared to Fig. 4. Chilling improves comparative COE of combined cycles ($65 vs. $116/MWh)
an advanced simple cycle
peaker (see Fig. 4). $115/MWh
$6.00 Variable O&M

Annualized $65/MWh cost
per MWh
of electricity for a 2x1 com-
$155/MWh
bined cycle 207F peaking
plant with chilling added $65/MWh
is over 40% less than the Off-peak power $68.69
Natural gas fuel
$4.43 $8 per MMBtu
$115/MWh COE for a sim- for TES
ple cycle LM6000PC Sprint
peaker with hot selective
catalytic reduction and inlet Natural gas fuel
$8 per MMBtu $46.28
cooling. $6.29 Fixed O&M
LTSA fixed
Combined cycle cost 20-yr capital recovery
O&M cost $1.94 $33.58
includes an annual fixed no interest charge
20-yr capital recovery
long term service fee of $12.63
no interest charge
$20 per ton ($110,000) for 207FA combined LM6000PC
the chiller plus an off-peak cycle peaker Sprint peaker
power cost of $40 per

MWh (amortized over peak
hours) to recharge thermal
Cost of incremental
energy storage tanks. cycle peaking plant ISO
rated at 509,200 kW energy ($/MWh)
COE for simple cycle and 6150 Btu/kWh heat for a chilled 207FA
LM6000PC includes a rate (55.5% efficiency) combined cycle
fixed cost of $250,000 per equipped with evap/fog- peaking plant is
year for scheduled over- ging and inlet chilling plus
significantly lower
haul and maintenance, $6 supplementary duct firing
to increase HRSG steam
than for a simple
per MWh variable O&M
cost, plus additional fuel output. cycle LM6000PC
cost. Sprint peaker with
Calculations show that inlet cooling.
Dispatch factors plant performance falls
The preferred order of dis- off to around 452,200
patch for providing electric kW output and 6370 Btu/
power from a combined cy- kWh heat rate (53.6%
cle peaking plant incorpo- efficiency) at 95F dry bulb
rating turbine inlet cooling and 78F wet bulb inlet air
and duct firing is to bring temperature conditions.
the most efficient combina-
tion of technologies online Cooling the inlet air flow
first (see Fig. 5). by fogging to its dew point
will add 36,860 kW and
This chart is based on a increase net plant output
2x1 Fr 207FA combined to 489,060 kW at 6800

Fig. 5. Turbine inlet cooling has priority over duct firing Btu/kWh heat rate (50.2% kWh of generation in com-
for max dispatch efficiency
efficiency). Chilling to parison to highly efficient
further cool the air to 50F simple cycle gas turbines
will add another 16,870 equipped with inlet cooling
Duct Firing
73,390 kW and 8440 Btu/kWh kW for a net plant increase (see Fig. 6).
to 505,930 kW and 7895
Chilling 16,870 kW and 7890 Btu/kWh Btu/kWh heat rate (43.2% The 1x1 F-Class combined
Fogging 36,860 kW and 6800 Btu/kWh efficiency). cycle plant shown in the
chart is rated at 260MW
Supplementary duct firing and 57% to 58% efficiency.
could boost steam turbine Under 95F dry bulb and
Hot Day generation by 73,900 kW 78F wet bulb temperature
Output 452,200 kW and 6370 Btu/kWh
and increase total com- conditions, with inlet air
bined cycle plant output to cooling, the combined
207FA peaking plant is ISO rated 579,830 kW at 8440 Btu/ cycle plant will gener-
at 509,200 kW and 6150 Btu/kWh
kWh heat rate (40.4% ef- ate about 700 lb of CO2
2x1 combined cycle ficiency). per MWh of generation
207FA peaking plant
compared to 980 lb for the
Source: TICA White Paper, November 2009 CO2 reduction same plant without cooling.
One major environmen-
tal benefit of inlet cool- That is less than the 1100
Power output of a ing technology is that it lb of CO2 per MWh for
2x1 207FA combined enables simple cycle and a simple cycle LM6000
cycle can be raised to combined cycle gas turbine Sprint peaking plant
almost 580 MW from plants to operate at higher equipped with inlet cooling
than rated power output – and significantly lower
452 MW on a 95F DB
and efficiency, despite hot than the 1900 lb of CO2
and 78F WB day by and humid air conditions. produced by a natural gas-
fogging to dew point fired steam plant.
for a 36.9 MW gain, The increase in capacity
chilling to 50F for helps defer (and some- Regulated criteria
another 16.9 MW, and times eliminate) the need pollutants
to bring older and less Additional benefits of gas
supplementary duct
efficient power plants on- turbine inlet cooling include
firing for a 73.4 MW line to meet grid demand, a decrease in emissions of
boost in steam turbine particularly for peaking all kinds that accompany
output. power. Higher efficiency improvements in heat rate.
reduces fuel consumption
and production of collateral The reduction in regulated
CO2 emissions and other criteria pollutants, notably
fuel-related pollutants. hydrocarbons (HC), carbon
monoxide (CO) and nitro-
Turbine inlet cooling for gen oxide (NOx), is similar
already efficient combined to that of carbon dioxide
cycle plants allows them emissions for inlet cooled
to operate at significantly simple cycle and combined
lower CO2 emissions per cycle plants.

Compare a 2x1 207FA The relative potential of Fig. 6. Inlet cooling can also reduce CO2 of combined
combined cycle plant with various cooling technolo- cycle plants by 30%
lb per
those of a simple cycle gies to increase capac- MWh
LM6000PC Sprint peaking ity (without burning more 2000 1900 lb
plant, for example, both fuel) depends on ambient
plants operating with se- air conditions. Take for 1600
lective catalytic reduction instance a 2x1 501FD

1200 1100
(SCR) to limit NOx emis- combined cycle plant ISO
980
sions to 3 ppm and both rated at 500 MW (Fig. 8).
800 700
equipped with turbine inlet
cooling (see Fig. 7). As shown, wetted media 400
and fog cooling are more
As shown in the bar chart, effective adding capacity 0
Gas-fired F-Class Comb cycle Simple cycle
the combined cycle plant when the relative humidity steam plant comb cycle with TIC aero peaker
produces 0.19 lb of regu- of the ambient air is lower;
lated criteria pollutants per chilling and wet compres-
MWh of generation versus sion are both much less Adding inlet cooling to a typical F-Class
0.42 lb for the simple cycle dependent on humidity. combined cycle plant can reduce CO2 to 700
plant – better than 50%
lb/MWh at 95F DB and 78 WB conditions,
lower in all categories. It is worth noting that many
far less than the CO2 emissions produced by
comparative charts (includ-
TIC project benefits ing those in this refer- simple cycle aero peaking and gas-fired
Operational and economic ence section of the GTW steam plants.
benefits of turbine inlet Handbook) are based on
cooling apply to new gas reasonable assumptions for
turbine projects, both each technology based on Fig. 7. Inlet cooling reduces total emissions of
regulated criteria pollutants
simple cycle and com- experience and in-depth
lb per
bined cycle plants, and to design study of equipment MWh
0.42 lb
existing plants on a retrofit capabilities and perfor- 0.4 0.03 HC
basis. mance.
0.3
For new projects, the eco- They are intended to
0.29 CO
nomic benefit of inlet cool- provide a generic grasp of
0.2 0.19 lb
ing is that the $/kW cost for commonly applied cooling 0.01 HC
the increase in capacity is technologies and should
usually well below the $/ be treated accordingly 0.1 0.13 CO
kW capital cost of the plant rather than be accepted as 0.10 NOx
0.05 NOx
on its own. gospel or case history. 0.0
207FA peaking LM6000PC Sprint
combined cycle simple cycle peaker
When retrofitted to existing For preliminary planning
plant installations, espe- purposes or questions
cially combined cycles, about performance, the
Nominal 530 MW 207FA combined cycle
the added capacity can be major TIC system suppliers
enough to eliminate the are always the best source
peaking plant, with inlet cooling, will produce
need for new generating for information directly less than half the regulated criteria pollutants
capacity. related to your project (0.19 lb/MWh) of an inlet cooled simple cycle
interests. LM6000PC Sprint peaking plant (0.42 lb/MWh).

Fig. 8 Impact of humidity on hot day power gain of Evaluation factors humidity.
turbine inlet cooling technologies
The power capacity en-
hancement potential of dif- Hourly costs ($/kW) are
95F DB and 80F WB
95F DB and 60F WB ferent turbine inlet cooling averaged over the entire
MW
Gain technologies for a specific day that a system is used
100 99 MW to approximate the relative
project application depend
largely on geographic loca- cost of cooling technology
80
67 tion of the plant (climate options operating at hot
60 and weather) and gas tur- day, cool day and humid
53 MW
47 MW 45 bine design performance day ambient air conditions.
43 MW
40 characteristics.
For hot day operation, as
20 16 19
The economic choice of the chart shows, the wet
0 technologies depends compression average cost
Wetted Fogging Electric Wet largely on the projected is $63/kW; fog/evap cool-
Media Chilling Compression
return on investment with ing is $98/kW; and chilling
Source: Caldwell Energy, January 2010 respect to expected hours $210/kW. The significant
of operation during the difference between these
Chilling and wet compression are much more
year under comparable technologies, say cool-
effective than evap/fogging at both high and temperature and humidity ing project engineers, is
low humidity levels, as shown here for a conditions, amount and due to the varying spread
retrofitted 500 MW 2x1 W501FD1 combined value of the incremental in- between dry and wet bulb
cycle plant on a 95F day. crease in power produced, temperature throughout
and competitive cost of the day.
outside purchased power.
Similarly, energy gains
The same historical weath- (MWh) differ for each
Fig. 9. Cost per kW of power augmentation for
a 24-hour period er data that utility planners technology (see Fig. 10).
work with to analyze peak For hot day operation, wet
Average Wet Comp load demand during differ- compression shows a gain
$/kW Fog/Evap $514 ent seasons and hours of of 854 MWh; fog/evap cool-
$500 Chilling
the day can also be used ing 235 MWh; and chilling
400 to evaluate and estimate 301 MWh.
331 the annual gas turbine inlet
$300
300 cooling load and frequency The cooling technology
$210 of hot, cool and humid days gains for hot day, cool day
200
of operation (see Fig. 9). and humid day operation
98 represent the increase in
100 78
63 62 49 For purposes of this chart, saleable energy over a 24-
0 a hot day is defined as hour period.
Hot Day Cool Day Humid Day
90F dry bulb and 60F wet
Source: Caldwell Energy, January 2010 bulb temperatures at 15% Built-in cooling
relative humidity; cool day Gas turbine builders also
Calculating the $/kW cost of inlet cooling incorporate compressor
as 67F DB and 50F WB at
based on the kW gain under hot, cool and 27% relative humidity; and intercooling to augment
humid conditions is a better indicator of true humid day as 72F DB and power output. GE Energy
costs than a plant’s $/kW capital cost. 64F WB at 65% relative Aero, for one, has been in-

creasing the power output and 7965 Btu/kWh heat Fig.10. Increased daily energy from inlet cooling
of its LM6000 series by at rate (42.8% efficiency). power augmentation
least15% to 20% with its

MWh
Sprint (spray intercooling) Results are even more dra- 854 MWh
design upgrades. matic for hot day operation 800 Wet Comp
where the Trent 60 DLE Fog/Evap 681 MWh
The latest LM6000PF design is rated at 42 MW 600
Chilling
model is ISO rated at and 8580 Btu/kWh heat
around 43 MW and 8220 rate (39.8% efficiency).
400
Btu/kWh heat rate (41.5% 301
235
simple cycle efficiency). With ISI enhancement,
200 145 MWh 173
The LM6000F Sprint ver- the same machine can
sion, with water intercool- be uprated to 53 MW and 46 54
8
ing, is rated at 48 MW. 8200 Btu/kWh heat rate 0
Hot Day Cool Day Humid Day
(41.6% efficiency) at an
Source: Caldwell Energy, January 2010
Last year, Rolls-Royce ambient air temperature of
introduced its new Trent 60 90F (see Fig. 11).
Increased output of two 120 MW class gas
gas turbine design with an
inlet spray intercooling (ISI) GE Energy’s LMS100 gas
turbines in combined cycle operation with
option that integrates inlet turbine design incorporates turbine inlet cooling under hot, cool and humid
and compressor fogging off-engine intercooling day conditions represents the increase in
to significantly enhance (heat exchanger) to give saleable energy per MWh for a 24-hour period.
performance. it a nominal rating of 100
MW and 7580 Btu/kWh
For instance, the Trent 60 heat rate (45% simple
Fig. 11. Inlet water spray injection enhances
DLE design is nominally cycle efficiency). Trent 60 DLE performance
rated at around 52 MW
base load output and 8100 Several LMS100 power no inlet water injection
Btu/kWh heat rate (42% plant peaking and base MW
w/inlet spray intercooling
simple cycle efficiency) at load installations have

60
59F ISO conditions. The been equipped with evapo-
Power
same machine can be rative inlet cooling systems
Btu per
uprated by inlet spray inter- for hot day performance 50 kWh
cooling to around 58 MW enhancement. 8900
40 8500
Reference material
We want to thank the industry suppliers and cooling 8100
Heat Rate
system project engineers who contributed to this refer-
30 7800
ence piece. For more information about the impact of
15°F 30°F 45°F 60°F 75°F 90°F
power augmentation on reducing carbon footprint, we
refer you to a White Paper published by the Turbine Source: Gas Turbine World, Nov.-Dec. 2008
Inlet Cooling Association entitled Turbine Inlet Cool-
ing: An Energy Solution That’s Better for the Environ- With water spray intercooling, power output
ment, Ratepayers and Plant Owners, dated November
can be increased from its 52 MW ISO design
24, 2009 You can reach the TIC Association online at
rating to a maximum 58 MW winter output from
www.turbineinletcooling.org.
below zero to around 70F.

50/60 Hz market
• Large gas turbines have to run at frequency of electrical grid
(no gears available)
• Europe, Africa, Asia: 50 Hz 3000 rpm
America, Japan: 60 Hz 3600 rpm
• In order to maintain the design of the flow channel and the
velocities, the dimensions of 60 Hz variants are decreased by 5/6
• So mass flow and power are about 44 % larger in 50 Hz market
Heavy Duty vs. Aeroderivative

Gas turbines are divided into industrial gas turbines („Heavy Duty“ or
„Heavy Frame“) and in aeroderivatives
Aeroderivatives are re-designed jet engines and use jet engine

technology with high specific power, good efficiency and high reliability
(e.g. RR Olympus, GE CF6 -> LM2500)
• mounted on light frames
• high performance leads to higher and thus increased maintainance
efforts
• large number in operation
• often used in marine applications
Industrial gas turbines are robust, need less maintainance, but have - in
general - lower efficiency
• Heavy and robust design
1
Heavy Duty vs. Aeroderivative
Aeroderivative FT8
JT8D by Pratt & Whitney (USA): 14 000 engines, 25 MW, high efficiency
Modifications to the
gas generator:
- fan removed
- compressor casing
- one turbine stage
removed
Power turbine
Gas generator (3000 rpm)
Source: MAN GHH
2
201 7 Simple Cycle Genset Prices
Estimated equipment-only budget price for
standard OEM bare bones design
How much does a simple cycle gas engineering. construction. project- Equipment scope. Limited to mini—
turbine packaged plant cost"? All de- specific options or owner's project mum seope of supply for an opera-
pends on the unit size and scope of costs. tional plant package built around a
equipment supply. Except for some individual cases. gas turbine engine. generator. associ-
{'iTW‘s database covers a wide where new information from the mar— ated mechanical and electrical auxil-
range of unit sire and technology. and ketplace has indicated otherwise. this iary systems. Scope includes:
shotvs that price (S) and unit price year's estimated gas turbine equip-
[55 per kW]. depend strongly on tmil ment prices reflect a slight dtnvnward I Gas turbine. Skid-mounted gas
sire and type of gas turbine {aero vs trend cotnpared to prior years. turbine engine. starting motor. reduc-
frame}. This lollows the general movement tion gearbox [if any]. lube oil and
GTW's simple cycle plant prices of the appropriate industrial price hydraulic fluid systems. compressor
are based on standard bare bones sitt- indiees over the past two years {see water wash. fuel forwarding and con—-
glc-fuel [gas only) packaged units. A w w. i h s . com i n fol-"ce ra i h s i n -
h It ps : tM-' trol. extenial turbine cooling [ifany].
myriad of add-on options and custom- dexes.-"). interconnecting piping.
ized design features are provided by The impact of the stronger US do]-
the (JEMs at additional cost. lar relative to other major interna- o Generator. Standard air-cooled
The prices are quoted in [LS dol- tional currencies this past year has generator package; hydrogen or en—
lars. FOB factory. for single-unit pur- also put downward pressure on price closed water-air cooling {"l'E‘vl-itr'tt‘l
chases. They are for equipment only. levels (in USS) for equipment manu- usually offered as options for larger
and do not cover transportt-ttion. plant factured in Europe and Asia. units. Generator exeitcr is typically
included in the standard package.
201? Smaller Simple Cycle Gensets a Balance of plant. Standard aux-

Pricing data for simple cycle geneets rated below100Mw. “Best Fit" curve plot-
iliaries such as air intake filler. inlet
ted as saw = 6815 x (kW) A -0.265.
ducting attd silencer. exhaust ducting
and stack {short} with silencer. vibra—
Price ($k)
tion monitoring. digital control.
— 900 .!
Packaged gensets typically include
standard acoustic enclosures with
- 7'00 ventilation and fire protection sys-
tems. Electrical auxiliaries include
- GOD
batteries. motor control center. volt—
- EDD age rcgulator and surge protection.
Mechanical and electrical auxil-
-
40E! iaries for gas turbine operation are

- SUD often prc—packaged and supplied as
separate enclosed auxiliary skids.
- 200 Auxiliary transformers needed to
Unit Rating (MW)
condition power supply for plant mo—
0 10 20 30 40 5O 50 70 80 90 tors (starting. lube oil ptnnp and cool-
24 2016-1? BTW Handbook wwgasturbineworldccm

ing liinsl arc usually tlptitlnaL as is plain prlwer step-up
translilrmer.
Uthcr DEM aptiens include liuuid er dual-tirel {gas and
liquid) crm'lhttstiml. inlet air chilling tar dcicingl. isalated
phasc bus. l'ucl gas CHIHPI‘L‘HSiUI‘L ctc.
l'erl'armance. {ias turhine madel paw-'er uulput and cI'—

licicncy ratings in (iTW's simple cycle pricing tables are
t'llily’i specilicd design ratings liar base laud tipcratitm at
ISU standard [Sif'lr' amhient and sea lcyell cmtditians ran
natural gas ltlL‘l.
listinlatcd {5' per kW] pricing. hascd tlll hasc lcrad ral—
ings. makes it passihle tcr reyicw' and cyaluatc dillercnccs
in mlit pricing rrl‘ equipment cast at crrmpetitiyely sieed
gas lurhinc plants.
'l‘hc $ per kW data nlscr can estimate the lilscly hallpark
price at' gas turhinc rncrdels ncrl listed ill the pricing tahlc
clcrsc cntmgh ill priw'cr tiutput and efficiency till he ct'ml-
petitiyc.
rt hest-lit rclatienship helween kW rating ys iii-per-kw
is prrlyidcd [inr thc data presented ttl assist ill this calcula-
titlll.
ttcr l‘actcrrs that influence UI' package price are gas
lurhinc typc t_i.c.. l‘ran'lc ys. acrpl and dcsigu parameters
such as tiring temperature. pressure ratipt tt'lass llt'iw. ap—
prtlsimalc weight and siee.
Actual real-warld {JElyl hid prices are ducted liar cus-
ltlmcr—spccilicd sctlpc and with guarantees ml net ptrw'cr
and heat ratc tcl‘licicncyfil at silc—spccilic ctlndititms ti.c.
amhient temperaturcr elcyatien and relaliyc humidity-"l and
spccilicd I‘ucl ctm'lpesitit'm.
CLEAN AIR
Hid tluulcs. {fillil‘yls strategically hedge prujcct hidding
with smite pertilrmance margin. i.e. slightly lewer pawcr
SOLUTIONS
putpul and higher heat ralc. ta allew liar ncrrmal yariatitlns
in manulitcturing lelcranccs and test uncertainties.
'I'hey will always hid ml the hasis el‘ "l‘aclm‘y new and
clean“ pcrl‘ermancc withrlut allewancc lilr degradatitm ill FOR TURBOMACHWERY
pcrlilrmancc with usage. II_'rurrtrar:t language usually speci—
lies a limit ill apcrating lime hel'erc perlcrmancc testing Fer mere than at} "tears. tilamfil Fewer Systems has
must he cenducted. heen rieyelpping anti supplying clean air selulians
Typically there is a margin tll‘ {1.5+ tr: l‘l—r'i'r ml ptlwcr and that pretect turhemaehinery and maintain the highest
hcttt ratc ratings. This csplains why slightly hctlcr pcrliir— efficiency. We after ynu the crptirnutn scrhlhtin hmn the
air inlet la the tea at the stack.
mance than expected may initially he realised.
Marketing Iaclers that enter a prejcct price qucte in- I l'tir Inlet systems I Dampers a slides
clude numhcr ul' units tirdcrcd [there are usually quantity I l—tceustre packages I Seryice a retr'ehts
reliscnunlsit scape al‘cduipmcnt supply; sitc specifics. duty I l nclasures I Static lit pulse filters
I Silencers I Esllaust systems
cyclct geagraphic Iecalian and lcrcal market share prisi-
litln.
Variatian in currency yalualicns alscr play a signilicant
rrrle depending rm which ceuntrics t_i.e. currencies} are
int-rilycd in the gas lurhinc‘s manut‘acturc. purchaser and
installatitin-
IL'ias turhine gcnscls designed i'rrr nnshcrrc all and gas
pipeline riperalian typically are priced arnund ltl‘frtr higher l camfil www.camfil.eum/ps
wsnasturlainewe rldcpm 2015-1? BTW Harldbflflh 25

ZMW plant may be priced at around
2017 Larger Simple Cycle Genaetc STSU per kW compared to $5M) per
Pricing data for large simple cycle genset units rated at cvsrlDDMW. “Best Fit" kW for a ltW plant.
curve plotted as $k = 2165 x (kW) A 41182. From around 2(l on up to
Price (Salk?!)
100MW the S per kW price still
falls off rather steeply {from more
— 280 than $5lltlr’kw to S300ikW] with in—
— are if"- creasing output. This is due primar-
— 260 ily to economics ofscalc which allow
(JEMs to reduce manufacturing costs
- 250
(per kW) as unit size and power rat-
- 240 ing grow.
- 23E} That holds true up to around
— 220 IOOMW beyond which the S per kW
curve flattens and decreases more
— 210
slowly. down to just over $2titlr’kw
-
200 for the largest F. G. H and J class

— 190 units.
Unit Rating (MW)
The flat nature of the $.u’kW vs kW
t? 290 390 690 curve for these advanced units rc-
190 490 SCIHJ
fleet the high cost of more exotic ma-
than industrial or utility power plants. a benchmarking tool for assessing the terials. coatings. cooling techniques
That is due to the cost of compliance equipment cost of different size and and more complex manufacturing re-
with special packaging and safety type plants. quired to operate at higher (ETUOCF
requirements such as found in API To allow for uncertainties and to EQOOQF) tiring temperatures. All of
specifications. changes in standard scope of sup- which negate economies of scale that
Offshore platform gas turbine ply offerings, these estimated budget might otherwise be expected.
packages command an additional prices should be treated as having a Regardless of gas turbine design
price premium to cover costs such as plus or minus 10% range of accuracy. and rating. however. remember that
specialized mountings and housing. The data plot and best-tit curve the cost of engineering and construc—
marine-resistant coatings or ultra-effi- shows the strong relationship of cost tion services can add from 60% to
cient intake filter systems designed to to plant. size. especially with smaller ltlt'l‘i/ii and more to the cost of the
handle salt-water laden air. units. equipment alone. For rough cstis
Small gas turbine plants rated in mates. a rule of thumb could be to
Scoping studies. This reference sec- the 2 to 3MW range cost considerably double the equipment price to esti-
tion of the GTW Handbook serves as more (_$.="'kW} than larger plants. A mate the cost of an installed unit. I
25 2315-1? BTW Handbook wwwgasturbineworldecm

2017 Simple Cycle Genset Prices
Equipment-only budget price in fixed 201 7 dollars
for standard OEM bare bones design
Gas Turbine Base Lead Heat Ftate Budget

Medel Freq Flating Btu3 kWh Efficiency Price 50k“!
C200 50360 200 11W 10,300 Btu 33.1% $210,000 $1 ,050

M1A-1TD 50360 1,300 kW 12,301 Btu 26.0% $1,500,000 6662
0P16-3C 50360 1,650 kW 13,600 Btu 24.3% $1,600,000 $665
Centaur 40 50360 3,515 kW 12,240 Btu 23.0% $2,660,000 $610

501-!(353 50360 3,060 kW 11,504 Btu 20.3% $3,200,000 $604
Centaur 50 50360 4,600 kW 11,630 Btu 20.3% $3,550,000 $332
SEN-KEYS 50360 5,360 kW 10,530 Btu 32.3% $4,300,000 $300

SGT-100 50360 5,400 kW 11,006 Btu 3 1 . 0% $4,120,000 $363
Taurus 60 50360 5,630 kW 10,630 Btu 3 1 . 5% $4,100,000 $330
Taurus 65 50360 6,300 kW 10,335 Btu 32.0% $4,350,000 $600

SGT-300 50360 3,001 kW 11,156 Btu 30.6% $4,350,000 $601
Taurus 1'0 50360 3,065 kW 0,055 Btu 34.3% $4,040,000 $620
GE10-1 50360 11,250 kW 10,663 Btu 31 .4% $5,335,000 $513

Mars 100 50360 11,350 kW 10,365 Btu 32.0% $6,350,000 $550
GTU-12PG-2 50360 12,300 kW 10,460 Btu 32.6% $6,230,000 $510
SGT-400 50360 14,326 kW 0,643 Btu 35.4% $3,250,000 $505

Titan 130 50360 16,450 kW 0,605 Btu 35.5% $6,500,000 $51?
SGT-500 60 10,064 kW 10,132 Btu 33.73% $0,600,000 $504
Titan 250 50360 21,345 kW 6,335 Btu 36.0% $11,000,000 $505

LMZSDDDLE 50 22,413 kW 0,636 Btu 35.4% $12,000,000 $535
LM250IJDLE 60 23,200 kW 0,313 Btu 36.6% $12,300,000 $530
SGT-600 50360 24,460 kW 10,161 Btu 33.6% $11,100,000 $453

1x FTB SP25 DLN 50360 25,455 kW 6,060 Btu 36.1% $12,500,000 $431
FlB211-GT62 DLE 50360 20,645 kW 0,060 Btu 33.5% $12,350,000 $42?
1 x FT6 SP3!) 50360 30,602 kW 0,323 Btu 36.6% $12,500,000 $405

LM2500+ DLE 60 31,000 kW 6,365 Btu 36.6% $13,250,000 $415
HBZ11-GT61 DLE 50360 32,130 kW 6,661 Btu 30.3% $13,350,000 $426
SGT-300 50360 32,620 kW 0,130 Btu 33.2% $13,250,000 $404

MSSDUZE 50360 33,310 kW 0,51? Btu 35.0% $13,000,000 $300
LM2500+ G4 DLE 60 34,500 kW 6,300 Btu 30.2% $14,500,000 $420
wwwgasturbinewerldeem 2016-13 lIEET‘I3'I3 Handbflnlt 23

Gas Turbine Base Lead Heat Rate Budget
Model Freq Hating Btu! kWh E1"tieient::1.1r Priee $4011
SGT-750 50150 3T,031 kW 8,458 Btu 40.4% $14,100,000 $331

H-25 50150 41,030 kW 9,432 Btu 35.2% $15,500,000 $330
53.03 50150 44,000 kW 10,180 Btu 33.5% $1 ?,1 50,000 $390
LM6000PF 50 45,000 kW 8,09? Btu 42.1% $19,400,000 $431

LM8000PF Sprint 50 50,000 kW 8,109 Btu 42.1% $20,500,000 $410
SGT—800 50150 50,500 kW 8,899 Btu 38.3% $17,300,000 $343
LM5000PG 50530 51,204 kW 8,142 Btu 4 1 . 9% $21,000,000 $410

2KFT8 SP50 DLN 50150 51,235 kW 8,905 Btu 38.3% $22,500,000 $439
LM5000PF+ 50 53,000 kW 8,1?5 Btu 4 1 . ?% $21,500,000 $408
Trent 80 DLE 50 54,020 kW 8,023 Btu 42.5% $22,000,000 $40?

sl'B SP80 50150 52,085 kW 9,281 Btu 35.8% $21,450,000 $345
Trent 80 DLE iSI 50 51,842 kW 1288? Btu 43.4% $22,150,000 $353
1xFT4000 SP50 50f50 58,?4? kW 8,305 Btu 41 .1 % $24,500,000 $358

AE54.3A 50150 ?8,000 kW 9,400 Btu 35.3% $25,500,000 $340
5F.03 50150 82,000 kW 9,4?0 Btu 35.0% $30,200,000 $358
7E.03 50 91,000 kW 10,050 Btu 33. 9% $25,000,000 $2?5

LMS 100 DLE 501’50 98,195 kW 2,580 Btu 45.0% $40,000,000 $40?
LMS100PB+ Wet 50 109,000 kW ?,?48 Btu 44. 0% $40,500,000 $3?2
M501 DA. 50 113,950 kW 9,?80 Btu 34.9% $30,000,000 $283

LMS100PA+ Wet 50 11?,000 kW 7,?83 Btu 44.0% $40,500,000 $345
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H-100 50 1 18,080 kW 8,919 Btu 38 . 3% $32,000,000 $2?1

M701 DA 50 144,090 kW 9,810 Btu 34.8% $38,500,000 $288
AE94.2 50 185,000 kW 9,425 Btu 35.2% $45,000,000 $249
M501 F 50 185,400 kW 9,230 Btu 3?.0% $45,000,000 $243

SGT5-2000E 50 18?,000 kW 9,425 Btu 35.2% $44,400,000 $224
?F.04 50 198,000 kW 8,840 Btu 38.5% $45,000,000 $232
GT13E2 50 203,000 kW 8,980 Btu 38.0% $45,500,000 $229

7F.05 50 241.000 kW 8,580 Btu 39.8% $53,000,000 $220
SGT5-5000F 50 250.000 kW 8,582 Btu 39.3% $55,100,000 $220
7HA.01 50 280,000 kW 8,180 Btu 41 3% $52,000,000 $221

9F.04 50 281,000 kW 8,830 Btu 38.5% $50.?00,000 $218
M501 GAG 50 283,000 kW 8,531 Btu 40.0% $50,000,000 $212
SGTB-BDflDH 50 305,000 kW 8,530 Btu 40.0% $55,300,000 $21?

SGT5-4000F 50 30?,000 kW 8,532 Btu 40.0% $53,700,000 $20?
M501 J 50 330,000 kW 8,105 Btu 42.1% $70,000,000 $212
9F.05 50 342,000 kW 8,310 Btu 41 .1 % $?3,000,000 $213

GT25 50 345,000 kW 8,322 Btu 41.0% $?4,000,000 $214
M501 JAG 50 3?0,000 kW 8,010 Btu 42.5% $80,000,000 $215
20 2018-1? BTW HendbeeI-t www.1gaetu r5inew0rld.eurn

Gas Turbine Base Lead Heat Hate Budget
Mcdel Freq Rating Btu! kWh Efficiency Price $k
M701 F 50 385,000 kW 8,144 Btu 41 .9% $84,?00,000 $220

SGT5-8000H 50 420,000 kW 8,530 Btu 40.0% $82,000,000 $195
9HA.01 50 429,000 kW 8,040 Btu 42.4% $92,300,000 $215
M?01J 50 478,000 kW 8,067 Btu 42.3% $100,400,000 $210

M?01JAC 50 493,000 kW 7,954 Btu 42.9% $104,500,000 $212
wwwgasturbinewcrldcem 20104? GTW Handbeck 29

GKU Rev. 8
GAS TURBINE Genset Overview 50 Hz 2016 0318
Erstellt von GKU, LPO
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
GE10-1 GE10-2 Noval LT16 PGT20 LM1800

GE OIL & GAS Output: 11,3 MW Output: 12 MW Output: 16,5 MW Output: 17,5 MW Output: 19,7 MW
Industrial 501-K SGT-100 SGT-200 SGT-300 SGT-400 SGT-500 SGT-600

SIEMENS Output: 4-5 MW Output: 5,7 MW Output: 6,8 MW Output: 7,9 MW Output: 12,9 MW Output: 19,1 MW Output: 24,5 MW
Centaur 40 Centaur 50 Mercury 50 Taurus 60 Taurus 65 Taurus 70 Mars 100 Titan 130 Titan 250
SOLAR TURBINES Output: 3,5 MW Output: 4,6 MW Output: 4,6 MW Output: 5,7 MW Output: 6,3 MW Output: 8,1 MW Output: 11,9 MW Output: 15,3 MW Output: 21,7 MW
MF-61 MF-111
MITSUBISHI HITACHI POWER SYSTEMS LTD Output: 5,9 MW Output: 14,6 MW
MGT6100 THM1304-10N THM1304-12N

MAN Diesel & Turbo Output: 6,5 MW Output: 10,0 MW Output: 12,0 MW
25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140
TM2500+ LM2500+G4 RD* 6B.03 LM6000PF+Sprint 6F.03 GT11N2 LMS100 PA+ Dry IC 9E.03
GE POWER & WATER Output: 31,1 MW Output: 34,5 MW Output: 44,0 MW Output: 49,7 MW Output: 80,3 MW Output: 114 MW Output: 116 MW Output: 132 MW
MS5002E
GE OIL & GAS Output: 31,1 MW
Ind. RB211 GT61 DLE SGT-700 SGT-750 SGT-800 Ind. Trent 60 WLE ISI
SIEMENS Output: 32,1 MW Output: 32,8 MW Output: 37,0 MW Output: 47,5 MW Output: 66,0 MW
AE64.3A
ANSALDO ENERGIA Output: 78,0 MW
MTF-8 MF-221 H-25 (42) H-50 H-100 H-110

MITSUBISHI HITACHI POWER SYS LTD Output: 26,8 MW Output: 30,0 MW Output: 42,3 MW Output: 57,5MW Output: 101,3 MW Output: 116,2 MW
FT8 Swift Pac 25 DLN FT8 MobilPac FT8 SwiftPac 30 FT8 SwiftPac 50 DLN FT8 SwiftPac 60 FT4000 SwiftPac 60 FT4000 SwiftPac 120
PW POWER SYSTEMS Output: 25,5 MW Output: 26,2 MW Output: 30,9 MW Output: 51,2 MW Output: 62,1 MW Output: 70,0 MW Output: 140 MW
140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500 520
9E.04 GT13E2 9F.03 9F.04 9F.05 9F.07 9HA.01 9HA.02

GE POWER & WATER Output: 143 MW Output: 203 MW Output: 265 MW Output: 280 MW Output: 299 MW Output: 339 MW Output: 397 MW Output: 510 MW
SGT5-2000E SGT5-4000F SGT5-8000H

SIEMENS Output: 172 MW Output: 307 MW Output: 400 MW
AE94.2 AE94.3A GT26

ANSALDO ENERGIA Output: 185 MW Output: 310 MW Output: 345 MW
M701DA M701FA M701G2 M701F5 M701AC M701J

MITSUBISHI HITACHI POWER SYS LTD Output: 144 MW Output: 324 MW Output: 334 MW Output: 359 MW Output: 445 MW Output: 470 MW
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GAS POWER SYSTEMS CATALOG I Topping Cycle Of ferings
GAS TURBINES
PORTFOLIO AND OVERVIEW
Efficient, Flexible, Reliable Power 50 Hz Portfolio by Rating

GE’s portfolio of heavy duty and aeroderivative gas turbines helps provide a sense of certainty in an 9HA.02 519 MW
uncertain world, delivering operational flexibility and performance needed to adapt to a rapidly evolving 9HA.01 429 MW
power generation environment. With gas turbine products ranging in individual output from 22 MW to 9F.06 342 MW
519 MW, GE has a solution to reliably and efficiently deliver the power needed by utility power generators, 9F.05 299 MW
industrial operators, and communities. Even in remote locations and harsh conditions, you can count on GE 9F.04 281 MW
9F.03 265 MW
to deliver a gas turbine that will meet your needs.
GT13E2 2012 203 MW
All of our gas turbines share the common heritage of jet engine technology pioneered by GE in the first half GT13E2 2005 185 MW
of the 20th century. They are typically categorized as either heavy duty (sometimes also called “frame”) 9E.04 145 MW
9E.03 132 MW
or aeroderivative gas turbines, although some turbines recently have adopted features of both design
LMS100 111 MW
types. In general, the differences between the aeroderivative and heavy duty gas turbines are weight, size,
6F.03 82 MW
combustor type, and turbine design. Heavy duty gas turbines are usually field constructed and maintained LM6000 57 MW
in place, whereas aeroderivative gas turbines are designed to allow for quick replacement of the entire 6F.01 52 MW
engine when maintenance is required. 6B.03 44 MW
LM2500+G4 33 MW H-CLASS
TM2500 31 MW F-CLASS
High-Efficiency H-Class Reliable E-Class
• Most cost-effective conversion of natural gas to electricity in the • Rugged and available, even in harsh climates LM2500+ 30 MW E-CLASS
H-class industry • Industry-leading fuel flexibility, burning more than LM2500 22 MW AERODERIVATIVE
• Includes the world’s largest high efficiency turbine: 519 MW 50 gases and liquids
• Quick installation for fast-track projects
• First H-class gas turbine fleet to reach 240,000 operating hours
• More than 3,000 units installed
60 Hz Portfolio by Rating
Industry-Leading F-Class • More than 143 million operating hours of experience 7HA.02 346 MW
• Introduced F-class technology nearly 30 years ago 7HA.01 280 MW
Compact and Proven Aeroderivatives
• World’s largest fleet, with more than 1,100 installed units • Flexible and reliable power generation packages with aviation
7F.06 270 MW
and 50 million operating hours of experience derived engines 7F.05 241 MW
• Industry’s best reliability at 99.4 percent • Over 100 million operating hours of experience 7F.04 198 MW
• Up to 56 percent combined cycle efficiency and over 80 percent LMS100 113 MW
efficiency in cogeneration applications
7E.03 91 MW
6F.03 82 MW
LM6000 57 MW
6F.01 52 MW
6B.03 44 MW
TM2500 35 MW H-CLASS
LM2500+G4 34 MW F-CLASS
LM2500+ 31 MW E-CLASS
LM2500 23 MW AERODERIVATIVE
TABLE OF
44 45
CONTENTS
H technology by GE (and Mitsubishi)
Reheat steam from steam cycle is used for cooling the turbine rotor and
first and second stage blades
Source: GE Power Systems
H technology by GE (and Mitsubishi)
H technology demands convective cooling of blades

Higher heat capacity of steam compared to air gives better cooling
effectiveness
Source: GE Power Systems
1
DEDICATED TO ENGINE ROOM PRODUCTS, TECHNOLOGIES & NEWS Fi r s t L o o k
GE introduced the first high- “We are offering our air-cooled In a simple-cycle configuration,
efficiency H-class gas turbines to the H-class gas turbines in two versions the 9HA.01 is rated 397 MW and
power generation industry in 2002. for the 50 Hz market — the 9HA.01 the 9HA.02 is rated 470 MW, each
The steam-cooled units have logged and 9HA.02 — and two versions for at 3000 r/min, offering greater than
200 000 hours of operation and the 60 Hz market — the 7HA.01 and 41% efficiency. In a 1x1 combined-
counting and have proven them- 7HA.02,” said Vic Abate, President and cycle configuration, the 9HA.01 is
selves to be stalwarts within GE’s CEO, Power Generation Products, for rated 592 MW and the 9HA.02 is
gas turbine lineup. Now, thanks to GE Power & Water. “The air-cooled rated 701 MW, each at 3000 r/min,
advances in technology and shared H-class gas turbines are designed offering greater than 61% efficiency.
knowledge from its myriad business for cyclic and base-load operation In a simple-cycle configuration,
units, GE is introducing the 7HA and in a simple-cycle and combined- the 7HA.01 is rated 275 MW and
9HA air-cooled gas turbines. cycle applications.” the 7HA.02 is rated 330 MW, each
New Air-Cooled
H-Class
GE adds air-cooled H-class to its gas turbine lineup
by brent haight
The first 9HA gas tur-

bine was manufactured
in Belfort, France, and will
be delivered to GE’s Green-
ville, South Carolina, U.S.A.,
test facility during the second
quarter of 2014, where it will under-
go full-scale, full-load testing.
GE’s new 9HA gas turbine rotor on the half shell casing. The
air-cooled H-class gas turbines are designed for cyclic and base-
load operation in simple-cycle and combined-cycle applications.
at 3600 r/min, offering greater than than a decade. We have a tremendous facilitate variations in ambient tem-
41% efficiency. In a 1x1 combined- amount of experience and are confi- perature and load.
cycle configuration, the 7HA.01 is dent in where we are going with this “We’ve taken the engine compres-
rated 405 MW and the 7HA.02 is next step.” sor design from our aircraft engine
rated 486 MW, each at 3600 r/min, According to Abate, air-cooled division and implemented it into
offering greater than 61% efficiency. H-class gas turbines offer the reli- our air-cooled H-class gas turbine,”
“The high-efficiency segment ac- ability, flexibility and availability of Abate said. “What that does, the
counts for more than 30% of the GE’s popular F-class fleet and lever- compressor has to compress twice
power generation market,” Abate age technology from GE’s aviation the amount of air that you need be-
said. “That is where the air-cooled business as well as its extensive ex- cause half of it goes to produce pow-
H-class comes in. The 7HA.01 is 275 perience within the power generation er and half of it goes to driving the
MW. The 7HA.02 is 330 MW. Those marketplace. compressor. If you can get the com-
two machines, in the 60 Hz market, The air-cooled H-class gas tur- pressor to be more efficient, that is a
give you a 400 MW combined-cycle bine incorporates an aerodynamic huge opportunity.
power plant, a 500 MW combined- 14-stage compressor, leveraged from “With regard to combustion, as
cycle power plant and then you can GE’s proven aircraft engine tech- you fire hotter you trade emissions.
bulk into 800 and 1000 MW, or 1200 nology, and includes an advanced Holding emissions at world class lev-
and 1500. Those sizes fit extremely radial diffuser. Combined with the els is paramount for GE as we have
well with the retirement of coal that Dry Low NOx (DLN) 2.6+AFS (Ax- always been an emissions leader.
we see and some of the natural mar- ial Fuel Staged) combustion system, We’ve continued to develop our DLN
kets for fixed gears. this allows improved operation of emissions technology, which en-
“Then in the 50 Hz they are a scale the combustion liner and transition ables us to hold emissions with our
version, the 9HA.01 and 9HA.02, piece cooling, according to GE. The air-cooled H-class gas turbines. The
at 397 MW and 470 MW. So those DLN 2.6+AFS combustion system enhanced DLN 2.6+AFS combus-
then reach 600 MW and 700 MW in provides advanced fuel staging for tion system supports improved fuel
combined-cycle, and can bulk into enhanced steady state and transient distribution and operability while re-
1200 and 1400 MW, or 1800 and performance. To modulate airflow, a ducing thermal loading on the cap,
2100 MW. variable inlet guide vane (IGV) and liner, and transition piece. When
“We define H-class as over 2600°F three stages of variable stator vanes you think about the power turbine
firing temperature. The entire in- (VSVs) manage compressor operabil- section, we release about 1 million
dustry has probably 250 000 hours. ity during start-up, control compres- horsepower in 3 feet. These engines
GE has been in the H-class for more sor airflow during turndown, and are operating 400°F-plus above the
A fully assembled 9HA gas turbine being
transferred for packaging and shipping.
melting point of met- mental regulations are

al. It’s a very high-tech, helping to answer the
challenging environment. Ad- call for a new generation of ma-
vanced materials coatings, including chines by pushing the power genera-
thermal barrier coatings on the air- leash more value through application industry to achieve new perfor-
foil and single-crystal super alloys on tion engineering and also mitigate mance standards.
the airfoil wall, promote durability risk with application. “The whole strategy surrounding
and extend parts life by 1.5% versus “Natural gas is becoming the fuel GE is technology leadership. The
comparable technology.” of choice globally and for customers beauty of a high-tech natural gas
The first 9HA gas turbine was who operate larger blocks of power. plant is that you don’t sell them on
manufactured in Belfort, France, and The desire for increased operating ef- style, you sell them because they have
will be delivered to GE’s Greenville, ficiency and flexibility has never been the best economics, they have the best
South Carolina, U.S.A., test facility greater. Technological advancements technical capability and they provide
during the second quarter of 2014, and increasingly stringent environ- our customers the best return.” A
where it will undergo full-scale, full-
load testing. A 9HA gas turbine traveling through Belfort, France, from the GE manufacturing facility to the Port
The Greenville test facility rep- of Strasbourg. More than 3000 people turned out to see the 9HA make its way through Belfort.
licates real-world plant conditions
with the required accessories to run
a fully loaded gas turbine on natu-
ral gas and liquid fuel. To eliminate
limitations of the grid, testing is per-
formed without a generator and grid
connection. The facility is capable of
testing 50 and 60 Hz products. (See
“Beyond Real-World Testing,” Diesel
& Gas Turbine Worldwide, September
2012, p. 54.)
“What is interesting about this
test facility, is that by being inde-
pendent of the grid, we have the
ability to modify speed, we can get
off-design conditions and monitor
the responses of air foils, structural
components, etc.,” Abate said. “We
can see all of ranges of the unit’s
performance. With that we can un-
Air-Cooled H-Class Specifications
The 7HA Gas Turbines Attributes
Greater than 41% simple-cycle efficiency, greater than 61%
Efficiency
combine-cycle efficiency.
Start Capability Fast start as low as 10 minutes from the start command.
Turndown As low as 30% of base-load.
Ramp Rate The 7HA has one of the best ramp rates in its class at greater than 40 MW/min.
Emissions Less than 25 ppm NOx and CO.
The 9HA Gas Turbines Attributes

Greater than 41% simple-cycle efficiency, greater than 61%
Efficiency
combine-cycle efficiency.
Less than 30 minutes to full plant base-load — a 25% improvement
Start Capability
over comparable technologies.
Turndown As low as 30% of base-load.
Ramp Rate The 9HA has one of the best ramp rates in its class at nearly 60 MW/min.
Emissions Less than 25 ppm NOx and CO.
Combined-Cycle Performance
7HA.01 7HA.02
1x1 2x1 1x1 2x1
Plant Output (net) 405 MW 813 MW 486 MW 976 MW
Heat Rate (net) 5580 Btu/kWh 5570 Btu/kWh 5580 Btu/kWh 5570 Btu/kWh
5892 kJ/kWh 5877 kJ/kWh 5892 kJ/kWh 5877 kJ/kWh
Plant Efficiency Greater than 61% Greater than 61% Greater than 61% Greater than 61%
Combined-Cycle Performance
9HA.01 9HA.02
1x1 2x1 1x1 2x1
Plant Output (net) 592 MW 1181 MW 701 MW 1398 MW
Heat Rate (net) 5560 Btu/kWh 5570 Btu/kWh 5560 Btu/kWh 5570 Btu/kWh
5866 kj/kWh 5878 kj/kWh 5866 kj/kWh 5878 kj/kWh
Plant Efficiency Greater than 61% Greater than 61% Greater than 61% Greater than 61%
Simple-Cycle Performance Simple-Cycle Performance

275 MW 7HA.01 397 MW 9HA.01
Output (net) Output (net)
330 MW 7HA.02 470 MW 9HA.02
8240 Btu/kWh 8220 Btu/kWh
Heat Rate (net) Heat Rate (net)
8694 kj/kWh 8673 kj/kWh
Efficiency (net) Greater than 41% Efficiency (net) Greater than 41%
Pressure Ratio 21.5 Pressure Ratio 21.8
1269 lb./sec 7HA.01 1822 lb./sec 9HA.01
Exhaust Flow Exhaust Flow
1522 lb./sec 7HA.02 2157 lb./sec 9HA.02
Turbine Speed 3600 r/min Turbine Speed 3000 r/min
Exhaust Temperature 1138°F Exhaust Temperature 1146°F
Gas PRODUCT SOLUTIONS
Technical performance
Gas turbine range
The ideal solution for all applications

Alstom’s gas turbines offer outstanding performance, operational and fuel flexibility
as well as availability and reliability. Alstom’s gas turbines are the ideal solution for all
applications (simple-cycle, combined-cycle, co-generation etc.) and operating profiles.
• Lower cost of electricity from proven technology

• Today’s products already feature tomorrows requirements
• Evolutionary product development for highly reliable products
GT26 GT24
Key benefits
Advanced-class gas turbine technology with superior part-load efficiency and operational flexibility.
Superior fuel flexibility for operating over the widest range of natural gas compositions.
GT26 GT24
Advanced-class gas turbine Advanced-class gas turbine
Fuel Natural Gas Fuel Natural Gas
Frequency 50 Hz Frequency 60 Hz
Turbine speed 3,000 rpm Turbine speed 3,600 rpm
Gross electrical output 345.0 MW Gross electrical output 235.0 MW
Gross electrical efficiency 41.0% Gross electrical efficiency 40.0%
Gross heat rate 8,780 kJ/kWh | 8,322 Btu/kWh Gross heat rate 9,000 kJ/kWh | 8,531 Btu/kWh
Exhaust gas flow 715 kg/s | 1,576 Ib/s Exhaust gas flow 505 kg/s | 1,113 Ib/s
Exhaust gas temperature 616 °C | 1,141 °F Exhaust gas temperature 608 °C | 1,126 °F
Weight 406 t | 895,000 lb Weight 230 t | 507,000 lb
TPWR/PRSHT/TPGTR/EN/11.2014/CHE/1714
Dimensions (L × W × H) 12.0 × 4.9 × 5.5 m | 39 × 16 × 18 ft Dimensions (L × W × H) 10.7 × 4.0 × 4.6 m | 35 × 13 × 15 ft
General notes: Gas turbine gross electrical output and heat rate at the generator terminals, including gear box, where applicable
and generator losses but excluding duct and auxiliary losses. Performance calculated with 100% methane, ISO conditions. GT24/GT26
performance includes contribution of Once-Through Cooler (OTC) to water/steam cycle. Dual fuel burner option available
© ALSTOM 2014. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is indicative only. No representation or warranty is given or should be
relied on that it is complete or correct or will apply to any particular project. This will depend on the technical and commercial circumstances. It is
provided without liability and is subject to change without notice. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority,
is strictly prohibited. Photo credits: © ALSTOM 2014. All rights reserved. Printed on environmentally friendly paper.
Gas PRODUCT SOLUTIONS
Technical performance – Gas turbine Range
GT13E2
Conventional-class gas turbine GT13E2
Configuration 2005 MXL2 2012
Fuel Natural Gas Natural Gas Natural Gas
Frequency 50 Hz 50 Hz 50 Hz
Turbine speed 3,000 rpm 3,000 rpm 3,000 rpm
Gear No No No
Gross electrical output 185.0 MW 188.0 MW 202.7 MW
Gross electrical efficiency 37.8% 38.6% 38.0%
Key benefits
Gross heat rate 9,524 kJ/kWh 9,326 kJ/kWh 9,474 kJ/kWh
9,027 Btu/kWh 8,840 Btu/kWh 8,980 Btu/kWh Conventional-class gas turbine
technology with superior performance
Exhaust gas flow 565 kg/s 548 kg/s 624 kg/s
1,245 lb/s 1,208 lb/s 1,376 lb/s and Alstom’s unique flexible operation
concept. Superior fuel flexibility for
Exhaust gas temperature 505 °C 512 °C 501 °C operating over the widest range of
941 °F 954 °F 934 °F
natural gas compositions.
Weight 343 t 343 t 350 t
756,185 lb 756,185 lb 772,000 lb
Dimensions (L × W × H) 11.2 × 5.4 × 5.2 m 11.2 × 5.4 × 5.2 m 11.0 × 5.4 × 5.5 m
36.7 × 17.7 × 17.0 ft 36.7 × 17.7 × 17.0 ft 36 × 18 × 18 ft
GT11N2
GT11N2
Conventional-class gas turbine
Fuel Natural Gas Natural Gas
Frequency 50 Hz 60 Hz
Turbine speed 3,610 rpm 3,600 rpm
Gear Yes No
Gross electrical output 113.6 MW 115.4 MW
Gross electrical efficiency 33.3% 33.9%
Key benefits
Gross heat rate 10,811 kJ/kWh 10,619 kJ/kWh Proven technology designed for
10,247 Btu/kWh 10,066 Btu/kWh
operation under harshest conditions.
Exhaust gas flow 400 kg/s 400 kg/s Ideal for power production in
882 Ib/s 882 Ib/s
steel plants, where Blast Furnace
Exhaust gas temperature 526 °C 526 °C Gas (BFG) can be burnt unblended,
979 °F 979 °F without need for enrichment.
Weight 190 t 190 t
419,000 lb 419,000 lb
Dimensions (L × W × H)* 13.1 × 5.5 × 10.1 m 9.4 × 5.5 × 10.1 m
43 × 18 × 33 ft 31 × 18 × 33 ft
For more information
* Length includes the gear box
please contact Alstom Power:
General note: Dual burner option available, as well as combustor for low
calorific gases (LBtu) such as blast furnace gases without need for enrichment. Alstom Power
TPWR/PRSHT/TPGTR/EN/11.2014/CHE/1714
Brown Boveri Strasse 7

5401 Baden
Switzerland
Phone: +41 58 505 7733
Visit us online: www.alstom.com
© ALSTOM 2014. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is indicative only. No representation or warranty is given or should be
relied on that it is complete or correct or will apply to any particular project. This will depend on the technical and commercial circumstances. It is
provided without liability and is subject to change without notice. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority,
is strictly prohibited. Photo credits: © ALSTOM 2014. All rights reserved. Printed on environmentally friendly paper.
GT24/GT26 Technology
Single Shaft Sequential Combustion
EV = EnVironmental
SEV = Sequential EnVironmental
Retractable
SEV Fuel Lance
annular EV Combustor
24 SEV Burners
Retractable
EV Burners
with EV Fuel Lances
(GT24=20, GT26 =24)
Annular
SEV Combustor
Jornada Tecnológica
26 Oct 06/jw © ALSTOM 2006. All rights reserved. Information contained in this document is provided without liability for information purposes only and is subject to change without notice. No representation or warranty
R 4.38(26) is given or to be implied as to the completeness of information or fitness for any particular purpose. Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties, without express written authority, is strictly prohibited. 7
GT24/GT26 Technology
Welded Rotor
LP Turbine HP Turbine Compressor
z One piece design with forged discs welded together

z Applied since 1929 to all GT and ST rotors
z Maintenance free - no restacking required – no major overhaul
No major overhauls:
Increased availability and reduced maintenance
Siemens DLE/ Alstom EV Burner
• Burner consists of a cone split in two halves, slightly offset to form two
slots for the combustion air
• Main gas supply also enters through these slots via tubes
• Primary fuel is injected at the tip of the cone.
• Richer fuel mixture stabilizing the flame over a range of load conditions
• Burner lowers NOx by reducing the flame temperature (< 25 ppmv)
• When burning liquid fuel water injection is required to reduce NOx.
Source: Siemens Industrial Turbomachinery AB, 2006
Siemens DLE/ Alstom EV Burner
3
GT24/GT26 Operation
Operation Concept
EV-Combustor Temperature
SEV Combustor Temperature
GT Exhaust Temperature
VIGV open
VIGV idle position

Inlet Air Mass flow
(Inlet Guide Vane Position)
SEV Ignition
at ~12% Load
0% 40% 100%
Load [% of base load]
z EV temperature maintained from about 30%-100% load for low emissions
z High exhaust temperature maintained from 40%-100% load for high CC part load efficiency
GT24/GT26 Gas Turbine

Part Load Efficiency
Relative CCPP Efficiency vs. CC Load
100%
Relative CC Gross Efficiency
Sequential Combustion
95%
90%
Single Combustion
85%
80%
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
- CCPP Load [%]
z GT exhaust temperature maintained from 40% to 100% GT load
z High exhaust energy - optimal for high steam parameters under full and part
load conditions
GT26 Technology
NOx Emissions
Measurements at the GT26 Test Power Plant

in Birr Summer 2005
1000
NOx_dry @ 15%O2 [ppm]
100
Typical permit limit of 25 vppm
10
Measurements
1
40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Relative Load [%]
Lowest NOx Emissions from 40% - 100% Load

with the GT26 Sequential Combustion System

Combined Cycle Start-up Curves
Hot Start Warm Start Cold Start
Full (max. ~8 hrs shutdown) (~60 hrs shutdown) (>120 hrs shutdown)
Load
a ft
Mu aft
Sh
h
lti
le S
g
Sin
HRSG purging
time
not included
GT
Ignition
Single Shaft: 47 115 145
Multi Shaft *: 52 140 165
Time [minutes]
* 1 static frequency converter
-> sequential start-up of GT’s
Key Advantages
z Advantages of GT24 / GT26 Sequential

Combustion seen in the field
– Superior part load efficiencies
– Low emissions from 40% to 100% load
– High fuel flexibility (natural gas composition; oil No.2)
– Very low combined cycle start-up times
GT24/GT26 Quality Engineering

ALSTOM’s GT Test Power Plant
Small Size GT8C2 Engine in

Simple Cycle Operation
The ALSTOM
GT Test Power Plant
in Birr, Switzerland
GT26 Engine in Advanced Technology
Simple Cycle Operation
GT24/GT26 Gas Turbines
References
z 79 units commercial (51 x GT24, 28 x GT26)*)

+ 19 GT26 units in construction
Thailand, Germany, Italy, Spain, UK, France & Australia
-> next project will get 100th turbine!
z Fleet Experience:
– Simple Cycle, Combined Cycle and Repowering
– Single Shaft and Multi Shaft
– From “Daily starts and stops” to “base load” operating plants
– Natural gas (also with high inert/C2+), oil with online fuel switch-
over
*) excl. GT26 at the GT Test
– Power Augmentation by Inlet cooling & High Fogging Power Plant in Birr, CH
>2’000’000 fired hours with >40’000 starts

at >98% GT reliability
GT26 Power Plants

Some exceptional facts for GT26 Units
z GT26 CCPP Castejon

achieved 98.0% plant
availability in its first
3 years of operation
z GT24/GT26 fleet record

of continuous operation
is 189 days in GT26
Bang Bo Plant in Thailand
The GT24/GT26 is a reliable workhorse

Ansaldo to acquire GT26/GT36 as condition of GE/Alstom deal - Mod... http://www.modernpowersystems.com/news/newsansaldo-to-acquire-g...
11 September 2015
Ansaldo's position in the heavy duty gas turbine market will be greatly
strengthened thanks to conditions being imposed by the European
Commission on the proposed acquisition of Alstom's energy businesses
by GE.
Following an in-depth review, the Commission on 8 September
announced it had approved the acquisition subject to divestment of key
parts of Alstom's heavy duty gas turbines business to Ansaldo Energia of
Italy, which currently principally offers machines derived from former
Siemens models in this sector of the market (V64.3A, V94.2, V94.2K,
V94.3A).
The Commission had worries that the GE/Alstom transaction as initially
proposed would have eliminated one of the main global competitors of GE
in the heavy duty gas turbines market, where GE is the world's largest
manufacturer and Alstom is the number three or four player globally. This
would have led to less innovation and higher prices in a market for a
technology vital to meeting climate change goals. The commitments
offered by GE address these concerns, the Commission said.
Concerning the other businesses that are part of the transaction, namely
the thermal power generation businesses (other than gas), grid and
renewables, the Commission did not identify any competition concerns
essentially because the activities of the two companies are
complementary and do not overlap.
Commissioner Margrethe Vestager, in charge of competition policy, said:
"I am glad that we can approve this transaction, which shows that Europe
is open for business and that Europe-based technology can thrive and
attract foreign investment. We have had a very close and successful
co-operation with the Antitrust Division of the US Department of Justice
both as regards the investigation and the analysis of suitable remedies.
Divestment of Alstom's key technology to produce heavy duty gas
turbines to Ansaldo will ensure that European business and consumers
continue to benefit from this innovation and know how.
Furthermore, advanced heavy duty gas turbine technology is crucial to
face the challenges of climate change and modernising our energy supply.
It is the most efficient, cleanest and flexible fossil fuel power generation
technology and an important complement to more unpredictable
generation from renewables - when the wind stops blowing it is mostly
flexible gas-fired plants that can step in."
The Commission's concerns
The Commission's in-depth investigation focused on the markets for the
sale and servicing of heavy duty gas turbines operating at 50 Hz, where
Alstom competes directly with GE in Europe.
The market for heavy duty gas turbines is concentrated, observes the
Commission, with only four globally active full technology competitors:
market leader GE, number two Siemens, Alstom and Mitsubishi Hitachi
Power Systems (MHPS). This is due to the large upfront investments in
R&D, testing and manufacturing required, setting very high technological
and financial barriers to enter the market. The fifth player, Ansaldo, has
more limited R&D capabilities, a narrower product range and a more
limited geographic reach, the Commission noted.
The GE/Alstom merged entity, as originally notified to the Commission,
would have accounted for more than 50% of the European market for
heavy duty gas turbines and also very high market shares in the
1 von 4 27.04.17, 15:07

worldwide market for 50 Hz heavy duty gas turbines. In fact, in Europe,

the transaction as initially notified would have brought together two of the
three main competitors, the Commission observed.
Alstom, with its GT26 and new GT36 turbine under development, which
could be described as H class, is active in both large and very large heavy
duty gas turbines segments, which are the technologically most
advanced, said the Commission.
This makes it a significant and close competitor of GE and Siemens both
from a technological and commercial point of view, especially in Europe,
where operational flexibility provided by such turbines is very important to
customers. MHPS on the other hand is a more distant competitor because
of its different technological focus and because it is less active in Europe.
An economic analysis of bids for heavy duty gas turbine tenders over the
last five years confirmed significant competitive interaction between the
bids by GE and Alstom and indicated a risk of price rises, the Commission
said.
The deal as originally proposed would also have risked eliminating an
important innovator, the Commission concluded. Alstom's heavy duty gas
turbine technology is one of the most advanced, flexible and cleanest
available, particularly well-suited to meet European customers'
requirements for operational flexibility, the Commission said. The
transaction as notified would have reduced customer choice, R&D and
innovation, with serious risks that certain Alstom heavy duty gas turbine
models would be discontinued and that the newly developed and most
advanced model (the GT36) would not be commercialised. This was of
concern for many market participants, including major European power
utilities.
Another issue was that the transaction as originally proposed would have
eliminated competition from Alstom's servicing subsidiary Power Systems
Manufacturing (PSM) - purchased by Alstom from Calpine in 2012 - in the
service market for GE's mature technology heavy duty gas turbines (in
particular the 9FA model). As GE is the dominant player in this market
and PSM its most significant potential competitor, said the Commission,
this would have created a risk of higher prices and less innovation.
The commitments
In order to address the Commission's concerns, the parties to the
GE/Alstom transaction offered to divest the main, technologically most
advanced, parts of Alstom's heavy duty gas turbine business and the key
personnel that would be involved with its future development. In particular:
¥ Alstom's heavy duty gas turbine technology for the GT26 and GT36
turbines, existing upgrades and pipeline technology for future upgrades,
excluding essentially only the technology for Alstom's older GT13 model
for which the Commission had no competition concerns. The GT36 is
currently a technology development programme, which "upon completion
would result in an H-class gas turbine product", says GE.
¥ A large number of Alstom R&D engineers involved with developing
Alstom heavy duty gas turbine technology.
¥ Two test facilities, for the GT26 and GT36 turbine models, in Birr,
Switzerland.
¥ Long term service agreements for 34 GT26 turbines sold in recent years
by Alstom (with the service business for the remainder of Alstom's gas
turbine installed base (approximately 720 units) transferring to GE, as
envisaged in the original acquisition proposal). And
¥ Alstom's Florida-based PSM service business (although GE will receive
a licence to the PSM intellectual property used to offer after-market
services for non-GE gas turbines).
GE proposed Ansaldo of Italy as a potential purchaser for these assets.
Ansaldo is an existing competitor in the heavy duty gas turbine market. It
already has know-how, experience and an efficient factory for gas turbines
and other power plant components (such as steam turbines and
generators) that are often sold together with heavy duty gas turbines, the
2 von 4 27.04.17, 15:07

Commission noted.
The commitments offered by GE will allow the purchaser (ie, Ansaldo) to
replicate Alstom's previous role in the market thereby maintaining
effective competition. Moreover, the divestment guarantees the
continuation of Alstom's distinctive sequential (two stage) combustion
heavy duty gas turbine technology, which is particularly well suited to the
flexibility needs of European customers, while at the same time offering
the purchaser advanced R&D capabilities and incentives to continue
pushing innovation in this important market for Europe.
Subject to these conditions, the Commission was able to approve the
transaction under the EU Merger Regulation.
By way of background information on the heavy duty gas turbine market,
the Commission cites International Energy Agency (IEA) forecasts that
gas is expected to continue to be a significant source of electricity
generation in Europe in the medium term and to grow further in the long
term. The Commission also notes that modern heavy duty gas turbine
technology is very research and capital intensive, while flexible and
efficient heavy duty gas turbine technology will continue to be essential for
creating a more climate friendly electricity generation system in Europe
because it is complementary to renewables and also the most
environmentally-friendly form of fossil fuel generation, which is "why EU
funds under the Research and Technological Development Framework
Programme are dedicated to heavy duty gas turbine research."
International co-operation
Given the complexity of the case and the global reach of the parties'
activities, the Commission says it co-operated with the competition
authorities of a significant number of countries. This involved in particular
close and successful co-operation with the Antitrust Division of the
Department of Justice (DoJ) in the US. While the scope of the DoJ's
concerns was different due to different conditions in the US markets for
heavy duty gas turbines (operating at 60 Hz), the co-operation involved
regular exchanges of views and evidence and a joint approach to remedy
discussions leading to satisfactory and mutually aligned remedy solutions
for both EU and US concerns.
The Commission has co-operated throughout the procedure also with
agencies in Brazil, Canada, China, Israel and South Africa.
GE says the European Commission and DoJ clearances pave the way for
it to complete the transaction as early as possible in the fourth quarter of
2015.
GE also says it is close to finalising a deal to divest the above assets to
Ansaldo and that this transaction would be expected to close after the
closing of the GE/Alstom transaction, subject to required regulatory
approvals.
Reduced purchase price
GE reached an agreement with Alstom in April of 2014 to purchase its
power and grid businesses for €12.35 billion. Adjusting for the joint
ventures announced in June 2014 (renewables, grid, and nuclear),
changes in the deal structure, price adjustments for remedies listed
above, and net cash at close, the purchase price is now expected to drop
to approximately €8.5 billion.
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3 von 4 27.04.17, 15:07

PRESS RELEASE
Genoa, February 26, 2016
Ansaldo Energia, with the acquisition of key Alstom technology and assets from General Electric,
extends its global footprint in Europe, the Middle East and the United States and broadens its
portfolio of products and services
The operation consolidates Ansaldo Energia’s international leadership of the gas turbine sector,
making it possible for the company to double its turnover in the next five years
Following the signing of the agreement on November 2, 2015, Ansaldo Energia, in which Fondo
Strategico Italiano and Shanghai Electric hold stakes of 44.8% and 40% respectively, announces the
closing of its acquisition from General Electric of Alstom's advanced heavy duty gas turbine business and
subsidiary company Power System Manufacturing.
The deal includes the following assets:
· All intellectual property rights held by Alstom for the latest ratings of the GT26 and GT36 heavy
duty gas turbines, existing upgrades and pipeline technology for future upgrades.
· Servicing agreements for 34 GT26 turbines already sold and installed by Alstom in recent years.
· More than 400 Alstom employees in Baden, Switzerland, who will continue to develop the heavy
duty gas turbine technology acquired and support the service and equipment business.
· Power System Manufacturing, LLC (“PSM”), the Alstom subsidiary based in Florida, United
States, and a leading F-class technology provider in the General Electric, Siemens and Mitsubishi
aftermarket service business.
· Ansaldo Energia will own the assets used to manufacture the GT36 and the latest versions of the
GT26, as well as having access to the existing supply chain.
Following the acquisition, Ansaldo Energia will license the following assets to General Electric for after-
market services:
· The intellectual property held by PSM relating to Siemens-Mitsubishi gas turbines.

· Intellectual property held by Alstom for the portions of the company’s heavy duty gas turbine
business that are retained by General Electric.
In addition, General Electric will provide in the short term transitional services to support the continuity
and viability of the business.
Siemens SGT5 – 8000H
• Largest gas turbine with 340 MW output
• Weight: 440 t (Airbus 380: 361 t), Length: 13.2 m, Height: 5 m, Width: 5m
• Pressure ratio: 19.2 : 1
• Exhaust temperature: 620°C
• 60 % efficiency in combined cycle operation (530 MW)
Source: Siemens Power Generation
1
2
Industrial gas turbines
The comprehensive Siemens product range from 4 to 47 megawatts
SGT-100 SGT-200 SGT-300

Power generation 5.4MW(e) Power generation 6.75MW(e) Power generation 7.90MW(e)
• Fuel: Natural gas * • Fuel: Natural gas * • Fuel: Natural gas *
• Frequency: 50 /60Hz • Frequency: 50/60Hz • Frequency: 50/60Hz
• Electrical efficiency: 31 % • Electrical efficiency: 31.5 % • Electrical efficiency: 30.6 %
• Heat rate: 11,613kJ/kWh (11008Btu/kWh) • Heat rate: 11,418kJ/kWh (10,823Btu/kWh) • Heat rate: 11,773kJ/kWh (11,158Btu/kWh)
• Turbine speed: 17,384 rpm • Turbine speed: 11,053 rpm • Turbine speed: 14,010 rpm
• Compressor pressure ratio: 15.6:1 • Compressor pressure ratio: 12.2:1 • Compressor pressure ratio: 13.7:1
• Exhaust gas flow: 20.6kg/s (45.4lb/s) • Exhaust gas flow: 29.3kg/s (64.5lb/s) • Exhaust gas flow: 30.2kg/s (66.6lb/s)
• Exhaust temperature: 531° C (988° F) • Exhaust temperature: 466° C (871° F) • Exhaust temperature: 542° C (1008° F)
• N O x emissions • N O x emissions • N O x emissions
(with DLE, corrected (with DLE, corrected (with DLE, corrected
to 15 % O2 dry): ≤ 25ppmV to 15 % O2 dry): ≤ 25ppmV to 15 % O2 dry): ≤ 15ppmV
Mechanical drive 5.7MW (7,640bhp) Mechanical drive 7.68MW (10,300bhp) Mechanical drive 8.2MW (11,000bhp)
• Fuel: Natural gas * • Fuel: Natural gas * • Fuel: Natural Gas *
• Efficiency: 32.9 % • Efficiency: 33 % • Efficiency: 34.6 %
• Heat rate: 10,948kJ/kWh (7,738Btu/bhph) • Heat rate: 10,906kJ/kWh (7,708Btu/bhph) • Heat rate: 10,400 kJ/kWh (7,350 Btu/bhph)
• Compressor pressure ratio: 14.9:1 • Compressor pressure ratio: 12.3:1 • Compressor pressure ratio: 13.3:1
• Exhaust gas flow: 19.7kg/s (43.4lb/s) • Exhaust gas flow: 29.5kg/s (65.0lb/s) • Exhaust gas flow: 29.0 kg/s (63.9 lb/s)
• Exhaust temperature: 543° C (1009° F) • Exhaust temperature: 489° C (912° F) • Exhaust temperature: 498°C (928° F)
SGT-400 SGT-500 SGT-600
• Fuel: Natural gas * • Fuel: Natural gas • Fuel: Natural gas *
• Frequency: 50/60Hz • Frequency: 50/60Hz * • Frequency: 50/60Hz
• Electrical efficiency: 34.8 % • Electrical efficiency: 33.8 % • Electrical efficiency: 34.2 %
• Heat rate: 10,355kJ/kWh (9,815Btu/kWh) • Heat rate: 10,664 kJ/kWh (10,107 Btu/kWh) • Heat rate: 10,533kJ/kWh (9,983Btu/kWh)
• Compressor pressure ratio: 16.8:1 • Compressor pressure ratio: 13:1 • Compressor pressure ratio: 14:1
• Exhaust gas flow: 39.4kg/s (86.8lb/s) • Exhaust gas flow: 97.9 kg/s (215.9 lb/s) • Exhaust gas flow: 80.4kg/s (177.3lb/s)
• Exhaust temperature: 555° C (1,031° F) • Exhaust temperature: 369° C (697° F) • Exhaust temperature: 543° C (1,009° F)
Mechanical drive 13.40MW (18,000bhp) Mechanical drive 19.52 MW (26,177bhp) Mechanical drive 25.40MW (34,100bhp)
• Efficiency: 36.2 % • Efficiency: 34.5 % • Efficiency: 35.1 %
• Heat rate: 9,943kJ/kWh (7,028Btu/bhph) • Heat rate: 10,432kJ/kWh (7,373Btu/bhph) • Heat rate: 10,258kJ/kWh (7,250Btu/bhph)
• Compressor pressure ratio: 16.8:1 • Compressor pressure ratio: 13:1 • Compressor pressure ratio: 14:1
• Exhaust gas flow: 39.4kg/s (86.8lb/s) • Exhaust gas flow: 97.9 kg/s (215.9 lb/s) • Exhaust gas flow: 80.4kg/s (177.3lb/s)
• Exhaust temperature: 555° C (1,031° F) • Exhaust temperature: 369° C (697° F) • Exhaust temperature: 543° C (1,009° F)
SGT-700 SGT-750 SGT-800
• Frequency: 50/60Hz • Frequency: 50/60Hz • Frequency: 50/60Hz
• Electrical efficiency: 36.4 % • Electrical efficiency: 38.7 % • Electrical efficiency: 37.5 %
• Heat rate: 9,882kJ/kWh (9,367Btu/kWh) • Heat rate: 9,296kJ/kWh (8,811 Btu/kWh) • Heat rate: 9,597kJ/kWh (9,096Btu/kWh)
• Compressor pressure ratio: 18.6:1 • Compressor pressure ratio: 23.8:1 • Compressor pressure ratio: 19:1
• Exhaust gas flow: 94kg/s (208lb/s) • Exhaust gas flow: 113.3 kg/s (249.8 lb/s) • Exhaust gas flow: 131.5kg/s (289.9lb/s)
• Exhaust temperature: 528° C (983° F) • Exhaust temperature: 462° C (864° F) • Exhaust temperature: 544° C (1,011° F)
Mechanical drive 32.04MW (42,966bhp) Mechanical drive 37.11MW (49,765bhp)

• Fuel: Natural gas * • Fuel: Natural gas *
• Efficiency: 37.4 % • Efficiency: 40.0 %
• Heat rate: 9,629kJ/kWh (6,806Btu/bhph) • Heat rate: 9,002 kJ/kWh (6,362Btu/bhph)
• Turbine speed: 6,500 rpm • Turbine speed: 3,050 –6,405 rpm
• Compressor pressure ratio: 18.6:1 • Compressor pressure ratio: 23.8:1
• Exhaust gas flow: 94kg/s (207lb/s) • Exhaust gas flow: 113.3 kg/s (249.8 lb/s
• Exhaust temperature: 528° C (983° F) • Exhaust temperature: 462° C (864° F)
• N O x emissions • N O x emissions
(with DLE, corrected (with DLE, corrected
to 15 % O2 dry): ≤ 15ppmV to 15 % O2 dry): ≤ 15ppmV
*No intake or exhaust loss; other gaseous, liquid and/or dual fuel options available
Proven and advanced
50 Hz design concept
SGT5-4000F – 292 MW
Our proven SGT5-4000F is Additional technical features:
characterized by low power Annular combustion cham-
generating costs, reduced fuel ber with 24 hybrid burners
consumption, long intervals
between major inspections 15-stage axial-flow com-
and an easy-to-service design. pressor
Optimized flow and cooling Advanced aero engine tech-
offer the highest gas turbine nology; 3-D airfoil design
efficiency levels for the most in compressor and turbine
economical power generation
Single-crystal turbine
in combined cycle applications.
blades with thermal barrier
Its advanced technology is
coating and film cooling
based on proven design
features, resulting in a fleet Advanced cooling tech-
reliability of over 99 % and a nology
combined experience of nearly Multiple fuels capability
4,500,000 operating hours for
all family members. Hydraulic turbine blade tip
clearance control
_WS_SGT_over_100MW.indd Abs1:6 26.09.2008 13:02:27 Uhr

Siemens Gas Turbines and Siemens Combined Cycle Plants for 50 Hz Grids
(Standard design, ISO ambient conditions)
SGT5-4000F SGT5-2000E
Siemens Gas Turbines
Gross power output (MW) 292 168
Gross efficiency (%) 39.8 34.7
Gross heat rate (kJ/kWh) 9,038 10,366
Gross heat rate (Btu/kWh) 8,567 9,825
Pressure ratio 18.2 11.7
Siemens Gas Turbine Packages* SGT5-PAC 4000F SGT5-PAC 2000E
Net power output (MW) 288 165
Net efficiency (%) 39.5 34.5
Net heat rate (kJ/kWh) 9,114 10,471
Net heat rate (Btu/kWh) 8,638 9,925
Exhaust temperature (°C/°F) 580/1,075 539/1,002
Exhaust mass flow (kg/s) 688 526
Exhaust mass flow (lb/s) 1,516 1,161
Generator type Air-cooled Air-cooled
Siemens Combined Cycle Plants*
Single-Shaft SCC5-4000F 1S SCC5-2000E 1x1
Multi-Shaft SCC5-4000F 2x1 SCC5-2000E 2x1
* incl. pressure losses
SGT5-2000E – 168 MW
The SGT5-2000E is a long- Additional technical features:
proven machine for simple or Two walk-in combustion
combined cycle applications, chambers for hot-gas-path
with or without combined inspection without cover lift
heat and power, and for all
load ranges – particularly Combustion chambers lined
peak-load operation. The ma- with individually replace-
chine is capable of burning a able ceramic tiles
variety of fuels – from low to 16-stage axial-flow com-
high caloric gaseous and/or pressor
SGT5-4000F liquid fuels to treated heavy
Hybrid burners for premix
oil at lowest emission levels.
and diffusion mode opera-
For IGCC applications, we
tion with natural gas, fuel
offer the SGT5-2000E (LCG)
oil and special fuels, such
machine with a modified
as heavy oil and refinery
compressor. The SGT5-2000E
residues
has a record of durability with
more than 300 units account- Fast inlet guide vanes for
ing for over 6,400,000 operat- peak-load operation and
ing hours. This gas turbine is frequency stabilization
also available for 60 Hz mar- (optional)
SGT5-2000E kets named SGT6-2000E. Wet compression (optional)

Proven and advanced
60 Hz design concept
SGT6-5000F – 200 MW
SGT6-2000E

Siemens Gas Turbines and
Siemens Combined Cycle Plants for 60 Hz Grids
(Standard design, ISO ambient conditions)
SGT6-5000F SGT6-2000E
Siemens Gas Turbines
Gross power output (MW) 208 113
Gross efficiency (%) 38.1 34.0
Gross heat rate (kJ/kWh) 9,446 10,606
Gross heat rate (Btu/kWh) 8,953 10,052
Pressure ratio 17.2 11.8
Siemens Gas Turbine Packages* SGT6-PAC 5000F SGT6-PAC 2000E
Exhaust temperature (°C/°F) 600/1,113 545/1,014
Exhaust mass flow (kg/s) 504 365
Exhaust mass flow (lb/s) 1,110 805
Generator type Air-cooled Air-cooled
Siemens Combined Cycle Plants*
Multi-Shaft 1x1 SCC6-5000F 1x1 SCC6-2000E 1x1
Multi-Shaft 2x1 SCC6-5000F 2x1 SCC6-2000E 2x1
* incl. pressure losses
SGT6-5000F – 208 MW Additional technical features: SGT6-2000E - 113 MW

16 can-type combusters in
The SGT6-5000F gas turbine The SGT6-2000E gas turbine is
a circular array
continues to break reliability designed for reliable, efficient
and continuous operation 13-stage axial-flow com- and flexible power genera-
records. pressor with advanced 3-D tion. With more than 3 million
design technology hours of fleet operation, the
With more than 4,600,000
Multiple power augmenta- SGT6-2000E is a proven ma-
hours of fleet operation, the
tion options chine for simple cycle and
SGT6-5000F is ideally suited
combined cycle applications
for either simple cycle or heat Best 60 Hz simple cycle for all load ranges.
recovery applications includ- efficiency in its class
ing cogeneration, combined
Fuel flexibility for diverse Additional technical features:
cycle and repowering.
applications Two walk-in combustion
Our SGT6-PAC 5000F provides Low emissions technologies chamber for hot gas path
economical, rapid on-line gen- including 9 ppm NOX com- inspection without cover lift
eration that is ideal for peaking bustion system
duty, intermediate operation Combustion chambers lined
or continuous service. Robust and proven rotor with individually replaceable
design ceramic tiles
Multiple fuel capability

Designed to achieve more
than 60 % efficiency in
combined cycle operation
SGT5-8000H – 340 MW
Siemens developed its new This innovative gas turbine
generation H-class Siemens is characterized by:
Gas Turbine (SGT™), the High efficiency
SGT-8000H series, driven by
the main goals to reduce Low life cycle costs
emissions and preserve our High reliability and avail-
environment for future ability
generations.
Operational flexibility
The new, advanced SGT-
Low emissions
8000H series gas turbines and
the SCC-8000H series combin-
ed cycle power plants feature
the best-in-class technology
captured from our long line of
large direct-drive Siemens
50 Hz and 60 Hz heavy-duty
gas turbines and power
plants.
10

Siemens Gas Turbine SGT5-8000H and
Siemens Combined Cycle Plant SCC5-8000H
(Standard design, rated data at ISO ambient conditions)
Siemens Gas Turbine SGT5-8000H
Grid frequency (Hz) 50
Gross power output (MW) 340
Pressure ratio 19,2
Exhaust temperature (°C/°F) 625/1,157
Exhaust mass flow (kg/s) 820
Exhaust mass flow (lb/s) 1,808
Gas Turbine Emissions
NOx (ppm) 25
CO (ppm) 10
Gas Turbine Physical Dimensions
Weight (t) 440
Length (m) 13.2
Height (m) 5.0
Width (m) 5.0
Siemens Combined Cycle Power Plant
Single-Shaft SCC5-8000H
Net power output (MW) 530
Net efficiency (%) 60
Net heat rate (kJ/kWh) 6,000
Net heat rate (Btu/kWh) 5,687
Features for high efficiency Features for lowest life cycle Features for advanced
include: cost include: operating flexibility include:
New compressor with H-class – designed for more Air-cooled engine for a cool-
advanced blade design than 60 % efficiency in ing method that is always
Advanced materials to combined cycle mode and present at speed
increase the firing and reduced emissions at part Fast start-up and cycling
exhaust-gas temperature load capability to support inter-
Advanced sealing system Less complexity in engine mediate load requirements
for low-leakage cooling air and parts which can lead Less complexity in engine
to lower maintenance and and plant design leading to
Advanced high-efficiency, operating costs
high-pressure, high-tem- more flexibility in operation
perature combined cycle Straightforward operational and reduced start-up time
process with BENSON® concept Improved turndown capa-
boiler, based on the high bility for high efficiency
mass flow and exhaust-gas and low-emissions part-load
temperature of the new operation
engine
11

Performance Benefits Using
Siemens Advanced Compressor
Cleaning System
Extensive operational performance data from the Siemens Power Generation V64.3 unit
Christoph Pels Leusden in Obernburg, Germany (operated by Kraftwerk Obernburg GmbH) is evaluated. The unit
Siemens AG Power Generation, was commissioned in 1996 and has been running continuously in base load operation
Service Development, with fuel gas to supply heat and power to a nearby chemical plant. In rare cases, fuel oil
Mülheim a.d.R., Germany is used as a backup fuel. During the first major outage after approximately 25,000 equiva-
lent operating hours (EOH), the Siemens PG Advanced Compressor Cleaning System
Christoph Sorgenfrey (ACCS) was implemented at Obernburg. ACCS features separate nozzle systems for on-
Siemens AG Power Generation, line and offline compressor cleaning accounting for different operating conditions. For
Marketing Modernisation and Upgrades Gas online cleaning, the droplet size is optimized for the droplets to remain in the main air
Turbine Power Plants, flow in order to minimize erosion effects while providing a homogeneous field over the
Berlin, Germany whole air intake. With reduced rotational speed during offline compressor cleaning, ero-
sion is less critical. Offline nozzles therefore provide higher mass flow and larger droplets
Lutz Dümmel in order to maximize cleaning performance for all compressor stages. ACCS, in its maxi-
Kraftwerk Oberburg GmbH, mum automated version, features operation from the control room, online-washing at low
Obernburg, Germany ambient temperatures (officially released down to ⫺15 °C without GT anti-icing) and
minimum use of manpower. The ACCS system in Obernburg was operated according to
the recommended online washing procedure. By June 2002, the V64.3 unit in Obernburg
reached 50,000 EOH and the second major inspection was carried out. For this paper,
operational data from the second inspection intervals (24,350–49,658 EOH) and from
three performance tests with calibrated equipment are compared in order to evaluate the
effectiveness of the advanced compressor cleaning system. Statistical evaluation of single-
wash performance recovery and the evolution of long-term performance are presented.
The effects of degradation and fouling are differentiated. It is shown that ACCS has a
significant benefit for long-term engine performance. 关DOI: 10.1115/1.1787512兴
Introduction possess highly sophisticated cooling schemes and coated com-

pressor blades, cleaning was achieved by abrasion with the injec-
With the growing interest in life cycle costs for heavy-duty gas
tion of solid compounds such as nutshells or rice husks. This had
turbines, equipment operators are investigating the tradeoff be-
to be replaced by wet cleaning methods 共water or solvent based兲
tween performance improvements and associated maintenance
to protect modern coatings and to keep state of the art cooling
costs. One of the key factors leading to performance losses during systems from blockages. The most effective wet cleaning process
the plant operation is compressor fouling. This is the adherence of is the crank soak or offline wash. For this, the unit has to be shut
particles and small droplets to the blading surface. Also, the flow down and cooled off in order to assure that the cleaning agent is
capacity and thereby, the pressure ratio of the unit are reduced. reaching all compressor stages and does not evaporate. The clean-
This leads to an overall loss in power output and efficiency of a ing agent is injected into the compressor with the turbine turning
gas turbine. Fouling causes increased surface roughness of com- at low speed. After a soaking time, the compressor is rinsed with
pressor blading, thereby reducing its efficiency. In the literature, water, which must be drained from the engine. Before the unit can
there have been estimates that fouling causes up to 85% of the be operated again commercially, it has to be dried. Thus offline
accumulated performance loss during operation 关1兴. A cost esti- washing reduces the availability of a unit.
mate is given by Diakunchak 关2兴. In extreme cases, fouling may With a growing number of gas turbines being used in combined
also result in surge problems. Despite the use of advanced filtering cycle or combined heat and power applications, there was the
methods and filter maintenance, the ingestion of substances that need for the development of online washing systems with perfor-
can cause fouling cannot be completely suppressed. The fouling mance benefits comparable to offline systems but without required
rate depends largely on the site location, surrounding environ- shut down times of the turbine. These systems are now state-of-
ment, the layout of the air intake system, atmospheric parameters, the-art in modern heavy-duty gas turbines.
and plant maintenance. While the first four factors cannot be in- In this work, we analyze performance benefits of the Siemens
fluenced during the operation, the plant maintenance is the critical Advanced Compressor Cleaning System 共ACCS兲, which can be
one for preventing extra costs resulting from degraded plant per- integrated as an upgrade product into all Siemens and Siemens
formance. Westinghouse gas turbine frames. For this, we have evaluated
Various methods have been used in the past to clean fouled detailed operational performance data from one Siemens Power
compressors. At times when heavy duty gas turbines did not yet Generation V64.3 turbine where ACCS was implemented during
the first major outage after 24,350 equivalent operating hours. In
Contributed by the International Gas Turbine Institute 共IGTI兲 of THE AMERICAN the following, we first describe special site conditions and features
SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS for publication in the ASME JOURNAL OF of ACCS and explain the data evaluation process. Presenting the
ENGINEERING FOR GAS TURBINES AND POWER. Paper presented at the Interna-
tional Gas Turbine and Aeroengine Congress and Exhibition, Atlanta, GA, June
results, we discuss the positive effects of ACCS taking into ac-
16 –19, 2003, Paper No. 2003-GT-38184. Manuscript received by IGTI October count other processes leading to performance degradation.
2002; final revision March 2003. Associate Editor: H. R. Simmons. In literature, there has been comparable work describing the
Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power OCTOBER 2004, Vol. 126 Õ 763
Copyright © 2004 by ASME
Table 2 ISO conditions for the correction of measured perfor-
mance data
Parameter Unit ISO conditions

Ambient temperature °C 15
Ambient pressure bars 1.013
Relative humidity % 60
Fuel methane
Pressure loss inlet/outlet mbar 0/0
Power factor 1 0.8
Since its commissioning in 1996 the gas turbine has been run-
ning with fuel gas and in rare cases with fuel oil as a backup fuel.
Because the plant has to provide constant heat and power to a
nearby chemical factory, it is of great economical importance that
the unit runs at baseload continuously. It is only shut down for
forced and planned maintenance activities. Thus offline cleaning
can only be carried out during those shut down periods which may
occur only at large intervals 共e.g., up to 12 months兲. Therefore the
performance of online compressor cleaning is critical for this site.
Until the outage for the first major inspection at 24,350 EOH in
July 1999, the V64.3 unit at Obernburg was equipped with the
Standard Siemens washing equipment.
During the 1999 major inspection, the entire compressor was
hand washed and new turbine blading with new engine surface
Fig. 1 Siemens AG Power Generation V64.3 unit
quality was implemented for the first three of the four-stage tur-
bine. The success of the work carried out during the outage is
reflected by the data in Table 1: the performance following the
benefits of other cleaning systems 关3–7兴. It has to be underlined outage 共test 2兲 clearly exceeded that of the acceptance test in 1996
that fouling and, consequently, the compressor cleaning benefits 共test 1兲.
are closely coupled to site specific conditions and cleaning inter- Furthermore, the unit was equipped with the Advanced Com-
vals 共especially of offline-cleaning兲. Therefore a direct compari- pressor Cleaning System 共ACCS兲. With the implementation of
son with measured benefits at other sites is not done in this work. ACCS, the performance of the unit was monitored continuously
until the second major outage in June 2002. With ACCS, the com-
Site Conditions pressor was washed according to Siemens recommendations. This
For this work, performance data from the Siemens Power Gen- was one online wash per day. For one out of three 共later changed
eration V64.3 unit 共see Fig. 1兲 that is operated in Obernburg, to one out of two兲 washing sequences, the solvent-based detergent
Germany, by Kraftwerk Obernburg GmbH is evaluated. The SIWASH was used. The remaining online washing sequences
power plant is located within a chemical plant, which produces were done with demineralized water. Offline compressor cleaning
fibers for industrial and textile applications. Therefore it can be was only performed when the plant was shut down for other im-
concluded that the site conditions are not particularly favorable perative maintenance reasons.
for low fouling conditions. The nominal power output and effi- In June 2002 the V64.3 at Obernburg reached the second major
ciency of the unit are contained in Table 1 where these parameters inspection with 49,658 equivalent operating hours 共EOH兲. Before
are listed for three performance tests that were carried out in this inspection, a third performance test with high-precision
Obernburg with calibrated high-precision instrumentation. All equipment was carried out at 49,200 EOH. The results are also
data is from tests at stable base load operation with fuel gas in shown in Table 1 共test 3兲. It should be noted that the compressor
combined cycle mode and was corrected to ISO conditions 共see could not be offline washed directly before that test due to opera-
Table 2兲. Generally, there is a strong interaction between ISO tional reasons. The last offline wash took place approximately
turbine inlet temperature 共calculated according to Ref. 关8兴兲 and 1200 equivalent operating hours prior to test 3. In order to com-
power output. In order to allow appropriate comparison of perfor- pare the performance to the other tests where the unit was offline
mance, power output is computed for constant turbine inlet tem- cleaned directly before the test, we have corrected the parameters.
perature. The reference value of 1130 °C is the design value for This was done by multiplying the mean gradients for power and
V64.3 units. efficiency losses during operation without offline cleaning 共de-
V64.3-type turbines rotate at 90 Hz and use a gear box to shift rived in ‘‘Results and Discussion’’ section兲 with the number of
the speed to the grid frequency. Other features and an extensive operating hours between the last offline wash and the performance
summary of operational experiences can be found in Ref. 关9兴. test 3. These corrected values are listed in the column which is
denoted 3 共corrected兲 in Table 1.
Table 1 Power output and efficiency measured with calibrated

instrumentation and corrected to ISO reference conditions Features of the Advanced Compressor Cleaning System
In order to support operators in reducing maintenance costs
Test 3
Parameter Unit Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 共corrected兲 associated with regular compressor cleaning, ACCS offers a high
level of automation. Semi-automatic or jet-pump skids enable au-
Date Sept. 1996 Aug. 1999 June 2002 June 2002 tomated online washing processes. Only the starting point for the
EOH H 2586 24,350 49,200 49,200 cleaning has to be set manually. All operation parameters are soft-
Gross power MW 62.5 63.4 60.9 61.6
output ware controlled by the PLC of the skid. In the fully automated
Gross efficiency % 35.3 35.7 35.2 35.4 version, parameters are calculated taking into account GT opera-
tion signals and outside temperature. Only a minimum use of
764 Õ Vol. 126, OCTOBER 2004 Transactions of the ASME

manpower is necessary, for example, to close drain valves on the derived from a thermodynamic model for V64.3 units 关10兴. This
GT during offline cleaning. Also, one ACCS supply package may model was developed using data from acceptance tests of several
serve up to five gas turbines. V64.3 units using high-precision measurement instrumentation.
A solvent based cleaner 共SIWASH S兲 was developed for use In order to compute all of the above-mentioned parameters and
against organic pollution, especially hydrocarbon particles 共e.g., to carry out the correction, each data set contains the following
emissions from traffic, combustion particles兲 which were identi- quantities:
fied as contributing significantly to the fouling process. SIWASH • power output at generator terminals, speed and power factor,
S is specially designed for good online cleaning results where • temperatures at compressor inlet, outlet and turbine exhaust,
water based products fail. Even in areas with low industrial pol- • static pressure loss in the intake and exhaust ducts,
lution, hydrocarbons create sticky layers on the blade surfaces, • pressure ratio,
which also speeds up fouling with inorganic particles. For offline • fuel volume flow, temperature, and pressure,
cleaning a water based cleaning agent 共SIWASH W兲 is available • ambient pressure and humidity.
in order to reduce costs of waste disposal. Constant standard values were used for the gear box efficiency,
ACCS has different nozzles for offline and online compressor cooling air consumption, and inlet and outlet parameters of the
cleaning. This is due to the difference in flow characteristics of a cooling air cooler.
gas turbine intake during these operational modes. The computation of most of the above-mentioned performance
For online cleaning special shaft nozzles with length depending parameters is very sensitive to the total heat flux of the fuel mass
on the intake housing depth are used to keep the droplets in the flow. Uncertainty of this parameter results in errors that exceed
main air flow 共prevent the droplets from recirculating in dead those coming from other measured quantities. The heat flux is the
water regions兲. The nozzles are designed to provide a narrow product of fuel volume flow, its density, and lower heat value.
spectrum of droplets with an optimum size for best cleaning prop- While the fuel volume flow is a measured quantity, the lower heat
erties. They are big enough not to evaporate before they reach the value and the density can only be derived from the gas composi-
blades and to provide a mechanical cleaning effect on the blade tion. Due to the absence of an online gaschromatograph in Obern-
surface. On the other hand, they are small enough to follow the burg, the composition could not be recorded in the diagnostic
streamlines into the compressor and not to damage the blades system. Therefore a constant average gas composition was used
excessively by droplet erosion. A homogenous field of droplets for a preliminary calculation of all performance parameters. Due
during online operation is guaranteed by a high number of shaft to the sensitivity, the evaluation of the performance parameters
nozzles in the GT intake and their optimised distribution. In con- contains a significant error if the real composition deviates from
trast, offline nozzles provide a high mass flow of bigger droplets. the assumed one. In order to avoid this error, the following ad-
Conventional cleaning systems may not be operated at com- justment method for the results of the preliminary computation
pressor inlet temperatures below ⫹6 °C due to icing in the com- was implemented:
pressor. ACCS, with the semiautomatic supply skid tied to the gas The method is based upon the application of Stodola’s law 关11兴:
turbine PLC, is released for online cleaning down to ⫺15 °C 共5 F兲
and offline cleaning down to ⫺10 °C 共14 F兲 without use of the gas
pT
turbine anti-icing system. Operation at such low temperatures is ṁ T ⬀ . (1)
possible with the use of an antifreezing agent. 冑T T
Other features of the system are:
• Washing parameters may be computed, displayed and opti- Therein, ṁ T denotes the mass flow through the turbine section, p T
mized using a state of the art monitoring and diagnostic system and T T the pressure and temperature at the turbine inlet. As men-
共WIN-TS兲. tioned above, the correction is done to equivalent reference con-
• The closed-loop supply system prevents operator staff from ditions and constant turbine inlet temperature. Thereby, the mass
getting into contact with cleaning solution. flow is proportional to the pressure level at turbine inlet or, for
• ACCS lowers the costs associated with waste disposal of of- further simplification, to the pressure ratio of the engine. With this
fline cleaning residuals. reasoning, the measured pressure ratio was used to control the
• Implementation during a minor inspection is possible. turbine air mass flow in the preliminary computation. If that air
Currently, ACCS is in operation or commissioning in a total of mass flow leaves a tolerance band of ⫹/⫺5% of the expected air
16 Siemens Power Generation V units of all major types 共includ- flow 共derived from the pressure ratio applying Eq. 共1兲, the heat
ing V94.2, V64.3, V84.3A, and V94.3A兲. Cumulative operating flux 共being the most sensitive input parameter兲 is adjusted. This
experience reached, at the end of 2002, more than 200,000 GT process can be justified by the fact that the heat flux in the pre-
operating hours without any major defect. There has been very liminary computation is partially an assumed quantity because the
positive customer feedback regarding the reliability and the per- fuel gas composition is not known in detail.
formance of the system 共efficiency improvement of up to If the air mass flow is within the above-mentioned tolerance
150 kJ/kWhel.). band, no adjustment is made. No other measured parameters were
modified. Following the final calculation, it is verified that the air
Data Processing mass flow is now within the tolerance band derived from the
pressure ratio. All data presented in this work are results from the
For this analysis, one set of operational data for each 8-h work final calculation.
shift was recorded from the gas turbine diagnostic system in In the next section, we will base our analysis on the following
Obernburg. For each data set, the following performance param- performance parameters, the computation of which is explained
eters were computed: below.
• power output,
• efficiency, Mean Monthly Performance „Pm and ␩ m…. The monthly
• ISO turbine inlet temperature according to ISO standard 2314 mean for power output (Pm) and efficiency ( ␩ m) was computed
关8兴, by averaging the measured values after correction to ISO condi-
• compressor air mass flow. tions. When comparing results of different months, we used the
In order to compare the performance parameters recorded at performance level recorded in the first month of operation after
different operating times, all values were corrected to the equiva- the major outage at 24,350 EOH as a reference value for normal-
lent conditions. This included corrections to constant ISO turbine ization. When an offline compressor cleaning took place during a
inlet temperature as well as constant ambient reference conditions, month, the evaluation of Pm and ␩ m was split for the time before
which are listed in Table 2. This was done with curves that were and after the offline wash.
Fig. 3 Types of losses leading to overall performance degra-
dation
• losses that can be recovered by an offline wash 共B兲,

• losses that can be recovered during major inspection 共C兲,
Fig. 2 Typical results for performance parameters for 24 h of • and losses that cannot be recovered at all 共D兲.
operation. Evaluation of benefits for online-compressor clean- From that reasoning, one can easily see that all degradation
ing. mechanisms other than fouling lead to losses of type C and D.
There may also be contributions of fouling to type C and D losses
if fouling cannot be completely removed even with offline com-
Performance Gradient During Operation Without Com- pressor cleaning. In this study, we concentrate on data that have
pressor Wash „dPOP Õdt and d␩ OP Õdt…. Figure 2 displays typi- been acquired within the second inspection interval of approxi-
cal results for measured power output or efficiency after correc- mately 25,000 equivalent operating hours 共EOH兲 for the V64.3
tion to ISO conditions 共see Table 2兲 for four consecutive data unit at Obernburg. Therefore the losses of type C and D are
recordings. Times between data recording were approximately 8 h treated together for the most part.
and one online wash per day was performed. Therefore the opera-
tional interval containing a compressor wash was preceded by two Results and Discussion
intervals without wash, which are denoted type I and II intervals Figure 4 shows the evolution of the monthly mean of power
in Fig. 2. The performance gradient for operation without com- output P m and efficiency ␩ m relative to their initial values, after
pressor wash can therefore be computed for those two intervals. the major inspection, as a function of equivalent operating hours.
Both parameters show similar behavior with a distinct perfor-
Performance Benefit of Online-Compressor Cleaning mance recovery due to offline compressor cleaning. In each of the
„⌬PON and ⌬ ␩ ON…. For the computation of these parameters, seven intervals between offline washes, the performance decreases
the mean values of d P OP /dt and d ␩ OP /dt for type I and II inter- with a similar gradient. Some phenomena are of particular inter-
vals were computed. As it is shown in Fig. 2, the mean gradients est:
were used to extrapolate from the measured points before and None of the offline washes leads to the initial performance
after online compressor cleaning to the point in time when the level. However, even towards the end of the 25,000 EOH-
cleaning took place. The benefit then results from the difference in inspection interval, offline compressor cleaning leads to a perfor-
performance at the time of cleaning. Because the individual data mance level that is comparable with the level reached with the
points that were derived from operational data possess a measure- first offline cleaning. This finding can be interpreted as follows.
ment error, the benefit computed with this method will also show During the inspection, the entire compressor was hand cleaned
a statistical distribution. We used the mean gradient here for the leading to an optimal condition. This condition cannot be taken as
extrapolation instead of the measured gradient because the mea- representative for long-term operation of heavy-duty gas turbines.
sured one is more sensitive to individual measurement errors. During the first weeks of operation, it can be assumed that there is
Therefore the procedure chosen here resulted in a lower uncer- onset of fouling in all compressor stages which causes the dete-
tainty for the benefit of compressor cleaning. rioration of the performance level. All of this initial fouling cannot
When analysing performance data over long periods of opera- be removed even with offline cleaning, because this cleaning
tion, other mechanisms of degradation have to be taken into ac- method is not as effective as hand cleaning of all compressor
count. Potential main sources for degradaton are corrosion and stages. Therefore there are some contributions of fouling to losses
erosion effects in the compressor and turbine parts, turbine foul- of type C and D. This reasoning may also explain why perfor-
ing, foreign object damage, and thermal distortion 关12,13兴. Gen- mance test data from test 2 共recorded within the first 24 h after the
erally, these effects are not influenced by fouling and therefore inspection兲 was clearly better than test 1 共recorded 2586 EOH
remain constant when compressor washing is carried out. Thus the after first fire兲.
total degradation of a performance parameter is the sum of four In order to distinguish the types of losses described in the pre-
types of losses as is shown schematically in Fig. 3: vious section 共compare Fig. 3兲, we used the performance levels
• losses that can be recovered by an online wash 共A兲, directly following each offline wash in order to fit a line using

Fig. 4 Evaluation of mean monthly performance relative to initial performance after the first major outage
linear regression. These lines for power output and efficiency are intervals clearly exceed the average gradients for type-B losses.
also displayed in Fig. 4. The slopes of the regression lines are Therefore it can be concluded that regular online washing cannot
comparable for power output and efficiency 共0.02%/1000 EOH prevent type-B performance losses but does minimize them.
and 0.03%/1000 EOH兲. It was explained above that the compressor could not be offline
The third interval between offline washes is particularly long washed directly before performance test 3 共see Table 1兲 due to
共7782 EOH兲. With increasing operating time after the last offline operational reasons. The last offline wash took place 1200 equiva-
cleaning, the gradient both for power and efficiency decreases,
indicating a saturation in the losses caused by fouling.
In order to characterize type-B losses, we have computed the
average performance evolution of the seven intervals as a function
of operating time after offline compressor cleaning. The values
were calculated relative to the performance directly following the
offline wash. Because the interval lengths are different, the mean
values were computed for a varying amount of individual data
points. The results for type-B losses are displayed in Fig. 5 for
power output and Fig. 6 for efficiency. Within the first 3500 EOH
after offline washing the slope remains relatively constant with
1% per 1000 EOH for power output and 0.5% per 1000 EOH for
efficiency. Beyond 3500 EOH, the slope decreases significantly.
Still, type-B losses exceed those of type C and D.
For the evaluation of performance benefits resulting from on-
line compressor cleaning, we show the statistical results in the
form of the probability density function for power output and
efficiency in Figs. 7 and 8. The measured recovery by online
cleaning was approximated by a normal distribution for both pa-
rameters with the mean value of 0.33% for power output and
0.27% for efficiency. These can be interpreted as mean values for
type-A losses. Therefore they can be transferred into a parallel line
in Figs. 5 and 6. It might be surprising that type-B losses largely
exceed type-A losses. However, it has to be noted that regular
online cleaning will lead to a smaller gradient for type-B losses.
This can be seen in Fig. 9 where we show performance gradi-
ents for intervals in which online compressor cleaning was not
carried out. In the 25,000 EOH analyzed here, five of those inter- Fig. 5 Measured evolution of power output following offline
vals, lasting up to 11 days, were identified. The gradients of all compressor cleaning
Fig. 8 Probability density function for efficiency benefits re-
sulting from online-compressor cleaning
However, the results obtained from the plant instrumentation

clearly show the characteristic behavior of the benefit resulting
from on- and offline compressor cleaning.
Fig. 6 Measured evolution of efficiency following offline-
compressor cleaning
Conclusion
In this work, we have analyzed operational performance data of
lent operating hours prior to that test. If the initial gradients for a Siemens Power Generation V64.3 unit equipped with an Ad-
power and efficiency 共compare Figs. 5 and 6兲 are taken into ac- vanced Compressor Cleaning System 共ACCS兲. With its high level
count, the values of test 3 can be corrected for an offline cleaned of automation and optimized online cleaning characteristics, this
condition. The corrected values are listed in the column which is system is designed to lower maintenance cost and to increase
denoted test 3 共corrected兲 in Table 1. With this correction, there is long-term performance and availability for heavy-duty gas tur-
a total loss in power output of 900 kW 共1.4%兲 compared to the bines. Although online compressor cleaning cannot be as effective
acceptance test 共test 1兲. For efficiency, there are no losses after as offline cleaning because of the evaporation of the cleaning
almost 50,000 EOH of operation. These values are remarkably agent in the compressor, we have shown that online cleaning leads
low, underlining the positive impact of this state of the art clean- to a lower gradient of performance losses in the intervals between
ing system. offline washes. Furthermore, the performance level that was
When tests 2 and 3 共corrected兲 are compared, the losses be- reached after almost 50,000 EOH was remarkably high, underlin-
tween major outages are 1800 kW 共2.8%兲 for power output and ing the positive impact of ACCS for the prevention of long-term
0.3% 共⌬␩/␩⫽0.8%兲 for efficiency. Again, it should be mentioned performance degradation.
that test 2 values were above the acceptance test performance and
were recorded with a fully hand cleaned compressor. This level
cannot be considered as fully representative for long term com-
mercial operation.
The test 2 and 3 values in Table 1 do not fully correspond to the
curves in Fig. 4. This is due to the higher measurement errors of
the plant instrumentation and the associated correction procedure.
Fig. 7 Probability density function for power output benefits Fig. 9 Gradients of performance losses for intervals where
resulting from online-compressor cleaning online-washing was not carried out

Acknowledgment 关2兴 Diakunchak, I. S., 1991, ‘‘Performance Deterioration in Industrial Gas Tur-
bines,’’ ASME Paper 91-GT-228.
We gratefully acknowledge the support of Jan-Dirk Beiler for 关3兴 Adams, J., and Schmitt-Wittrock, P., 1981, ‘‘Optimierung der Reinigungsinter-
the careful preparation and evaluation of the data and the dia- valle von Gasturbinenverdichtern,’’ Brennst.-Warme-Kraft, 33共1兲.
grams. 关4兴 Haub, G. L., and Hauhe, W. E., 1990, ‘‘Field Evaluation of Online-Compressor
Cleaning in Heavy Duty Industrial Gas Turbines,’’ ASME-paper 1990-GT-107.
Nomenclature 关5兴 de Jong, M. P., Laagland, G. H. M., and Zeijseink, A. G. L., 2000, ‘‘Optimiz-
ing Compressor Cleaning,’’ Power Gen.
ṁ⫽ massflow 关6兴 Stalder, J.-P., 1994, ‘‘Compressor Washing Maintains Plant Performance and
p⫽ pressure Reduces Cost of Energy Production,’’ ASME Paper 1994-GT-436.
T⫽ temperature 关7兴 Stalder, J.-P., 1998, ‘‘Gas Turbine Compressor Washing State of the Art—Field
Experiences,’’ ASME Paper 1998-GT-420.
P ⫽ power output
关8兴 ISO 2314, International Standard, ‘‘Gas turbines—Acceptance Tests,’’ 2nd edi-
␩ ⫽ efficiency tion, 1989.
Indices: 关9兴 Umlauft, R., and Lipiak, G., 2000, ‘‘Operating Experience and Potential After
10 Years of Siemens VX4.3 Gas Turbines,’’ Power Gen.
T ⫽ turbine 关10兴 KREISPR, Siemens Internal Computer-Tool for Gas Turbine Thermodynamic
m ⫽ monthly mean Cycle Calculations, current version, 2002.
ON ⫽ online cleaning 关11兴 Traupel, W., 1988, Thermische Turbomaschinen, 3rd edition, Springer-Verlag,
OP ⫽ operation Berlin.
关12兴 Kurz, R., and Brun, K., 2000, ‘‘Degradation of Gas Turbine Systems,’’ ASME
Paper 2000-GT-345.
References 关13兴 Zwebek, A. I., and Pilidis, P., 2001, ‘‘Degradation Effects on Combined Cycle
关1兴 Meher-Homji, C. B., 2000, ‘‘Compressor Fouling . . . Causes and Solutions,’’ Power Plants Performance, Part 1: Gas Turbine Cycle Component Degradation
Global Gas Turbine News, IGTI, 40共3兲. Effects,’’ ASME paper 2001-GT-388.
Microturbines
• Microturbines are small fast-running gas turbines
• Power range: 20 – 500 kW
• Pressure ratio: ~ 4 : 1 High shaft speed > 40 000 rpm
• Recuperator to increase electrical efficiency (25 – 30 %)
• Direct drive high-frequency alternator
• Attractive for distributed power generation and cogeneration application
• Recuperator bypass control for variable heat production for cogeneration
Source: Turbec AB
Journal of Power Sources 152 (2005) 219–225
State of direct fuel cell/turbine systems development夽

Hossein Ghezel-Ayagh ∗ , Jim Walzak, Dilip Patel, Joseph Daly,
Hans Maru, Robert Sanderson, William Livingood
FuelCell Energy, Inc., 3 Great Pasture Road, Danbury, CT 06813, USA
Received 30 November 2004; received in revised form 24 December 2004; accepted 24 December 2004
Available online 13 March 2005
Abstract
FuelCell Energy Inc. (FCE) is actively developing fuel cell/gas turbine hybrid systems, DFC/T® , for generation of clean electric power with
very high efficiencies. The gas turbine extends the high efficiency of the fuel cell without the need for supplementary fuel. Key features of
the DFC/T system include: electrical efficiencies of up to 75% on natural gas (60% on coal gas), minimal emissions, simple design, reduced
carbon dioxide release to the environment, and potential cost competitiveness with existing combined cycle power plants. FCE successfully
completed sub-MW scale proof-of-concept tests (pre-alpha DFC/T hybrid power plant). The tests demonstrated that the concept results in
higher power plant efficiency. A small packaged natural gas fueled sub-MW unit is being developed for demonstrations (alpha and beta units).
Also, the preliminary design of a 40 MW power plant including the key equipment layout and the site plan was completed.
© 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Carbonate fuel cell; Internal reforming fuel cell; Gas turbine; Hybrid power plant; Multi-MW plant design; MCFC
1. Introduction is utilized for generation of additional power by recovering

the fuel cell byproduct heat in a Brayton cycle, as well as
In recent years, there has been a surge of interest in the in- for providing the air for fuel cell operation. The power plant
tegration of the fuel cells with gas turbines for electric power design consists of a novel waste heat recovery approach for
generation. The premise of these power cycles are ultra high extraction of heat from the fuel cell exhaust [6]. Because of
efficiency and very low emissions. Among various types of the indirect heat transfer to the turbine expander and absence
fuel cells, the high temperature type (>600 ◦ C), including of a combustor, NOx is not generated by the gas turbine.
solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) and molten carbonate fuel cell One of the key features of DFC/T concept is the inde-
(MCFC), is suitable for integration with gas turbines [1]. The pendent (uncoupled) operating pressure of the fuel cell and
gas turbines being mechanical energy conversion devices op- turbine. Hence, the system works very efficiently with a wide
erate more efficiently at higher temperatures (turbine inlet). range of air compression ratios (3–15). Typically, small-scale
The hybrid fuel cell/gas turbine systems using SOFC [2] and gas turbines (micro-turbines) use a low compression ratio
MCFC [3] have been studied and optimized for performance. (3–4), while the MW-size units are designed for high com-
FCE’s DFC/T hybrid system concept is based on integra- pression ratios (7–15). The DFC/T system design is suit-
tion of the company’s internal reforming Direct FuelCell® able over a range of applications from sub-MW industrial to
[4,5] with an indirectly heated gas turbine to supplement fuel medium scale (MW) distributed generation to large central
cell generated power. The fuel cell plays the key role by pro- station plants. The concept also features adeptness to the ex-
ducing the larger share of the power (>80%). The gas turbine isting industrial frame gas turbines. Based on these features,
FCE embarked on the proof-of-concept tests integrating a
夽 This paper was presented at the 2004 Fuel Cell Seminar, San Antonio, fuel cell stack with a micro-turbine. The results of these tests
TX, USA.
were also used to provide the design (mechanical and con-
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 203 825 6048; fax: +1 203 825 6273. trol) information for development of multi-MW scale power
E-mail address: hghezel@fce.com (H. Ghezel-Ayagh). plants. The current Vision 21 project is intended to move
0378-7753/$ – see front matter © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2004.12.060
220 H. Ghezel-Ayagh et al. / Journal of Power Sources 152 (2005) 219–225
forward the development of multi-MW power plants for the to completion and minimizes the need for feed water to the
wholesale market. system. The anode exhaust containing some unreacted fuel
is mixed with air and then oxidized completely in a catalytic
oxidizer.
2. System description In the turbine cycle, air is compressed to the operating
pressure of the gas turbine and heated in the LTR using waste
The DFC/T system concept is schematically shown in heat from the fuel cell. The compressed air is then heated fur-
Fig. 1. The system includes a heat recovery unit (HRU) con- ther to the operating temperature of the gas turbine expander
sisting of a series of heat exchangers arranged to maximize by a high temperature recuperator (HTR) located between the
the heat recovery from the cathode exhaust gas. The HRU oxidizer and fuel cell (cathode). The hot compressed air is ex-
has a dual functionality of preparing the anode gas, and also, panded in the turbine providing additional electricity. The ex-
transferring a portion of system exhaust heat to the gas tur- panded air then flows into the oxidizer. The oxidizer exhaust,
bine air (in low temperature recuperator, LTR). The prepa- containing excess air, flows into HTR, and subsequently into
ration of anode gas includes humidification of natural gas the fuel cell cathode. At the cathode, oxygen (in the air) and
by the feed water, and preheating of the anode gas to the CO2 (from the anode exhaust) are reacted to complete the fuel
fuel cell operating temperature. The humidification process cell electrochemical reaction. The heat generated in the fuel
provides the steam needed for the reforming of natural gas. cell as the byproduct of the electrochemical reaction is uti-
Typically a steam-to-carbon ratio of two and higher is re- lized partly to support the endothermic (methane) reforming
quired for steam reformation of natural gas to prevent carbon reaction. The thermal integration of the fuel cell electrochem-
formation. The mixed fuel and steam are preheated to the ical and methane reforming reactions offered by the internal
temperature of about 550 ◦ C prior to entering the fuel cell reforming direct fuel cell enhances the fuel cell electrical ef-
anode. The methane in the natural gas is steam reformed in ficiency while helping in the thermal management of fuel cell
the direct carbonate fuel cell (internal reforming) to hydro- stack/module. The cathode exhaust, containing the heat from
gen, which is the primary fuel for the fuel cell. The fuel cell fuel cell, provides the heat for preheating the air (in LTR) and
reactions are: fuel, and for generation of steam in HRU before exiting from
Anode the power plant.
CH4 + H2 O → CO + 3H2 reforming (1)
CO + H2 O → CO2 + H2 water gas shift (2) 3. Proof-of-concept tests
−
H2 + CO3 2−
→ H2 O + CO2 + 2e electrochemical (3)
The focus of proof-of-concept tests was on the verification
Cathode of the DFC/T concept, the developmental testing of critical
1
+ CO2 + 2e− → CO3 2− system components and acquiring design information for de-
2 O2 electrochemical (4)
velopment of power plant products. The first series of tests
At the anode, hydrogen is electrochemically reacted pro- involved integration of a 250 kW (full-size) DFC stack with a
ducing dc electricity, and CO2 and water vapor as byprod- modified Capstone Simple Cycle Model 330 micro-turbine.
ucts. The availability of water vapor at anode as a product of The micro-turbine was constructed with a compressed air ex-
electrochemical reaction helps drive the reforming reaction haust port and expander inlet pipe to provide flow connections
Fig. 1. DFC/T® ultra high efficiency system concept: fuel cell byproduct heat is utilized in gas turbine to supplement fuel cell power.
H. Ghezel-Ayagh et al. / Journal of Power Sources 152 (2005) 219–225 221
to the fuel cell system. An air blower was also included in the
power plant, which increased the flexibility of operation for
the testing purposes. The power plant was capable of operat-
ing in dual modes: fuel cell/turbine integrated mode and fuel
cell only mode. The dual mode capability was used to eval-
uate the benefits of the DFC/T cycle over the fuel cell-only
cycle. The results of the first phase of tests have previously
been presented and published [7,8]. The dual mode operation
confirmed that greater efficiencies could be obtained by inte-
gration of micro-turbine with the fuel cell. As micro-turbine
with higher airflow became available, the next phase of tests
were conducted after replacing Capstone Model 330 with
Capstone C60. These tests also benefited from the next gen-
eration of full-size fuel cell stack. Fig. 2 shows a picture of
the DFC/T power plant facility with the C60 micro-turbine
integrated in the fuel cell system. Fig. 3 shows a simplified
process flow sheet for the sub-MW DFC/T power plant, in-
cluding a typical set of process operational data. Three heat
recuperators for indirect heating of air from the compressor
side of the micro-turbine were included. The anode exhaust Fig. 2. Sub-MW DFC/T hybrid power plant facility: full-size DFC stack
oxidizer included a high temperature catalytic section. was integrated with capstone C60 micro-turbine.
The proof-of-concept test was completed verifying the
DFC/T concept. The world’s first grid-connected fuel demonstrated using the micro-turbine as the only source of
cell/turbine hybrid system operated for >6600 h. Thermal fresh air supply to the system. The operational tests, as well
management of the system was confirmed by increasing as the tests of the power plant heat-up during the process and
micro-turbine expander inlet temperature while controlling control checkout of the balance-of-plant (BOP), confirmed
the fuel cell operating temperature. The control strategies the stable and well-controlled operation of the DFC/T power
were refined based on the operational experience. The tests plant with the micro-turbine. NOx emission levels of less than
successfully demonstrated the ability of the control system to 0.25 ppm were achieved. Computer simulation of the power
follow prescribed load ramps and to respond to abrupt utility plant including mass and energy balances was utilized as an-
grid outages. The system trip/emergency shutdown scenar- alytical tool during the testing period. The BOP equipment
ios were tested successfully. The power plant operation was and the micro-turbine performance were monitored and eval-
Fig. 3. Sub-MW DFC/T hybrid power plant facility process flow diagram: a typical set of operational data are included.
uated. The heat transfer coefficients for the heat exchangers incorporating design information and recommendations from
were analyzed against the vendor supplied information. The sub-MW proof-of-concept test results, DFC300 product data
heat losses from the pipes and equipment in the power plant and the Hazop safety review mentioned above. Suppliers for
test facility were estimated. The results of the sub-MW sys- key equipment such as micro-turbine, recuperators and anode
tem tests have indicated that effective recuperation of heat gas oxidizer have been selected. Three-dimensional equip-
to the gas turbine and minimization of the heat loss from the ment (process, utility and other) and piping layout drawings
BOP equipment are important factors in the design of DFC/T were prepared using the intergraph plant design software.
power plants. Pipe stress analysis was completed using Caesar II software,
generating specifications for expansion joints and pipe sup-
ports. Specifications for all valves including safety valves
and pressure regulators were prepared, and bids were so-
4. Sub-MW power plant design and demonstrations
licited from the suppliers. Design parameters and specifica-
tions have been developed for key instrument and control
Demonstration of DFC/T system configuration in sub-
equipment. All major equipment and instrument items have
MW class power plant units for distributed generation is the
been ordered. The procurement is in progress.
next step in evolution of the hybrid systems. FuelCell Energy
A preliminary review of potential demonstration sites in
has planned to build and test a packaged DFC/T power plant at
Montana for the beta sub-MW unit was completed. Two
its facility in Danbury, CT (alpha unit), and then demonstrate
venues in Montana, including the Engineering/Physical Sci-
the second DFC/T power plant (beta unit) in Montana. These
ence Building at Montana State University (Bozeman, MT)
DFC/T sub-MW plants will demonstrate grid-connected op-
and the Deaconess Billings Clinic (Billings, MT), were inves-
erations, help assess the efficiency potential of the sub-MW
tigated. Both sites were found to be suitable for the demon-
plants and provide valuable data on integration and operation
stration.
of DFC/T power plants under laboratory and field conditions.
The preliminary design of the sub-MW packaged demon-
stration unit has been completed. Steady-state mass and en-
ergy balances for the power plant were performed for various 5. Multi-MW power plant design
modes of operation; including start-up, standby, and full load
operation; using the CHEMCAD process simulation soft- The baseline DFC/T configuration included a high temper-
ware. The process equipment specifications were prepared ature recuperator. The multi-MW power plant performance
and issued to original equipment manufacturers (OEM) and (power output and efficiency) estimates for the near, inter-
suppliers for quotation. A process flow diagram of the power mediate and long-term systems, based on this configuration,
plant including major operating equipment along with the are presented in Table 1. For comparison, performance esti-
plant start-up equipment was generated. The design modifi- mates for the DFC-only systems are also shown in the table.
cations of existing DFC300A fuel cell module for application Based on the comparison, the integration of the fuel cell with
to the DFC300/T system were completed. A safety review of turbine in a hybrid system offers significant improvement in
the DFC300T system was conducted based on the Hazop power plant electrical efficiency. The mid-term and long-term
methodology utilized widely by the process industries. A set estimates are both based on improved fuel cell performance
of piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs), with instru- expected with fuel cell developments. The long-term system,
ment and equipment design information, was also prepared in addition, employs an advanced gas turbine featuring in-
Table 1
Multi-MW DFC/T power plant (baseline configuration) performance projections
Near-term Mid-term Long-term
DFC DFC/T hybrid Improved DFC DFC/T hybrid with DFC/T hybrid with intercooled
improved DFC & re-heat gas turbine
Fuel cell
dc power out (MW) 12.0 12.0 16.8 16.8 33.5
ac power out, gross (MW) 11.3 11.3 16.4 16.3 32.7
Gas turbine
Expander power (MW) 7.9 8.7 20.7
Compressor power (MW) (5.3) (5.9) (10.9)
Net ac out (MW) 2.5 2.6 9.3
Air blower power (MW) (0.3) (0.3)
Auxiliary power consumption (MW) (0.1) (0.1) (0.1) (0.1) (0.2)
Net power output (MW) 11.0 13.7 15.9 18.8 41.8
Efficiency (%) (LHV natural gas) 49.9 62.0 57.0 67.0 74.6
Hybrid system has potentially significant efficiency gain over DFC-only system.
Fig. 4. Process flow diagram of the long-term multi-MW DFC/T hybrid system: system features an advanced gas turbine with intercooled and re-heat cycle.
tercooled and reheat cycle that might be available in future industrial design. Key characteristics of the gas turbine in-
with gas turbine developments. Fig. 4 shows the process flow clude: pressure ratio of eight and turbine inlet temperature of
diagram of the system. The long-term system has a potential 1800 ◦ F. The fuel clean-up subsystem is a centralized desulfu-
to offer system electrical efficiency approaching 75% (LHV rizer for the natural gas fuel, which uses activated carbon in an
natural gas). epoxy lined carbon steel vessel. Electrical one-line diagrams
The preliminary design of a 40 MW power plant for near- were prepared for the power generation and auxiliary power
term application was completed. The design is based on a needs. The power conditioning system (PCS) is designed to
scalable approach using FCE’s existing M-10 (MW-scale) convert the 300 VDC from the fuel cells to 13.8 kV and is
fuel cell modules in a cluster arrangement. The fuel cell clus- modular. A PCS module supports each fuel cell cluster. The
ter design has five M-10 modules in a cluster with common 6000 kW modular unit is a packaged assembly that includes
distribution piping for the fuel and oxidant gases. Based on IGBT-based inverters and a step-up transformer. The central
the scalable overall plant design concept, the plant is arranged control system for the plant is designed to coordinate the
in three sections in addition to the centralized equipment. output of the three plant sections (six PCS modules). It pro-
Each section consists of two clusters of fuel cell modules vides operational sequence control for plant start-up heating,
together with supporting equipment. The centralized equip- on-load operation, and normal and emergency shutdowns.
ment, which supports all three sections, includes a gas tur- An overall layout/plot plan of the 40 MW plant is shown
bine, an anode gas oxidizer and other common site equipment in Fig. 5. The site is approximately 273 × 325 in size. The
such as a fuel clean-up subsystem and a water treatment sub-
system.
The process flow diagrams with process controls for nor- Table 2
Forty-megawatt DFC/T hybrid power plant performance (estimate)
mal operation and start-up heating were generated. Steady-
state mass and energy balances for the power plant were Fuel cell
dc power output (MW) 36.1
completed for various modes of operation; including start- ac power output (MW) 34.3
up, standby, and full load operation. The performance of Gas turbine
the 40 MW power plant estimated based on near-term fuel Expander power (MW) 21.8
cell performance and a commercially available gas turbine Compressor power (MW) (10.4)
is presented in Table 2. Specifications were prepared for Net ac power (MW) 10.8
Plant parasitic load
key pieces of equipment and subsystems. Potential suppliers Anode gas compressor (MW) (3.6)
were contacted, and preliminary configuration information Other auxiliary loads (MW) (0.8)
and cost estimates were obtained. The gas turbine selected Net power output (MW) 40.8
for the 40 MW plant design is a Man Turbo Model 1304-11. Efficiency (%) (LHV of natural gas) 61.8
Man Turbo’s THM heavy-duty gas turbine features a rugged An electrical efficiency of 62% is expected in a near-term system.
Fig. 5. Forty megawatt plant layout/plot plan: power plant is divided into three sections, each containing a pair of fuel cell module clusters.
arrangement of equipment on the site is designed to provide A scalable approach for the multi-MW plant design based
easy access to the equipment for maintenance and replace- on fuel cell clusters of the existing 1 MW (M-10) modules has
ment, and minimize the length for the largest process pip- been developed. Preliminary design for the 40 MW DFC/T
ing. Design of the site arrangement included sizing of all hybrid system using a commercially available gas turbine was
the process piping and the development of process pressure completed. The system electrical efficiency (LHV) based on
profiles consistent with performance estimates. Thermal in- near-term fuel cell performance was estimated to be 62%.
sulation requirements were established for all the process Process flow diagrams with equipment and controls for oper-
piping based on a surface touch temperature limit criteria. ation and start-up have been prepared. Major equipment spec-
A computer model was developed for detailed design of the ifications were prepared and vendor quotes were solicited.
piping system including pipe sizes and insulation thickness Electrical one-line diagrams have been generated. Plant pipe
requirements. sizing and insulation requirements were determined. Major
equipment layouts and power plant plot plans have been gen-
erated.
6. Conclusions
Acknowledgements
The proof-of-concept test of the DFC/T system in the sub-
MW power plant facility was completed achieving the mile-
The development of Direct Fuel Cell® /Turbine hybrid
stone of being the world’s first grid-connected hybrid fuel
power system is being performed as a cost-shared Vision 21
cell/gas turbine power plant. Thermal management of the sys-
project supported by the US Department of Energy through
tem was confirmed. The control strategies were refined. Sys-
the National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) under
tem trip/emergency shutdown scenarios were tested success-
contract DE-FC26-00NT40798. The technical guidance of
fully. Power plant operation, using a microturbine as the only
Mr. Norman Holcombe, the DOE Contracting Officer’s Rep-
source of fresh air supply to the system, was demonstrated.
resentative (COR) of NETL is acknowledged.
The preliminary design of the sub-MW hybrid packaged
unit (for alpha demonstration) has been completed. Design
modifications to the existing DFC-300A fuel cell module for
its application to the DFC300/T unit were completed. A Ha- References
zop safety review of the DFC300/T system was completed
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and a set of P&IDs was refined. All major equipment and in- fuel cell program, J. Power Sources 131 (May (1–2)) (2004) 79–85.
strumentation items have been ordered. Procurement of parts [2] Y. Yi, A.D. Rao, J. Brouwer, G.S. Samuelsen, Analysis and op-
and system components is in progress. timization of a solid oxide fuel cell and intercooled gas turbine
(SOFC–ICGT) hybrid cycle, J. Power Sources 132 (May (1–2)) (2004) John Wiley and Sons, LTD., 2003, pp. 942–968 (Chapter 68, ISBN
77–85. 0-471-40026-9).
[3] P. Lunghi, R. Bove, U. Desideri, Analysis and optimization of hybrid [6] H. Ghezel-Ayagh, A.J. Leo, R. Sanderson, High-Efficiency Fuel Cell
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108–117. [7] H. Ghezel-Ayagh, H. Maru, Direct fuel cell/turbine system for ultra
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENERGY RESEARCH
Int. J. Energy Res. 2013; 37:1821–1830
Published online 9 January 2013 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI: 10.1002/er.3000
Performance comparison of three solid oxide fuel cell

power systems
Junxi Jia1,*,†, Abuliti Abudula2, Liming Wei3 and Yue Shi1
1
College of Power and Energy Engineering, Harbin Engineering University, Harbin 150001, China
2
North Japan New Energy Research Center, Hirosaki University, Aomori 030-0813, Japan
3
School of Electric and Electronic Information Engineering, Jilin Architectural and Civil Engineering Institute, Changchun 130021, China
SUMMARY
An energy analysis of three typical solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) power systems fed by methane is carried out with detailed
thermodynamic model. Simple SOFC system, hybrid SOFC-gas turbine (GT) power system, and SOFC-GT-steam turbine
(ST) power system are compared. The influences of air ratio and operative pressure on the performance of SOFC power
systems are investigated. The net system electric efficiency and cogeneration efficiency of these power systems are given
by the calculation model. The results show that internal reforming SOFC power system can achieve an electrical efficiency
of more than 49% and a system cogeneration efficiency including waste heat recovery of 77%. For SOFC-GT system, the
electrical efficiency and cogeneration efficiency are 61% and 80%, respectively. Although SOFC-GT-ST system is more
complicated and has high investment costs, the electrical efficiency of it is close to that of SOFC-GT system. Copyright
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
KEY WORDS
solid oxide fuel cell; hybrid power system; electric efficiency
Correspondence
*Junxi Jia, College of Power and Energy Engineering, Harbin Engineering University, Harbin 150001, China.
†
E-mail: jiajunxi99@sohu.com
Received 6 September 2012; Revised 8 November 2012; Accepted 11 November 2012
1. INTRODUCTION been numerous models developed to simulate performance

of SOFC power systems [5–24]; the features of these
Conventional energy conversion systems using fossil fuels models are different.
are known by their negative impact through greenhouse Some simple SOFC system can be used for residential
gas emissions and air pollution, and these impacts will scales power applications. Bedringas et al. [5] have
increase as an energy demand increases. These impacts reported that a system electrical efficiency near 60% could
can be reduced or eliminated by using an alternative be achieved for a SOFC system with external reforming.
conversion technology like solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) Chan et al. [6] presented a discussion of simple SOFC
to generate heat and power as needed for different system without gas turbine (GT) fed by hydrogen and
applications. methane, respectively, and results shows both a H2-fed
SOFC converts the chemical energy of the fuel directly system and a CH4-fed system can achieve an electrical
to electrical energy. It can achieve high electrical efficien- efficiency of more than 50%.
cies and is a highly environmentally benign method of Jia et al. [7] have analyzed the effects of gas recycle on
electric power production [1]. performance of SOFC power systems. Results show that
Hydrogen is the most commonly used fuel in the fuel internal reforming SOFC power system can achieve an
cell technology, but natural gas, biomass gasification electrical efficiency of more than 44% and a system cogen-
synthesis gas, and petroleum-based fuel can also be used. eration efficiency including waste heat recovery of 68%.
SOFCs, because of their high operating temperatures, do Some models available in the literatures [8–24] focus
not require pure hydrogen as fuel, exhibiting a high fuel on complicated hybrid SOFC and GT power system.
flexibility, which is a major advantage concerning the high The works of literatures [8–10] examined the effects of
cost of hydrogen production [2–4]. operating pressure, steam-to-carbon ration, and fuel flow rate
The high operating temperature of SOFC gives good on performance of SOFC-GT power systems. Refs. [11–18]
possibilities for cogeneration applications. There have address a full and partial load analysis of hybrid SOFC-GT
Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1821

J. Jia et al. Solid oxide fuel cell power systems
power plant. Electric efficiencies of these hybrid systems

are higher than 60% at design point and also very high at
part load condition.
Yi et al. [19] introduced a SOFC and intercooled GT
hybrid cycle, and system electrical efficiency is even
higher than 75% when operating pressure is 50 bar, and
an excess air in the SOFC is low.
Duan et al. [20] and Odukoya et al. [21] studied the
SOFC–micro GT hybrid power system. Their research
results show that turbine inlet temperature is a key parame-
ter that limits the electrical efficiency of hybrid power
system. Increasing of fuel utilization factor is an effective
measure to improve the performance of hybrid system.
Both the electrical efficiency of hybrid power system and
turbine inlet temperature reduce with the increase of the
Figure 1. Configuration of simple SOFC power system.
ratio of steam to carbon.
A good air conditioning system is one of the key features
of energy-saving building. The SOFC integration system,
which combines heat, power, and cold, is more attractive below the cell-stack operating temperature about 850 C. Air
to building services designers [22–24]. Malico et al. [22] is pressurized and preheated to a temperature approximately
designed a trigeneration system using a high-temperature blow the cell-stack temperature before admittance into the
fuel cell. VElumani et al. [23] analyzed a hybrid-combined SOFC stack. Methane and oxygen are channeled through
heat and power system. The system considers the coupling the anode and cathode compartments, respectively. Methane
of a SOFC stack, microturbine, and a single effect is internally reformed in the anode compartment, and hydro-
absorption cooling system. Results show that the electric gen-rich gas is produced. Oxygen in the air fed to the cathode
efficiency could rise above 60%. If waste heat is utilized accepts electrons from external circuit to form oxygen ions.
to provide heating or cooling, the thermal efficiency of the The ions are conducted through the solid electrolyte to the
system can go above 70%.Akkaya et al.[24] presented an anode. At the fuel electrode, the ions combine with hydrogen
energetic performance analysis for a combined power in the fuel to form water. Electrons flow from the anode
generation system consisting of a SOFC and an organic through the external circuit back to the cathode. Since the
Rankine cycle (ORC). First, Law efficiency is increased electrochemical is exothermic, the cell produces heat as well
about 14–25% by recovering SOFC waste heat through as electricity. After exiting the cell, the residual fuel and
ORC based on investigated design parameter conditions. excess air mix and react in the combustor. The combusted
Many cogeneration system concepts[5–24] are conceiv- exhaust gases then flow through two heat exchangers to
able with SOFC as mentioned above; they can be divided preheat the fuel and air. The exhaust gases then go into the
into three categories. Simple SOFC system can be used boiler to produce superheated steam. The steam is mixed
for residential scales power applications, integrating GTs with methane then delivered to the preheater. The heat
into large SOFC plants (SOFC-GT), which is considered recovery is used to collect the useful heat, which is similar
competitive in the market of distributed power supply and to that in a cogeneration plant. The system exhaust gases exit
hybrid power system consisting of SOFC, GT, and steam the system near 80 C.
turbine (ST). As few of the papers mentioned above com- In contrast to the system in Figure 1, for SOFC-GT
pared and analyzed all three SOFC power systems together, power systems shown in Figure 2, the high temperature
this study aims to investigate the performance assessment and pressure effluent from the combustor is expanded
of these power systems. A mathematical model of the inter- through GT to generate the mechanical power, which is
nal-reforming SOFC, which is the heart of the system, has used to generate the electrical power. Then, the turbine
been developed that takes into account the influence of cell exhaust is provided to heat the fuel and air.
operative pressure, air ratio, etc. These three typical SOFC The SOFC-GT-ST power system is shown in Figure 3;
power systems mentioned above are compared by energy the electrical power is generated not only by the SOFC and
analysis. The irreversibility of each system is discussed; GT, but also by the ST.
then, the possibilities for improvements are made.
2. SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS AND 3. SYSTEM MODELING

DESCRIPTION
3.1. SOFC model
Figure 1 shows a simple SOFC system with heat recovery.
Methane fuel enters the plant and is compressed to the In general, the ideal reversible potential of H2-O2 SOFC
system pressure requirements and preheated to a temperature can be calculated by the Nernst equation:
1822 Int. J. Energy Res. 2013; 37:1821–1830 © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
Solid oxide fuel cell power systems J. Jia et al.

azFact ð1 aÞzFact
i ¼ i0 exp exp (3)
RT RT
where a is the transfer coefficient, z is the number of

electrons participating in the electrode reaction, F is the
Faraday constant, and i0 is the exchange current density
that can be calculated as

pH2 pH2 O Eact;a
i0;a ¼ ga exp (4)
p0;a p0 ; a RT
0:25
pO2 Eact;c
i0;c ¼ gc exp (5)
p0;c RT
Values for ga, gc, Eact,a, and Eact,c could be found in

Figure 2. Configuration of SOFC-GT power system. literature[25].
3.1.2. Ohmic polarization

Ohmic losses occur because of resistance resulting from
the flow of ions in the electrolyte and the flow of electrons
through the electrode.
Ohmic polarization is expressed by Ohm’s law:
X
ohm ¼ i Ri (6)
where Ri = ridi is the ohmic resistance of anode, cathode,

and electrolyte, di is the corresponding thickness of them,
and ri is the material resistivity, which is the strong function
of temperature. Both ri and di are given in Table I [26].
3.1.3. Concentration polarization

The electrode concentration overpotential considers the
difference in gas concentrations between the electrode-
electrolyte interface and the bulk.
In this paper, the overall concentration overpotential
Figure 3. Configuration of SOFC-GT-ST power system.
calculation is simplified assuming a constant value for the
limiting current density and implementing the Fick’s law.
ΔG0 RT pH2 ðpO2 Þ1=2

E0 ¼ þ ln (1) RT i
2F 2F pH2 O ¼ ln 1 (7)
2F iL
Nernst potential is reduced to the terminal voltage
by the sum of the local voltage polarizations. The three 3.1.4. Electrochemical reaction
polarizations are ohmic, activation, and concentration In the SOFC, the overall electrochemical is as follows,
polarization. Therefore, the cell terminal voltage is given: which is significantly exothermic.
V ¼ E0 act;a act;c ohm con (2) 1

H2 þ O2 ! H 2 O (8)
2
where V is the cell potential.
Table I. Properties of SOFC components.
3.1.1. Activation polarization ri (Ωcm) di (cm)
The development of electrochemical reaction requires
overcoming an activation energy barrier. The electrode Cathode 0.008114exp(600/T) 0.200
potential to overcome this activation energy is called the Electrolyte 0.00294exp(10350/T) 0.004
activation polarization. This phenomenon can be described Anode 0.00298exp(-1392/T) 0.015
Interconnection — 0.01
by the Bulter-Volmer equation
Int. J. Energy Res. 2013; 37:1821–1830 © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1823
DOI: 10.1002/er
For a methane-fed SOFC system, either internal or where superscript in is inlet. The term nin
tot is the total mole
external reforming is needed. In order to reduce cost of flow rates of the inlet gas mixture including the methane
an expensive external reformer and the cooling air flowrate and the steam vapor.
for the fuel cell stack, the use of internal reforming is The reaction rate z is determined by the Faraday’s Law.
adopted. The usual high operating temperature of SOFC
allows sustaining the reforming process. Therefore, meth- z ¼ I=ð2F Þ (16)
ane is reformed to produce hydrogen according to the high
endothermic reaction When the temperature is known, the equilibrium
constants can be calculated from Eq. (13), and unknowns
CH4 þ H2 O ! CO þ 3 H 2 ðreformingÞ (9) x and y are given by solving Eqs. (14) and (15) using a
numerical calculated method at given inlet conditions of
the flow.
CO þ H2 O ! CO2 þ H2 ðshiftingÞ (10) The electric power produced is given by
From Eqs. (9) and (10), it is clear that these processes WSOFC ¼ IV (17)
require steam. This can be produced externally by a boiler
or by a heat recovery of exhaust gases from the combustor The equation for the energy balance of SOFC is
or the GT.
Assuming the reforming and shifting reactions at X X X
Hiin þ Rk ðΔHk Þ ¼ WSOFC þ Hiout (18)
chemical equilibrium, the equilibrium constants can be i k i
calculated from the partial pressures of the reactants and
products. The energy balance includes the electrical power WSOFC
PH32 PCO and the enthalpy changes of the chemical and electrochemi-
K PR ¼ ðreformingÞ (11) cal reactions and gives the evaluation of the average temper-
PCH4 PH2 O
ature of the stack.
PH2 PCO2 3.2. Combustor model

KPS ¼ ðshiftingÞ (12)
PCO PH2 O
Residual fuel (hydrogen, methane, carbon monoxide)
from anode outlet stream reacts with the excess air of the
where the equilibrium constants KPR and KPS have been cathode outlet stream. Combustion reactions, assumed at
correlated to the temperature. chemical equilibrium and driven into completion:
CH4 þ 2O2 ! CO2 þ 2H2 O (19)
log K p ¼ AT 4 þ BT 3 þ CT 2 þ DT þ E (13)
1
H2 þ O2 ! H 2 O (20)
2
where the constant values are listed in Table II [8,9].
Assuming that x, y are the molar flow rates of CH4 and
1
CO, respectively, participating in the reactions, then the CO þ O2 ! CO2 (21)
2
equilibrium constants of the reactions can be derived by
in Assuming the process is adiabatic, the combustor outlet
H2 þ3xþyz 3 COin þxy
nin þ2x n in þ2x P2 temperature is calculated on the energy balance.
KPR ¼ CH tot
in
x
in tot (14)
4 H2 O xyþz
tot þ2x
nin tot þ2x
nin
3.3. Heat exchanger model

in Two heat exchangers have been used for preheating fuel
2 þ y H2 þ 3x þ y z
COin
KPS ¼ (15) and air in this work. Both heat exchangers are assumed
ðCOin þ x yÞðH2 Oin x y þ zÞ to be counter-flow exchangers. Computation of the heat
exchange between the hot and cold fluids is based on the
energy balance expressed as follows:
Table II. Values of equilibrium constants of reforming and

shifting reactions. Δ H ¼ mc Cp;c Tc;o Tc;i ¼ m h Cp;h Th;i Tc;o (22)
Reforming Shifting
ΔH ¼ UAΔTm (23)
11
A 2.63121 10 5.47301 1011
B 1.24065 107 2.57479 107 Here, subscripts ‘c’ and ‘h’ stand for the cold and hot
C 2.25232 107 4.63742 107 side energy balance, U is the overall heat-transfer coeffi-
D 1.95028 101 3.91500 101 cient, A is the heat-exchange area, and ΔT m is the log
E 66.1395 13.2097
mean temperature difference.
DOI: 10.1002/er
3.4. Compressor and GT models The heat recovery is referred to the amount of energy
that is obtainable from the exhaust which can be used to
To simplify the study, it is assumed that the GT and produce steam or hot water for industrial and commercial
compressor work at their respective designed condition applications.
under steady-state operation. A set of operating parameters
and the assumed efficiencies are given in Table III. Once
the pressure ratio is given, the outlet temperature of the
4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
compressor and GT is given as:
The key parameter in SOFC computation is the operating
T COM;out T GT;in k1
¼ ¼pk (24) temperature which is dependent on various operating
T COM;in T GT;out and design data. The electrochemical model is solved with
a tentative temperature. The electrochemical model deter-
Then, the compressor work and GT output can be mines terminal voltage and electric power. The energy
obtained, respectively, balance (Eq. (18)) accepts these results from electrochem-
ical model and calculates the temperature of SOFC. The
1

temperature is applied to the electrochemical model for
WCOM ¼ H T COM;out H T COM;out (25)
COM;s the next calculation of cell terminal voltage and power
until the convergence is obtained.

For the whole system model, since the calculation of
W GT ¼ GT;s H T GT;in H T GT;out (26)
heat exchanger need the heating fluid parameters (such as
the exit gas temperature of the combustor), which are not
where, s is adiabatic efficiency given in Table III. known at the beginning of the simulation, a set of initial
parameters has to be assumed in order to run the system
3.5. Net power output and process heat model until convergence is met eventually. A set of
Net power of the system is given by operating parameters and the assumed efficiencies of the
system components are given in Table III. The simulations
were done using Matlab 7.0.
Wnet ¼ WSOFC þ ðWGT W COM Þ þ WST (27)
The simulated V–I curve is compared with the
experimental data in reference [27] in Figure 4.The relative
The electrical efficiency is defined as the ratio of the
deviation between the calculated voltage and experimental
electrical power output to the LHV of the fuel, which is
voltage is less than 5%, which shows that the present
expressed as
model is reliable.
ele ¼ Wnet =QLHV (28)

4.1. The simple SOFC power system
where QLHV is the lower heating value of the fuel. In this study, the pressure ratio of both compressors is set
The total efficiency is defined as the ratio of the sum of to 1.28, the fuel flow rate to 5.72 mol/s, and the air flow
the net electrical power and the heat recovery to the LHV rate to 185.22 mol/s.
of the fuel, which is defined as: The simulated pressure, temperature, and molar compo-

sition at each state-point of the system shown in Figure 1
tot ¼ Wnet þ Qrecovery =QLHV (29) are listed in Table IV.
Table III. Setting values of parameters.
Parameter Setting value
Compressor adiabatic efficiency 70%

Gas turbine adiabatic efficiency 85%
Mechanical efficiency 99.7%
Inverter efficiency 98%
Fuel cell press drop 3%
Preheater press drop 3%
Combustor press drop 3%
Boiler efficiency 90%
Steam turbine efficiency 90%
Steam cycle pressure 12.7 bar
Steam turbine inlet temperature 613 K
Figure 4. Prediction and experiment results of cell voltage vs.
Condenser pressure of the steam cycle 0.05 bar
current density.
DOI: 10.1002/er
Table IV. State-points main properties for simple SOFC power system.
T(K) H2(%) H2O(%) O2(%) N2(%) CH4(%) CO2(%) CO(%)
1 298 0 0 21.00 79.00 0 0 0

2 321 0 0 21.00 79.00 0 0 0
3 973 0 0 21.00 79.00 0 0 0
4 1127 0 0 16.62 83.38 0 0 0
5 295 0 0 0 0 100 0 0
6 327 0 0 0 0 100 0 0
7 370 0 66.67 0 0 33.33 0 0
8 823 0 66.67 0 0 33.33 0 0
9 1127 11.62 68.38 0 0 0 17.46 2.54
10 1231 0 11.31 13.57 72.30 0 2.83 0
11 1186 0 11.31 13.57 72.30 0 2.83 0
12 640 0 11.31 13.57 72.30 0 2.83 0
13 557 0 11.31 13.57 72.30 0 2.83 0
14 353 0 11.31 13.57 72.30 0 2.83 0
15 393 0 100 0 0 0 0 0
16 298 0 100 0 0 0 0 0
The results of the simulation show that the waste heat

recovered is 1264.1 kW. The net electrical power output
(Wnet) of the plant is 2268.65 kW. The thermal-to-electric
ratio is 0.56.The electrical and total efficiencies of the plant
are 49% and 77%.
The irreversibility in the combustor is low because the
inlet temperature is high and there is little fuel left. The
most irreversibility process occurs in the air preheater be-
cause the air flow rate and temperature differences
are large. Here, a large amount of heat equal to about
1.55 times the power output of the fuel cell is transferred
to the entering air. However, the excess air is needed to
provide air-cooling in SOFC, and excess air reduces the
temperature gradient and makes the cell temperature more Figure 6. Effect of A/F on system total efficiency.
uniform [28,29].
The influence of the ratio of the air flow rate to the fuel
flow rate (A/F) on the thermal-to-electric ratio, electrical
efficiency, and system total efficiency is shown in Figures 5 reduced, too. When the A/F decreases from 32 to 27, the
and 6, respectively. electrical efficiency increases from 49% to 52%.
When the flow rate of air decreased, the heat
requirement is reduced. Therefore, the irreversibility is
4.2. The SOFC-GT power system
In order to decrease the irreversibility resulting from high

air flow rate and large temperature difference between the
cold fluid and the hot exhaust gas in the preheater, the
lower air flow rate is adopted, and the temperature of hot
exhaust gas is decreased after entering the GT to produce
the mechanical power. That is the SOFC-GT power system
shown in Figure 2.
In this particular case study, the pressure ratio of both
compressors is set to 8, the fuel flow rate is 5.72 mol/s,
and the ratio of air flow rate to the fuel flow rate (A/F) is
set as 27.
The results of the simulation of temperature, pressure,
and composition at each node of the system are listed in
Figure 5. Effect of A/F on electrical efficiency and the thermal- Table V. Some results relating to system performance are
to-electric ratio. listed in Table VI.
DOI: 10.1002/er
Table V. State-points main properties for SOFC-GT power system.
T(K) P(bar) H2(%) H2O(%) O2(%) N2(%) CH4(%) CO2 (%) CO (%)
1 298 1 0 0 21.00 79.00 0 0 0

2 580 8 0 0 21.00 79.00 0 0 0
3 928 7.76 0 0 21.00 79.00 0 0 0
4 1091 7.53 0 0 15.69 84.31 0 0 0
5 295 1 0 0 0 0 100 0 0
6 580 8 0 0 0 0 100 0 0
7 580 7.76 0 66.67 0 0 33.33 0 0
8 923 7.53 0 66.67 0 0 33.33 0 0
9 1091 7.53 11.64 68.36 0 0 0 17.62 2.38
10 1271 7.3 0 13.34 12.23 71.10 0 3.34 0
11 976 2.54 0 11.31 13.57 72.30 0 2.83 0
12 930 2.46 0 11.31 13.57 72.30 0 2.83 0
13 631 2.40 0 11.31 13.57 72.30 0 2.83 0
14 518 2.32 0 11.31 13.57 72.30 0 2.83 0
15 353 2.25 0 100 0 0 0 0 0
16 580 8 0 100 0 0 0 0 0
17 298 1.03 0 100 0 0 0 0 0
Table VI. Main results of the simulation for the SOFC-GT

power system.
Parameter Value
Compressor work (air side) 857.667 kW

Compressor work (fuel side) 45.024 kW
GT power output 968.246 kW
SOFC stack power 1791.44 kW
Net power output 1857 kW
Waste heat recovery 587.655 kW
Electrical efficiency 60.65%
Total efficiency 79.84%
Compared to the simple SOFC power system, the Figure 7. Effect of operating pressure on compressors work.
combustion products flow through the GT, and the
mechanical power is produced, then the temperature of
the gas is lowered. The outlet flow (11-Point in Figure 2)
in SOFC-GT power system has a lower temperature than
that (10-Point in Figure 1) in simple SOFC power system.
Then, the temperature difference in air preheater becomes
small, so the irreversibility is decreased obviously. More
chemical energy is translated into electric and mechanical
power instead of heat energy to heat the cooling air. The
net electrical power output of the plant is 1857 kW. The
heat recovery is 588 kW. The ratio of the heat energy to
the electric power is 0.31, which is far less than that of
simple SOFC power system.
The effect of operating pressure on compressors work,
SOFC and GT output power, heat recovery, and efficiency
is shown in Figures 7–10, respectively. Figure 8. Effect of operating pressure on SOFC and GT power
Although increase of flow pressure in fuel and air output.
required more work given to compressor shown in Figure 8,
the improvement in overall useful energy output from the 4.3. The SOFC-GT-ST power system
SOFC and GT overweighs the extra work required and
results in the decrease of heat recovery; the electrical In order to utilize exhaust gas further, the ST is added
efficiency is enhanced ultimately. to SOFC-GT power system to produce mechanical
DOI: 10.1002/er
Table VII. State-points main properties for SOFC-GT-ST power

system.
T(K) P(bar)
1 298 1
2 669 12.7
3 923 12.3
4 1112 12.03
5 298 1
6 669 12.7
7 638 12.3
8 928 12.5
9 1112 12.03
Figure 9. Effect of operating pressure on heat recovery and net 10 1238 11.3
power output. 11 968 4
12 930 3.92
13 709 3.84
14 353 3.76
15 298 1
16 613 12.7
17 613 12.7
18 306 0.05
19 306 0.05
Table VIII. Main results of the simulation for SOFC-GT-ST

power system.
Parameter Value
Compressor work (air side) 2273.49 kW

Figure 10. Effect of operating pressure on efficiency. Compressor work (fuel side) 124.83 kW
GT power output 2186.31 kW
SOFC stack power 3499.94 kW
Net power output 1857 kW
power, which is the SOFC-GT-ST power system shown Electrical efficiency 60.40%
in Figure 3.
The hot steam at combustor outlet has been utilized first
to produce mechanical power in GT and then to generate
superheated vapor in a boiler. second reason is the temperature difference between the cold
In this study, the pressure ratio of both compressors is steam and hot exhaust is large in boiler; therefore, its irrevers-
set to 12.7, the pressure ratio of GT is 2.83, the fuel flow ibility is high.
rate to 7.627 mol/s, and the ratio of air flow rate to the fuel Although the ST produces the mechanical power
flow rate (A/F) is set as 27. The ST inlet temperature and combining with the GT in SOFC-GT-ST, the effect of the
pressure are fixed at 613 K and 12.7 bar. The condenser decrease of the power from the GT and increase of
pressure of the steam cycle is 0.05 bar. The ST efficiency irreversibility in the boiler overweighs the amount of
is 90%.The boiler efficiency is set as 90%. power from the ST; thus, the total electrical efficiency is
The calculated temperature and pressure at each node of even lower than that of SOFC-GT power system slightly.
the system in Figure 3 are listed in Table VII. The perfor- At the same time, ST makes the system more complicated
mance of SOFC-GT-ST system is listed in Table VIII. and more expensive.
Although the ST is adopted to produce the mechanical Performance comparisons of five SOFC system designs
power in steam cycle (Rankine Cycle), the results show are shown in Figure 11.
that the use of complex ST plant is not very useful as
supposed. It is because of two reasons. The first reason is Case (1): simple SOFC power system, A/F = 32,
the hot exhaust leaving from the GT has to keep a relatively Case (2): simple SOFC power system, A/F = 27,
high temperature to heat the cold steam to become the Case(3):SOFC-GT power system, A/F = 27,operationg
superheated vapor, which limits the GT capacity to produce pressure = 6 bar,
mechanical power. The power share coming from the GT Case(4):SOFC-GT power system, A/F = 27,operationg
in SOFC-GT-ST is less than that in SOFC-GT system. The pressure = 8 bar,
DOI: 10.1002/er
GT = gas turbine
K = equilibrium constant
LHV = lower heating value (J/mol)
m = molar flow rate (mol/s)
P = pressure (bar)
ST = steam turbine
R = universal gas constant, 8.314 J/(mol K)
Ri = ohmic resistant (Ωcm2)
Rk = reaction rate (mol s1)
T = temperature (K)
V = terminal voltage (V)
Uf = fuel utilization
Figure 11. Electric efficiency and total efficiency for five dis- Uo = oxidant utilization
cussed cases. W = electrical power (W)
z = H2 reacted moles (mol s1)
Z = electrons transferred per reaction
Case(5): SOFC-GT-ST power system, A/F = 27,opera-
tiong pressure = 12.7 bar,
Greek Letters
a = transfer coefficient
5. CONCLUSIONS r = specific resistivity (Ωcm)
d = thickness (cm)
In the present paper, three typical SOFC power systems fed = polarization (V)
by methane are compared by energetic analysis. Simula- = efficiency
tions reveal that efficiencies of 49% electric and 77%
cogenerative are feasible for simple SOFC system in
residential-scale applications. Decreasing excess air in the Subscripts
SOFC has a positive effect on the electric and total
efficiency. a = anode
It is possible for a hybrid SOFC-GT power system to act = activation polarization
achieve an electrical efficiency greater than 60%, and a c = cathode
total efficiency near 80%. Increasing in operating pressure com = compressor
increases the electrical efficiency. However, the total con = concentration polarization
efficiency increases slightly as the pressure increases. ohm = ohm polarization
The efficiency of SOFC-GT-ST is close to that of R = reforming reaction
SOFC-GT power system. Although the power output of S = shifting reaction
exhaust gases shows some improvement through the ST, tur = turbine
the decrease of power output from the GT overweighs
the advantages. At the same time, ST adds complexity,
control needs, and potential high costs of the whole
system. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
NOMENCLATURE The authors acknowledge the financial support provided

by Centre College Primary Scientific Research Item
A = area (m2) Funds(HEUCF 100303).
A/F = molar air–fuel ratio
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Journal of Cleaner Production 144 (2017) 375e386
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro
An optimal configuration for a solid oxide fuel cell-gas turbine

(SOFC-GT) hybrid system based on thermo-economic modelling
Jamasb Pirkandi*, Mostafa Mahmoodi, Mohammad Ommian
Department of Aerospace Engineering, Malek Ashtar University of Technology, Tehran, 15875-1774, Iran
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The aim of this research is to present an optimal configuration for solid oxide fuel cell-gas turbine hybrid
Received 22 June 2016 systems based on thermo-economic modelling. To this end, four different designs of direct hybrid sys-
Received in revised form tems with pressurized and atmospheric fuel cells have been presented. In the first two designs, one stack
4 January 2017
fuel cells has been used in the hybrid system, and in the other designs, two stack fuel cells have been
Accepted 4 January 2017
utilized. By examining four hybrid system, it was found that hybrid system with one pressurized fuel cell
Available online 9 January 2017
hybrid system is better than the other. The advantages of this system include its lower irreversibility rate,
low purchase, low installation and startup costs, and the adequate price of its generated electricity.
Keywords:
Hybrid system
Results show that the hybrid system with one atmospheric fuel cell has a low electrical efficiency, high
Solid oxide fuel cell irreversibility rate; and also the price of its generated electricity is higher than that of the other proposed
Gas turbine systems. Conversely, the hybrid systems with two fuel cells, in spite of enjoying a high efficiency, are not
Optimal configuration cost-effective and economical. The findings indicate that the total efficiency of 64% and electrical effi-
Thermo-economic model ciency of 51% was achieved for optimal hybrid system. Also, the thermo-economic analyses show that the
generated electricity price is about USD 11.6 cents/kWh based on the Lazareto's model and USD 18.5
cents/kWh based on the total revenue requirement model. The purchase, installation and startup cost of
this hybrid system is about $1692/kW; which is almost twice the cost of a gas turbine unit.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction (Kuchonthara et al., 2003).

Hybrid systems are power generation systems in which a heat
In light of the growing consumption of energy in the world, the engine such as gas turbine (GT), steam turbine, Stirling engine, etc.
priorities have shifted to the use of novel techniques and systems of is combined with a non-heat engine like a fuel cell. The mentioned
energy production with high efficiency and low emission. The fuel hybrid systems consist of a fuel cell as the high temperature source
cell technology, in which hydrogen generates electricity and heat of gas turbine cycle. However, if required; the combustion chamber
through a series of electrochemical reactions with oxygen, is is added to the cycle. In fact the combustion chamber of the gas
considered to be one of the best electricity generation mechanisms turbine engine has been replaced with SOFC. A gas turbine can be
of the future (Hall and Kerr, 2003). The heat obtained from the directly or indirectly connected to the SOFC. When the same
electrochemical reactions of a high-temperature fuel cell can be operating fluid passes through the fuel cell and the lower cycle, the
used in an appropriate heat engine in order to improve its overall considered system is called a hybrid system with direct thermal
performance. Considering the above mentioned, many researchers contact (Zhang et al., 2010; Brouwer, 2006). In hybrid systems with
have become interested in combining the fuel cells with various indirect thermal contact, different operating fluids pass through the
power generation systems. The resulting hybrid systems enjoy a fuel cell and lower cycle, and these two cycles exchange their heat
high efficiency; and many researchers as well as manufacturing via a heat exchanger. Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) are the type of
companies are trying to commercialize these systems and also to cells with high working temperatures, and they are better suited for
increase their efficiency and power production capacity use in hybrid power generation systems. These cells always pro-
duce considerable quantities of high-quality heat and energy. Many
researchers have recently focused on finding the best way of using
this heat. The combination of solid oxide fuel cells with various
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ98 2122945141; fax: þ98 2122935341.
E-mail addresses: j_pirkandi@dena.kntu.ac.ir (J. Pirkandi), mostafamahmoodi@ types of turbines and micro gas turbines has been frequently used
mut.ac.ir (M. Mahmoodi), m.ommian@gmail.com (M. Ommian). in electricity generation systems (Buonomano et al., 2015).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.01.019
0959-6526/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
376 J. Pirkandi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 144 (2017) 375e386
Nomenclature y specific volume (m3/kmol)

t average annual time at nominal capacity
A Area (m2)
CCL levelized capital investment cost ($) Subscripts
C_ P rate of power generation cost ($/h) a air
C_ F rate of fuel cost ($/h) ab afterburner
E reversible voltage of fuel cell (V) an anode
c compressor
E_ rate of exergy (W/h)
ca cathode
F faraday's constant (96,485 C/mol)
cell fuel cell
FCL levelized fuel cost ($)
f fuel
h enthalpy (kJ/kmol)
g gas
i current density (A/m2)
gen generation
I current (A)
in inlet
I_ rate of irreversibility (W/h) inv inverter
n molar flow rate (kmol/s) out exit
OMCL levelized operating and maintenance cost ($) rec recuperator
P pressure (kPa) surr surrounding
rp pressure ratio th thermal
Q heat generation rate (kW) tot total
Ru universal gas constant (8.314 J/mol.K) w water
S entropy (kJ/kmol.K) wp water pump
T temperature (K)
W electrical power (kW) Acronyms
CI
Z_ initial capital investment cost ($/h) GT Gas Turbine
OM LHV Low Heating Value (kJ/kmol)
Z_ operating and maintenance cost ($/h)
SOFC Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
Greek letters TRR Total Revenue Requirement cost ($)
h efficiency
With regards to the working pressure, the solid oxide fuel cells the basis of thermo-economic modelling.
used in this type of hybrid systems (direct thermal contact) are Araki et al. (2006) investigated a hybrid power generation sys-
divided into two types: pressurized, and atmospheric. In the tem consisting of two high-temperature and low-temperature solid
pressurized type, the fuel cell is situated between compressor and oxide fuel cell stacks. Musa and Paepe (2008) studied the perfor-
turbine, and it has a high working pressure. In the atmospheric mances of hybrid cycles with two high-temperature and medium-
type, the fuel cell is located downstream of the turbine, and the temperature solid oxide fuel cells. Cheddie (2010) proposed SOFC
turbine's outflowing gasses enter it at low pressure (about the for integration into a 10 MW gas turbine power plant, operating at
pressure of the atmosphere). The fuel cell used in pressurized 30% efficiency. The power output of the hybrid plant is 37 MW at
systems is often subjected to a specific pressure, which increases its 66.2% efficiency. A thermo-economic model predicts a payback
output power but, accordingly, creates more challenges in the period of less than four years. Tarroja et al. (2010) studied a SOFC-
design and control of the system. In this approach, because of the GT hybrid system, explored the different methods of preheating the
high pressure produced in the fuel cell, its casing has to be securely cathode's inflowing air, e.g. using a blower or injector, and
sealed. To overcome this problem, atmospheric type fuel cells are compared the results with those of a system with a single heat
used in the hybrid systems. These systems pose much less of a exchanger. Facchinetti et al. (2014) analysed the design and opti-
hazard by keeping the fuel cells at atmospheric pressure. In this mization of a SOFC-GT hybrid cycle with a new configuration,
system, the air flowing into the fuel cell is taken from the turbine's which had been considered for use in residential buildings. Arsalis
exhaust gasses. If the cell has a high working temperature or the gas (2007, 2008) investigated four different steam turbine cycles. The
turbine has a high expansion percentage, it will be difficult to models have been developed to function both at design and off-
achieve the minimum working temperature needed at the input of design conditions. Cheddie and Murray (2010a, b); Cheddie et al.
this type of fuel cell. (2011) proposed direct, semi-direct and indirectly coupled of
A review of the former research works indicates that in recent SOFC and a 10 MW power plant. Lorenzo and Fragiacomo (2015)
years numerous researchers have worked on the direct combina- formulated zero-dimensional and stationary simulation model of
tion of gas turbines and fuel cells under pressure, and that the at- an SOFC system fed by syngas in cogenerate arrangement and
mospheric systems have attracted less of an attention. The implemented in the Matlab environment by which the SOFC sys-
investigations show that generally one stack fuel cell has been used tem performances were evaluated. Ebrahimi and Moradpoor (2016)
in the structure of most hybrid systems. Also, the examined works proposed a novel cycle combining three technologies of solid oxide
indicate that the hybrid systems have been explored more from fuel cell, micro gas turbine, and organic Rankine cycle to produce
thermodynamic and exergy perspectives, and that the researchers power in micro scale. Meratizaman et al. (2014) considered inte-
have focused less on economic analyses. Considering the above- gration of MED with SOFCeGT power cycle in 300e1000 kW (size
mentioned notions, the main objective of this research is to intro- of SOFC). Saisirirat (2015) simulated a detailed thermodynamic
duce and present several different configurations for direct type model of SOFC and gas turbine hybrid system and few configura-
hybrid systems of gas turbine and fuel cell, and to analyse them on tions of the combined or hybrid cycles are proposed and analysed.
J. Pirkandi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 144 (2017) 375e386 377
Buonomano et al. (2015) presented a comprehensive review of the configurations, one fuel cell has been used; while in the other two
possible layout configurations of hybrid power plants based on the configurations, two cells have been used. In order to present the
integration of solid oxide fuel cells and gas turbine technologies. governing equations, it is necessary to introduce a basic cycle.
These researchers have employed simple economic models in their
investigations in order to determine the price of the generated 2.1. The direct hybrid system with one pressurized fuel cell
electricity, and their considered hybrid systems have included gas
turbines and pressurized fuel cells. Fig. 1 illustrates a direct type hybrid system of gas turbine and
In view of the above information, in this study, contrary to most solid oxide fuel cell, as the basic hybrid system. As this figure in-
of the former works in which a simple system configuration has dicates, in this hybrid system, one stack fuel cell at the upstream of
been analysed, four different hybrid system configurations with turbine has been used. According to the investigations, in most of
pressurized and atmospheric fuel cells are investigated. In two of the performed research works on hybrid systems, this design
the analysed configurations, two fuel cell stacks have been used, scheme has been explored and analysed.
and their results have been compared with those of simpler The proposed system comprises a stack of solid oxide fuel cell
models. Since the fuel cell, as one of the main components of these with internal reforming, afterburner chamber, gas turbine, air
types of hybrid systems, plays a significant role in the generation of compressor, fuel compressor, water pump and three recuperators.
power, this research has attempted to separately explore the elec- The air and natural gas used in the system are first compressed by
trochemical and thermal performances of the fuel cell. Contrary to some compressors and by passing through the air and fuel recu-
most of the previous research works, the working temperature of perators, are warmed before entering the cell. Natural gas, after
the cell has not been assumed as constant in this investigation, but entering the fuel cell, is reformed at the anode section and is pro-
has been computed for different working conditions. In the eco- duced pure hydrogen. The hydrogen obtained from natural gas
nomic analyses performed in this research, two simple economic reacts with the existing oxygen in the air, which has passed through
models and the total revenue requirements (TRR) method have another recuperator and entered the fuel cell. Considering the
been used to determine the price of the generated electricity and exothermic nature of the electrochemical reaction in the fuel cell, a
the other relevant expenses. The TRR model is an accurate and portion of the heat generated from this reaction is used to reform
complete model for economic analyses and it can calculate all the the natural gas utilized in the process, another portion enters the
capital investment and current costs of a system (Bejan et al., 1996). surrounding environment and the remaining portion of the heat
In this paper System performance Criteria such as power, efficiency, warms up the internal gasses and the gasses exiting the fuel cell.
emission rate, irreversibility and price of electricity was investi- The reaction between hydrogen and oxygen in the cell produces
gated simultaneously. substantial electrical power, which increases the efficiency of the
hybrid system. The fuel cell's exhaust gasses that were not used in
2. The proposed hybrid systems the reforming reaction enter the afterburner chamber, where they
react with each other. The output products of the afterburner
Hybrid systems can be divided into two categories: direct and chamber then enter the gas turbine and produce mechanical work
indirect. The selection of a SOFC/GT layout depend on several through expansion. Finally, the hot exhaust gasses of the turbine
design parameters, such as operating temperature and pressure of enter the three recuperators. The first two recuperators are used to
the SOFC stack, type of fuel, type of Brayton cycle and so on. During preheat the air and fuel that enter the cell, and the third recupertor
the past few years researchers developed a plurality of SOFC/GT is used to generate thermal energy.
configurations, aiming at improving the electrical efficiency and/or
to reduce capital costs. In fact, the selecting a configuration is one of 2.2. The direct hybrid system with one atmospheric fuel cell
the key steps before designing a hybrid system. This study presents
four configurations of SOFC/GT hybrid system and discusses why The second proposed system is a direct hybrid system with an
one configuration is better than the other. atmospheric fuel cell. As is observed in Fig. 2, in this type of hybrid
In this section, four direct types of hybrid systems with different system, the fuel cell is situated at the downstream of turbine and its
configurations have been presented. In the first and second working pressure is about the pressure of atmosphere. The gasses
Fig. 1. The direct hybrid system with one pressurized fuel cell (first design).
Fig. 2. The direct hybrid system with one atmospheric fuel cell (second design).
exiting the turbine enter the cathode and react with the fuel that electrochemical reactions. The outflowing gasses from the second
comes into the anode. The remaining gasses of the fuel cell then cell then enter an afterburner chamber and after participating in
enter the afterburner chamber and after participating in the com- chemical reactions for the generation of power reenter the turbine.
bustion process enter the heat exchangers in order to heat the air, Eventually, for the purpose of heating the air, fuel and water needed
fuel and water. by the system, the hot exhaust gasses from the turbine enter the
heat exchangers and then are discharged into the surrounding
2.3. The direct hybrid system with two pressurized fuel cells environment.
The third proposed system consists of two fuel cells under 2.4. The direct hybrid system with one pressurized and one
pressure, which have been installed in series at the upstream of atmospheric fuel cell
turbine. As Fig. 3 illustrate, the air and fuel coming into the system
are warmed up and then enter the first fuel cell. After participating The fourth proposed system is a combination of the first and
in the electrochemical reaction there and generating power, the air second designs and it uses a pressurized and an atmospheric fuel
and fuel enter the second fuel cell. Since a major portion of the inlet cell in the gas turbine cycle. As is illustrated in Fig. 4, the air and fuel
fuel (about 85%) is used up in the first cell, in order to provide the coming into the system, after being heated in the heat exchangers,
fuel needed by the second cell, a specific amount of extra fuel is enter the pressurized fuel cell and provide a part of the power
injected at the anode inlet of the second fuel cell. The remaining air generated in the hybrid system. The remaining gasses from the
and fuel from the first cell enter the second cell, along with the pressurized fuel cell enter the afterburner chamber and, there, all
added fuel, and generate more power through a series of the remaining fuel is used up in a chemical reaction. The hot gasses
Fig. 3. The direct hybrid system with two pressurized fuel cells (third design).
Fig. 4. The direct hybrid system with one pressurized and one atmospheric fuel cell (fourth design).
exiting the afterburner chamber then enter the turbine and The distribution of temperature, pressure and chemical com-
generate power. Also, the turbine's exhaust gasses enter the cath- ponents within the fuel cell has been disregarded.
ode section of the atmospheric fuel cell and along with the fuel A constant voltage has been considered for the cells of the fuel
injected into the anode section supply another portion of the hybrid cell.
system's generated power. Similar to the pressurized fuel cell, the It has been assumed that the fuel inside the fuel cell converts to
gasses not utilized in the atmospheric cell enter the second after- hydrogen through internal reforming.
burner chamber and, after participating in a high-temperature The fuel utilized in the system contains 97% methane, 1.5% car-
chemical reaction, are conveyed to the heat exchangers. The hot bon dioxide and 1.5% nitrogen. Also, the air used in the system
exhaust gasses of the afterburner chamber also enter the heat ex- contains 21% oxygen and 79% nitrogen.
changers in order to warm up the air, fuel and water used in the In this research, air and fuel enter the system under standard
hybrid system; and after exchanging their heat, these gasses are conditions and at identical temperatures and pressures (tem-
discharged into the surrounding environment (see Fig. 5). perature of 25 C and pressure of 1 bar).
In this paper, Criteria for selection of optimum system were high
power and efficiency and low emission rate, irreversibility and
price of electricity. The results of the optimal mode for each 4. Governing equations
configuration are not stated in this article. Optimal results obtained
are presented in tables and for each state three criteria include In this section, the governing equations of the problem have
good, moderate and poor was defined. Criteria have the same been presented in three separate areas comprising the thermody-
weight. System that has the highest score was selected as an namic, exergy and economic equations. Due to the similar com-
appropriate configuration. Survey of all the criteria have not been ponents used in all four proposed designs, the first design including
addressed in any article. The main objective of this paper is to the direct hybrid system with one pressurized fuel cell is chosen as
investigate the four different configurations and identify the dis- the main design, and its relevant equations are presented.
advantages and capabilities of each one. This type of work has been
done for the first time. Previous articles usually evaluate pressur-
4.1. Thermodynamic equations
ized hybrid system with one fuel cell. The main variables in this
paper include: Power, Compressor pressure ratio, Electrical effi-
4.1.1. Air and fuel compressor
ciency, Irreversibility rate, Emission, Electricity generation price,
According to thermodynamic equations, the temperature of the
Purchase, installation and start-up cost.
compressor's outflow gasses and the real work needed by the
compressor can be determined (Haseli and Dincer, 2008). It should
3. Assumption be mentioned that due to the dependency of the isentropic effi-
ciency on the compressor's pressure ratio and because of the
The following assumptions have been considered in modelling fluctuations of this efficiency with pressure variations, polytropic
and analysing the introduced hybrid systems: efficiency has been used in system analysis instead of isentropic
efficiency. (Haseli and Dincer, 2008).
Gas leakage from inside the system to the outside has been
_ c;a ¼ n_ c;a : h
outðc;aÞ hinðc;aÞ
ignored. W (1)
A stable fluid flow has been considered in all the cycle
components.
Fig. 5. Flowchart of SOFC-GT modelling.

S_genðc;aÞ ¼ n_ c;a : soutðc;aÞ sinðc;aÞ (2) Q_ loss;ab
S_gen;ab ¼ n_ out;ab sout;ab n_ in;ab sin;ab þ (6)
Tsurr
where subscript (c,a) is the air compressor and this relationship is
used for fuel compressor with subscript (c,f).
4.1.3. Turbine
4.1.2. Afterburner and combustion chamber As was previously mentioned, the polytropic efficiency has been
Since only a portion of the fuel and air that enter the system are used instead of the isentropic efficiency (Haseli and Dincer, 2008).
used up in the fuel cell, an afterburner chamber is necessary for the
_
cycle. All reactions are exothermic, and they raise the temperature W GT ¼ n_ GT hin;GT hout;GT (7)
of the gasses that exit the afterburner chamber (Haseli and Dincer,
2008).
S_gen;GT ¼ n_ GT sout;GT sin;GT (8)
n_ in;ab hin;ab n_ out;ab hout;ab Q_ loss;ab ¼ 0 (3)
Q_ loss;ab ¼ n_ f ;ab ð1 hab Þ LHV (4) 4.1.4. Fuel cell

The general solutions for the conservation of mass and energy
hab ¼ ftheoretical=f (5) equations of the fuel cell require the evaluation of the voltage and
actual
current generated in the cell. (Chan et al., 2002).
The full procedures for computing the cell voltage loss have
been presented in (Chan et al., 2002; Pirkandi et al., 2012; Volkan, 4.1.5. Recuperator
2007). The temperatures of the gasses exiting from the first three
Due to the high operating temperatures of solid oxide fuel cells, recuperators are calculated based on their effectiveness (Haseli
the fuel needed by the cell can be produced within the cell from et al., 2008). Eqs. (17) and (18) have been used to compute the
hydrocarbons such as natural gas. In this paper, a fuel cell with useful heating load in the last recuperator, by considering the ef-
direct internal reforming has been used, in which the heat released ficiency of this recuperator.
from the electrochemical reaction of electrodes is utilized to carry
out the endothermic reforming reaction. In computing the tem- Q_ rec;g ¼ εrec;w n_ g hin;rec hout;rec (17)
perature of the gasses released from the fuel cell stack, the three
heat sources in the cell should be taken into consideration. Since
the reforming reaction in the cell is endothermic and the shifting Q_ rec;w ¼ n_ w C p Tout;w Tin;w (18)
and electrochemical reactions are exothermic, the net heat transfer
By using Eq. (18), the quantity of warm water needed for the
of the solid oxide fuel cell will be obtained from the differences
heating units in the cogeneration system (n_ w ) can be determined.
between the heating values of the above three reactions. The
In this research, the temperature of the warm water coming out of
heating values resulting from the reforming (Qr ), shifting (Qsh ) and
the recuperator has been considered as 90 C. The amount of
electrochemical (Qelec ) reactions are obtained by means of Equa-
heating load obtained from the last recuperator is used to calculate
tions (9) through (11) (Chan et al., 2002).
the total thermal efficiency of the system (Haseli et al., 2008).

Q_ r ¼ x hCO þ 3hH2 hCH4 hH2 O (9) S_gen;rec ¼ n_ a sout;a sin;a n_ g sin;g sout;g (19)

Q_ sh ¼ y hCO2 þ hH2 hCO hH2 O (10)
4.1.6. Pump
The required pump work is obtained from Eq. (20).
Q_ elec ¼ zT DS I DVloss (11)
W_ wp ¼ n_ w vw Pout;w P (20)
in;w
Q_ net ¼ Q_ elec þ Q_ sh Q_ r (12) After exchanging its heat in the heating units, the warm water
flowing out of the pump is again returned to the power generation
With regards to Eq. (13), a portion of this residual net heat is system for reheating. (Pirkandi et al., 2012).
used to raise the temperature of the cell's internal and outflowing
0
gasses ð Q_ Þ and another portion enters the surrounding environ-
S_gen;wp ¼ n_ w sout;w sin;w (21)
_
ment ð Q surr Þ.
0
Q_ net ¼ Q_ þ Q_ surr (13)
4.1.7. Hybrid system
In a real condition, the processes implemented in a fuel cell By considering the whole hybrid system as a control volume, it's
cannot be considered as adiabatic whatsoever; and always there is electrical, thermal, total, and exergy efficiencies will be obtained.
some heat loss to the surrounding atmosphere. By considering this (Pirkandi et al., 2012).
problem as an ideal case, it is assumed that the fuel cell is internally
adiabatic and that the net residual heat is used to raise00 the tem- W_
perature of the cell's internal and outflowing gasses ð Q_ Þ. In this hele ¼ _ net (22)
nf LHV
case, by considering the same temperature for the gasses exiting
from the anode and cathode, Eq. (14) is obtained. In this equation,
W_ þ E_
Dhan;in and Dhca:in denote the enthalpy changes of reactants, and hexergy ¼ _ net _ out;w (23)
Dhan;out , Dhca;out indicate the enthalpy changes of products at the Ein;a þ Ein;f þ E_ in;w
anode and cathode (Pirkandi et al., 2012).
The net power output of the system is equal to the sum of the
00 net power outputs of fuel cell and turbine, and also the energy
Q_ ¼ Dhca;in þ Dhca;out þ Dhan;in þ Dhan;out (14) input of the system is equal to the sum of the energies released by
To compute the temperature of the fuel cell's outflowing gasses, the utilization of fuel in the cell and afterburner chamber (Pirkandi
an iteration algorithm has been employed, and the convergence et al., 2012).
criterion has been considered as Eq. (15).
W_ net ¼ W_ þ W_ (24)
ACtot ACnet
00 SOFC GT
Q_ Q_ 0

Qerror ¼ < 0:01 (15)
Q_ 0 _ _ _ _ _
W AC;net ¼ W DC;net hinv;gen W wp W c;air W c;fuel
GT
After calculating the output temperature, Eq. (16) can be used to (25)
determine the amount of heat loss in the fuel cell.
In Eq. (25), the term of hinv;gen is the direct-to-alternating current
conversion factor of the micro turbine generator.
n_ ca;in hca;in þ n_ an;in han;in ¼ n_ ca;out hca;out þ n_ an;out han;out þ Q_ surr
þW_ 4.2. The exergy equations
SOFC
(16)
A subject arising from the second law of thermodynamics is the
method of exergy analysis in system modelling (Kotas, 1995; Haseli
et al., 2008). The rates of destroyed exergy and lost exergy and the (i) and the number of years the machineries have been in operation
irreversibility rate in the whole proposed system can be obtained (n), and it is calculated based on the values of these two parameters
from Equations (26) through (28): (Bejan et al., 1996). In thermoeconomic analyses, the CRF normally
has a range of 0.147e0.18. In Eq. (33), the interest rate or the dis-
E_ destroyed; sys ¼ E_ in;a þ E_ in:f þ E_ in;w W_ net E_ out;w E_ out;gas count factor has been considered in the range of 0.1e0.12.
(26)
i ð1 þ iÞn
CRF ¼ (33)
ð1 þ iÞn 1
E_ lost;sys ¼ E_ out;gas (27)
I_tot ¼ E_ destroyed;sys þ E_ lost;sys (28)

4.3.2. The economic model of the total revenue requirement method
The total revenue requirement approach has been used in this
section for the economic analysis of the system. In this method,
4.3. The economic equations based on the economic hypotheses, the equipment and land pur-
chase costs, cost of engineering services, facilities construction cost,
In order to economically optimize the energy systems, it is fuel cost, repair, maintenance costs and so on are computed and
necessary to compare the annual expenses associated with in- levelized on an annual basis over the system's operating period
vestment, fuel, operating and maintenance. The above items are (Bejan et al., 1996). In this model, the sum of the initial capital in-
ideally considered and summarized in Eq. (29), which expresses a vestment cost and the costs associated with operating and main-
cost balance for the whole system (Bejan et al., 1996). tenance has been expressed by Eq. (34) (Bejan et al., 1996).
CI OM
C_ P;tot ¼ C_ F;tot þ Z_ tot þ Z_ tot CC þ OMCL PEC
(29) Z_ k ¼ L P k (34)
t PECk
The sum of the expenses associated with the initial capital in- k
vestment and repair and maintenance is expressed as a single
_ according to Eq. (30) (Bejan et al., 1996).
parameter (Z), CCL ¼ TRRL FCL OMCL (35)
CI OM The levelized annual total revenue requirement (TRRL) is
Z_ ¼ Z_ tot þ Z_ tot (30)
determined by applying the capital recovery factor and the dis-
In this research, the generated electricity and the natural gas count factor, according to Eq. (36) (Bejan et al., 1996):
have been considered as the output product and the consumed fuel
of the hybrid system. Eq. (31) is the objective function in the X
n
TRRj
TRRL ¼ CRF (36)
optimization problem, in which the electricity generation cost must
j¼1 ð1 þ iÞj
be minimized. In Eq. (31), cP denotes the cost of generated elec-
tricity per unit Giga Joule. In the above equation, TRRj is the total revenue requirement in
the jth year of system operation; and the detailed procedure
CI OM
C_ F;tot þ Z_ tot þ Z_ tot regarding its computation has been given in (Cheddie and Murray,
cP ¼ (31) 2010a). After determining the mentioned costs according to Eqs.
W_ net
(37) through (39), the annual price of electricity generated by the
Usually, in thermoeconomic analysis, especially the analysis of system and the annual levelized costs are computed (Cheddie and
large and complex systems, the economic modelling is the hardest Murray, 2010a).
part. The validity of a thermoeconomic analysis depends to a large
extent on the accurate computation of Z_ by the considered eco- CI OM CC þ OMCL
Z_ tot ¼ Z_ tot þ Z_ tot ¼ L (37)
nomic model (Bejan et al., 1996). t
Considering the above notions, the simple economic model of
Lazaretto and the total revenue requirement method have been CC þ OMCL þ FCL TRRL
C_ p;tot ¼ L ¼ (38)
used for the economic analyses performed in this research. t t
4.3.1. Lazaretto's simple economic model TRRL

cp ¼ (39)
This model is one of the simplest economic models, and it has t W_ tot
been presented by professor Lazaretto of the University of Milan. In
The purchase, installation, and start-up costs of a power gen-
this model, the sum of the initial capital investment and the
eration unit are obtained by Eq. (40).
operating and maintenance costs has been formulated according to
Eq. (32) (Bejan et al., 1996). PECtot þ 0:46PECtot
cpp ¼ (40)
W_ tot
Fr $
Z_ k ¼ CRF PECk (32)
3600 N s
In the above equation, PECk is the initial purchase cost of the kth
equipment (which is calculated based on the thermodynamic pa- 5. The solution method
rameters (Santin et al., 2010)), Fr is the operating and maintenance
cost (1.06e1.1), N is the total annual operating hours of the system In view of the equations mentioned in the preceding sections, a
under full load (85% of total work capacity, and equal to 7446 h), computer program has been written for analysing the problem. The
and CRF is the capital recovery factor. The capital recovery factor, as first part of this computer code contains the combined system's
has been indicated in Eq. (33), is itself a function of the interest rate input information including its working pressure and the flow rates
of air and fuel entering the system. At this point, because of the (Haseli and Dincer, 2008).
cell's working temperature not being constant, an arbitrary cell In the following, the performances of the four proposed hybrid
temperature is initially guessed. Using this guesstimated cell tem- systems have been compared. For a better evaluation, this com-
perature, in the next step, the nonlinear reforming and electro- parison has been carried out for two cases. In the first case, the
chemical equations along with the cell's thermal equations are same area has been considered for the stack of fuel cells used in all
solved simultaneously, and the desired outcomes including the the proposed configurations and in the second case, the area of the
amounts of produced chemical components and the values of fuel cells used in the systems with two stacks of cells has been
temperature, voltage loss, real voltage, current, power, efficiency, halved. The electrical efficiency, price of the generated electricity,
and other considered parameters in the fuel cell are obtained. The and the purchase, installation and start-up cost of the hybrid sys-
equations of the other system components are also analysed along tems are the parameters examined in this section. In all the ana-
with the fuel cell equations. After analysing the whole system, the lyses of this section, the temperature of the inflowing turbine
new cell temperature is determined by considering the given gasses has been assumed as 1200 C.
conditions. In case the convergence condition of the cycle is not
fulfilled, the analysis will be repeated with a new temperature.
Following the thermodynamic analyses, economic analyses are also 7.1. Using fuel cells with the same cell area in all the considered
carried out for the system in the final section. design configurations
In this section, the same selected cell areas have been consid-
6. Validation
ered for all the fuel cells in the four hybrid systems. The diagrams
comparing the performances of all four hybrid systems in this case
To validate the prepared computer code, the system introduced
have been presented in Figs. 6 through 10. As is observed in Fig. 6,
by (Shirazi et al., 2010) has been modelled and its findings have
the electrical efficiency of the hybrid systems with two fuel cells is
been compared with the results obtained from the present code.
higher than that of single-cell systems. The results show that the
The close agreement between these results in Table 1 validates the
fourth design enjoys the highest electrical efficiency (55%) and the
present method and the developed code. In the performed
second design has the least efficiency (49%).
modelling, the cell's working temperature and the temperature of
The other important parameter that should be considered in the
the turbine's inflowing gasses have been considered as 1175 and
analysis of energy systems is their irreversibility rate. Systems with
1457.2 K. The slight discrepancy between the results of the written
the least irreversibility rates have an adequate performance and are
code and those of Shirazi is due to the way by which the cell's
preferred over the other system designs. As is observed in Fig. 7, the
concentration voltage loss is calculated. Shirazi et al. had assumed a
least irreversibility rates are associated with the hybrid systems
constant limit current density in calculating this voltage loss; while
in the present research, the amount of limit current density has
been computed.
7. Results
The fuel cell used in this research is of the tubular solid oxide
type (similar to the model manufactured by the Siemens-
Westinghouse Co.) (Ciesar, 2001), and its specifications along
with its other constant parameters have been presented in Table 2.
Also, the constant parameters used for the equipment of the hybrid
system have been considered based on the sample analysed in
Table 1
Comparing the results of the present code with the numerical results of (Shirazi
et al., 2010).
Parameters (Shirazi et al., 2010) Results Present Work Fig. 6. Comparing the electrical efficiencies of various hybrid systems.
Fuel Cell Voltage (V) 0.729 0.735

Air Compressor Work (kW) 303.8 302
Fuel Compressor Work (kW) 27.1 26.5
Net. Turbine Work (kW) 376.8 377.2
Net. Fuel Cell Work (kW) 1738.04 1741
Heat Regeneration (kW) 727 725.8
Electrical Efficiency (%) 61.3 62.2
Total Efficiency (%) 82.1 83.5
Table 2
Assumed parameters of the fuel cell (Ciesar, 2001).
Parameter Amount of assumed
Length of each cell 150 cm

Diameter of each cell 2.2 cm
Number of cell 5133
Fuel Utilization Ratio 0.85
Fuel cell pressure loss 4%
Inventor efficiency 89%
Fig. 7. Comparing the irreversibility rates of various hybrid systems.
with pressurized fuel cells (first and third designs). According to

this figure, the second configuration has the greatest irreversibility
rate and is considered as an inefficient design. Regarding the
emission levels produced by various hybrid systems, the systems
with pressurized fuel cells have a better performance.
Another important parameter in choosing an optimal system is
its low price of generated electricity and the low initial costs
associated with equipment purchase, installation and start-up. In
this regard, the economic performances of the four proposed de-
signs have been compared in Figs. 9 and 10. As is observed in these
two figures, considering the similarity of fuel cell stacks in the
proposed schemes, the price of electricity generated by them and
also their purchase, installation and start-up cost in the third and
fourth designs are high. These configurations, despite having a
higher electrical efficiency, are not cost-effective economically. The
Fig. 8. Comparing the amounts of emission produced by various hybrid systems.
findings indicate that for each kilowatt of generated electricity, the
equipment purchase, installation and start-up cost for hybrid sys-
tems with two fuel cells is about $1000 higher than that for single-
cell hybrid systems; and the main reason for this is the use of two
Fig. 9. Comparing the prices of the electricity generated by various hybrid systems.
Fig. 11. Comparing the electrical efficiencies of various hybrid systems.
Fig. 10. Comparing the purchase, installation and start-up costs of various hybrid
systems.
Fig. 12. Comparing the irreversibility rates of various hybrid systems.
Table 3
Comparing the performances of the direct hybrid systems with a constant cell area.
Design configuration 1 2 3 4
System layout Direct with one pressurized Direct with one atmospheric Direct with two pressurized Direct with one pressurized and one
fuel cell fuel cell fuel cell atmospheric fuel cell
Electrical efficiency o e þ þ
Irreversibility rate þ e þ o
Emission þ e þ o
Electricity generation price þ o e e
Purchase, installation and þ o e e
start-up cost
fuel cells in the structure of the former hybrid systems.

The results of this section have been summarized in Table 3. The
performance of each system has been indicated by one of the three
grades: appropriate (þ), acceptable (O) and inappropriate (). As is
observed in this table, the first, third, fourth and second design
configurations constitute the optimal hybrid systems in that order.
In case of using the same fuel cells in all four design schemes, the
direct hybrid system with one pressurized cell will generally have
an appropriate performance. The findings indicate that the third
and fourth designs, despite having a high efficiency, are not cost-
effective, since they use two fuel cells in their configuration. In
the next section, by reducing the areas of the fuel cells used in these
two designs, the performances of all the direct hybrid systems are
re-evaluated.
Fig. 13. Comparing the amounts of emission produced by various hybrid systems.
7.2. Using fuel cells with a reduced cell area in the third and fourth
design schemes
As was mentioned in the preceding section, one of the major

drawbacks of hybrid systems with two fuel cells is the high price of
electricity generated by them and also the high initial costs asso-
ciated with the equipment purchase, installation and start-up of
these systems. In this section, instead of using two high-capacity
fuel cell stacks, two cells with lower capacities have been used in
the third and fourth designs. The performance diagrams pertaining
to all four hybrid systems have been compared in Figs. 11 through
15. As is observed, by reducing the areas of the fuel cells, the
electricity generation cost and also the purchase, installation and
start-up cost of the third and fourth designs diminish considerably.
The findings indicate that with regards to the 50% reduction in the
capacity of the fuel cells in the mentioned designs, the first
Fig. 14. Comparing the prices of electricity generated by various hybrid systems. configuration is still economically attractive and has a low elec-
tricity generation price and secondary costs. Reducing the capac-
ities of the fuel cells in the third and fourth designs causes another
important drawback: the reduction of the electrical efficiency of the
system. Another point which is again observed in this section is the
inefficacy of the second design. The direct hybrid system with one
atmospheric fuel cell has a low electrical efficiency and irrevers-
ibility rate and high emission, and the price of the electricity
generated by this system is higher compared to the other proposed
systems.
The results of this section have been presented in Table 4. As is
observed, the first, fourth, third and second design configurations
are sequentially ranked as the optimal hybrid systems.
In view of the obtained results, it can be concluded that the
direct hybrid system with one pressurized fuel cell enjoys the
highest performance among the other hybrid systems. A lower
emission, smaller irreversibility rate, low purchase, installation and
Fig. 15. Comparing the purchase, installation and start-up costs of various hybrid start-up cost and a suitable price of generated electricity are the
systems. advantages of this system. Among the four introduced systems, the
Table 4
Comparing the performances of the direct hybrid systems with optimized cell areas.
Design configuration 1 2 3 4
System layout Direct with one pressurized Direct with one atmospheric Direct with two pressurized Direct with one pressurized and one
fuel cell fuel cell fuel cell atmospheric fuel cell
Electrical efficiency þ e o þ
Irreversibility rate þ e þ o
Emission þ e þ o
Electricity generation price þ e o o
Purchase, installation and þ e e o
start-up cost
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Kapitel 4: Gasturbine

1. Beschreibung des Gasturbinenprozesses

Gas Turbine Technology

Air Power shaft

50 – 70 % of turbine power to generator

Pressure ratio: usually about 15, but up to 40 and more

Air Power shaft

Useful power is the kinetic energy of high-speed jet

Stationary Gas Turbine

Gas turbine history

The world‘s first industrial

Enthalpy difference is higher between 3 and 4 than between 1 and 2 !

Characteristics of gas turbine process

3 ... pressure ratio

Convection, impingement and

Single cristall Development of admissible

Turbine blade cooling

Film cooling Film cooling

Cooled turbine blade

Thermal barrier coatings

APS ceramic thermal

Surface temperature can

Multi-cristall Single cristall

Optimisation by controlled solidification

Carnot Cycle: The higher the temperature of

Comparison of gas turbine cycles

Source: IEA Coal Research, 1995

Source: IEA Coal Research, 1995

Recuperated gas turbine cycle

Source: www.otsg.com Steam-Injected Kawasaki M7A-01ST Gas Turbine

HAT (Humidified Air Turbine)

Introduction This configuration has been investigated thoroughly in the litera-

Table 1 Core engine characteristics

Inlet conditions ISO

92 Õ Vol. 127, JANUARY 2005 Transactions of the ASME

Area STIG PEvGT FEvGT

Table 3 The modeling characteristics of cycle areas

Humidification H-ECO PEvGT, Cold approach 15K

pressed air. This decreases the amount of steam for superheating,

Table 4 The core engine parameters

The PEvGT Cycle. Ågren 关2兴 presented and investigated the

Fig. 5 Composite curves of the nonintercooled HGT cycles

of water in the air, evaporation takes place. This diabatic process

94 Õ Vol. 127, JANUARY 2005 Transactions of the ASME

Modeling the Cycles

Fig. 9 The performance map of the nonintercooled PEvGT

96 Õ Vol. 127, JANUARY 2005 Transactions of the ASME

98 Õ Vol. 127, JANUARY 2005 Transactions of the ASME

Air inlet cooling

• Temperature decrease leads to a higher air mass flow swallowed.

Source: Soares, Gas Turbine Handbook, 2005

ability to increase power suppression of generating

native for providing up to ing, as referenced to the $16/kW $15/kW

32 2010 GTW Handbook

(normally cellulose) evapo- (sometimes referred to as

by up to 15%, while in high can boost power output by

2010 GTW Handbook 33

0°F 20 40 60 80 100 120

34 2010 GTW Handbook

$6.00 Variable O&M