Steam Turbine: Bearings Wheels and Diaphragms

5.
Steam Turbine
Wheels and Bearings
Diaphragms
Packing
Head
LP Casing
LP Inner Casing
Packing Reheat Stop and

Double Shells Intercept Valves
Head
Thermal Fluid Techniques in Plants 5. Steam Turbine 1 / 128

1 Steam Turbine Arrangement 2
2 Steam Path Parts 10
3 Valves 48
4 Rotor 71
5 Casing 75
6 Bearing 96
7 Recent Developmental Trend 110

Layout of a Steam Turbine [1/3]
Crossover Pipe
Journal Bearing Pedestal
Generator Gas Generator LP Turbine IP Turbine
Cooler Thrust Bearing Pedestal
HP Turbine
Front Bearing Pedestal
Lube Oil Unit
Lube Oil Cooler
Generator Auxiliary
Equipment
Condenser

Siemens
SST5-6000 (Siemens), 280 bar 600C/610C, net plant efficiency above 45% (LHV)
The function of the steam turbine is to convert the thermal energy contained in the steam into mechanical
energy for turning the generator.

 Steam turbines are one of the most versatile and oldest prime mover
technologies still in general production.
 Power generation using steam turbines has been in use for about 100
years due to higher efficiencies and lower costs.
 A steam turbine uses a separate heat source and does not directly
convert fuel to electric energy.
 This separation of functions enables steam turbines to operate

enormous variety of fuels, nuclear energy, natural gas, oil, coals, wood,
wood waste, and agricultural byproducts.
 The energy is transferred from the steam generator to the turbine

through high pressure steam that in turn powers the turbine and
generator.

Steam Turbine Components

HP/IP Turbine Components

LP Turbine Components

Steam Turbine Foundation
Foundation is decoupled from the overall structure
Monolitic Concrete Foundation Spring Foundation on Transoms Spring Foundation on Single Supports
Spring Supported Foundation

1 Steam Turbine Arrangement
2 Steam Path Parts
3 Valves
4 Rotor
5 Casing
6 Bearing
7 Recent Developmental Trend

A Typical 500 MW Class Steam Turbine
A Steam Turbine Used to Explain Details
Turbine parameters Values
Manufacturer GE
Tandem-compound opposed
Type flow, reheat turbine with two
double flow LP turbines
Number of stages 18 (6-5-7)
Steam conditions 2400 psig/1000F/1000F
Condenser pressure 1 in.Hga
rpm 3600
Steam flow 3,800,000 lb/h
Turbine capacity 512,094 kW
[ 3 Casing, 4-Flow ST ]

Steam Flow [1/3]
A Typical 500 MW Class Steam Turbine

Steam Flow [2/3]
 High-pressure steam from the secondary superheater outlet is routed through the main steam line to the main
stop valves.
 The main steam line splits into two individual lines upstream of the stop valves, passing the steam to the two
main stop valves.
 The steam passes through the stop valves to the external control valve chest, where four control valves are
located.
 The steam passes through the control valves, and to the main turbine through four lines called steam leads.
Two of these steam leads enter the bottom of the high-pressure turbine, and two enter at the top.
 Each of the four steam leads pass steam to an individual 90 degree nozzle box assembly mounted in quarter
segments around the periphery of the first stage of the high pressure turbine.
 High-pressure steam enters the turbine near the center of the HP section, flowing through the individual
nozzle boxes and the six-stage HP turbine toward the front-end standard.
 The steam then leaves the HP turbine, and returns to the reheat section of the boiler.
 The reheated steam returns to the turbine through single hot reheat line, which splits into two individual lines
upstream of the combined reheat intercept valves.
 Steam flows through the combined reheat intercept valves, and into the five-stage IP turbine.

Steam Flow [3/3]
 The inlet end of the IP turbine is located near the center of the high-pressure section, next to the HP turbine
inlet.
 Steam flow in the IP turbine is in the direction of the generator; this is opposite to the direction of flow in the
HP turbine.
 Steam is exhausted from the IP turbine into a single crossover pipe, which routes steam from the IP turbine
exhaust to the inlet of the two double-flow LP turbines.
 Steam then enters the center of each seven-stage LP turbine.
 The LP turbines consist of two identical sets of LP turbine stages.
 In each LP turbine; one-half of the steam flows through one set of LP turbine stages in the direction of the
turbine front standard, the other half of the steam flows through the other set of LP turbine stages in the
direction of the generator.
 The steam then exits the LP turbines and is exhausted into the condenser.
 The main turbine shaft is connected to and rotates the main generator.
 Controlling the steam flow to the main turbine controls the generator speed and/or load.

Steam Path [1/7]
HP Turbine Section
Diaphragms Steam Flow

(Stationary Parts)
Nozzle
Box
Buckets / Blades
(Rotating Parts)
[ Nozzle Box ]

Steam Path [2/7]
HP Turbine Section
 Steam enters the single-flow HP turbine through separately mounted stop valves and control valves. A steam
lead from each of the control valves routes the steam to the center of the high-pressure casing. Two steam
leads are connected to the upper half of the casing and two to the lower half. Steam is admitted to both
casing halves allowing for uniform heating of the casing and thus minimizing distortion.
 Each control valve regulates the steam flow to one of four nozzle box-opening sections (nozzles/partitions).
The nozzle boxes are located within the HP casing; thus containing the steam before it passes through the
first stage nozzle openings.
 The steel alloy high pressure outer shell is supported on the front standard at the turbine end, and the middle
standard at the generator end.
 The high-pressure inner shell is supported in the outer shell on four shims and is located axially by a rabbit fit.
The inner shell is keyed on the upper and lower vertical centerlines to locate it transversely. This arrangement
maintains accurate alignment of the inner shell under all operating conditions. The nozzle box steam inlets
are equipped with slip ring expansion joints that permit the nozzle boxes to move with respect to the shells
and still maintain a steam-tight fit.
 Buckets are placed in grooves machined into the rotor. Each bucket is pinned to ensure its position is fixed.
 The fixed blades are mounted in interstage diaphragms located between each stage of moving blades. The
interstage diaphragms serve as nozzles to increase the velocity of the steam and to direct the steam flow
onto the next stage of buckets. Each interstage diaphragm is constructed of two halves that are mounted in
grooves in the upper and lower casings. When assembled in the turbine, the diaphragms are sandwiched in
between the rotating wheels.
 Steam leaving the nozzle boxes is directed through the HP turbine blading, with the steam flowing toward the
turbine front standard. The expanded steam exhausts through two nozzles at the bottom of the casing and is
routed to the reheat section of the boiler through the cold reheat line.
Steam Path [3/7]
IP Turbine Section
Diaphragms
(Stationary Parts)
Steam
Flow
Nozzle
Block
Buckets / Blades
(Rotating Parts)

Steam Path [4/7]
IP Turbine Section
 Steam is routed to the IP turbine through two parallel combined reheat intercept valves. During normal
operation, the reheat stop and intercept valves are fully open.
 The outlets of the combined reheat intercept valves are welded directly to the bottom half of the HP turbine
casing, near the center.
 Steam enters the IP turbine and passes through a nozzle block, which directs the steam onto the first stage of
IP turbine blades. Throughout the turbine, the turbine stages are numbered sequentially beginning with the
first stage of the HP turbine. Therefore, the first stage of the IP turbine is the seventh turbine stage.
 The IP turbine moving blades are attached to the common HP and IP turbine rotor. The blades are placed in
grooves machined into the rotor and held in position by pinning. Interstage diaphragms are located between
each stage of moving blades.
 The steam expands as it passes through each of the IP turbine stages and exhausts through a single
crossover pipe in the upper casing. The crossover pipe directs the steam to the LP turbines. The steam flow
through the IP turbine is toward the generator end, which is opposite to the flow in the HP turbine. By
arranging the flows in the HP and IP turbines in opposite directions, the axial thrust caused by the pressure
drop through the turbine stages is reduced.
 A portion of the steam flowing through the IP turbine is extracted at the 9th and 11th stages of the turbine and
supplied to feedwater heaters 7-6A, 7-6B and deaerating heater No. 5 respectively. The 11th stage extraction
steam is also the normal low-pressure steam supply to the boiler feed pump turbines and a source of fire
protection to the mills.

Steam Path [5/7]
LP Turbine Section
LP - B LP - A

Steam Path [6/7]
LP Turbine “A” Section
Steam Flow
Atmosphere Relief Diaphragm
(Breakable Diaphragm, or Low Pressure
Rupture Disc) Exhaust
Inner
Casing
Bearing Bearing
No.3 No.4

Steam Path [7/7]
LP Turbine Section
 The function of the LP turbines is to convert part of the remaining energy contained in the steam exhausted
from the IP turbine to mechanical energy for rotating the generator.
 The LP turbines are double-flow units with seven-stages. IP turbine exhaust steam flows through the
crossover pipe to the LP turbines. This steam enters each LP turbine at the center of the casing. Inside the
turbine, the steam flow is split, flowing across seven stages of blading to each end. The exhaust steam
leaving the LP turbines is then drawn through the exhaust hood to the main condenser.
 The LP turbine casing consists of two halves, upper and lower. The casing halves are machined and bolted
together to ensure a steam-tight fit. The upper half is provided with two rupture discs, which relieve to the
turbine room atmosphere if the turbine exhaust pressure exceeds 5 psig. The lower casing half consists of an
inner and outer casing. The inner casing is the exhaust hood. Exhaust steam enters the main condenser
through this hood.
 Exhaust hood spray is required to limit exhaust hood temperatures during startup and low loads, since the
steam flow through the turbine is not adequate to remove heat generated by the rotating turbine blades. The
condensate system supplies water to the exhaust hood sprays.
 The LP turbine rotor is a single solid forging. The rotating blades are placed in grooves machined in the rotor.
Each blade is pinned to ensure its position is fixed. The fixed blades are placed in grooves machined into the
turbine casing. They are also pinned to ensure their positions are fixed.

Nozzle Box
#1
#3
43 42
Turbine C.W.
Number of nozzle
42 43
#4 #2
500 MW (3,500 psig, 1,000F)

Stage
Stage = 1 row of nozzle + 1 row of bucket

Nozzle = Stationary blade
Bucket = Rotating blade
Bowl = Entrance of a stage
Shell = Exit of a stage
Dovetail = Lock the bucket with a rotor shaft
Seal = reduce the steam leakage

Diaphragm [1/2]
Diaphragms are fitted into the casing and contain the

Diaphragm : Partitions between two adjacent nozzles used to convert the pressure energy contained
bucket rows in a turbine's casing are called in the steam into the kinetic energy at each stage of the
diaphragms. They hold the nozzles and seals turbine.
between the stages. Usually labyrinth-type The rotor shaft passes through each diaphragm and a
seals are used. One-half of the diaphragm is seal is created at each stage between the diaphragm
fitted into the top of the casing, the other half and rotor by a labyrinth seal.
into the bottom.
The diaphragms are supported within the casing by rugs
and location keys that allow for expansion as the turbine
heats and cools.

Diaphragm [2/2]
다이아프램(Diaphragm)
• Inner ring과 outer ring 사이에 노즐을 조립한
하나의 열
• Outer ring은 터빈 케이싱에 조립되어 고정,
inner ring은 축을 둘러싸고 있으며 labyrinth
seal을 설치하여 증기누설 방지

Nozzle [1/2]
V V+dV 1
Convergent nozzle 
2
Nozzle is used to accelerate the flow.

On the contrary, diffuser is used to decelerate the flow.
 The steam is expanded partially or fully in a nozzle, resulting in the ejection of a high/medium velocity
jet.
 This jet of steam impinges on the moving blades, mounted on a shaft.
 Here it undergoes a change of direction and/or magnitude of motion which gives rise to a change in
momentum and therefore a force.

Nozzle [2/2]
노즐(Nozzle)
• 증기 가속을 통해 증기의 압력에너지를 운 c : absolute velocity of fluid
동에너지로 변환시킴 u : tangential velocity of blade
• 따라서 노즐 입구와 출구 사이에 압력 차이 w : velocity of fluid relative to blade
발생하며, 압력 차이가 클수록 다이아프램
을 튼튼하게 제작해야 함
c1
• 노즐을 빠져나온 증기는 큰 접선방향 속도 p1 1
성분을 가지며, 매우 큰 운동에너지를 가짐
Nozzle Row
2 c2
p2 2 w2
r u
 Bucket Row
x u
w3 3
p3 c3 3
Nozzle Row Bucket Row

Bucket [1/3]
Nomenclature
Diaphragm
버켓(Bucket)
Cover
• Rotating blade를 의미
Tip • 발전기를 구동하기 위한 회전동력 발생
• 노즐을 빠져나온 고속의 증기에 포함되어 있는 운동
Active length
에너지, 열에너지, 압력에너지를 기계적인 일로 변환
• 버켓은 로터를 회전시키며, 로터의 회전동력이 발전
기를 구동하여 전기 생산
Short bucket Long bucket

Root • Active length is longer
than 10 inches.
Dovetail
• Bucket vibration should
• Active length is shorter
be considered carefully.
than 10 inches.
Nozzle row Bucket row • Radial velocity
component is employed
in the design stage.
Stage

Bucket [2/3]
Dovetail
Fir tree type
Axial entry dovetail Pine tree type Finger type

Bucket [3/3]
Shrouded vs. Covered
Shrouded blade
Covered blade

터빈 동력생산 원리 [1/6]
유체역학적 힘

F = mV = V2A

m = VA (mass flow rate)
Nozzle
, V
A F R
Action
Reaction

터빈 블레이드 명칭
Blade Thickness Suction Side

Pressure Side
Leading Edge
Camber Trailing Edge

Angle
Deflection
Pitch
Stagger Angle
Blade Inlet Blade Outlet
Angle Angle
Gas Inlet
Angle Gas Outlet
Angle
Incidence
Direction of Tangential Deviation Direction of
Gas Flow Angle Gas Flow
Axial

유체유동에 의해 발생하는 힘
1
V1 m V1
 V1 sin 1  V2 sin  2 

m
Tangential
Axial
V2
m V2 2

 유체유동에 의해 버켓에 발생하는 힘의 크기
• 배기가스는 피치에 해당하는 면적에 경사진 형태로 버켓통로로 유입
• 따라서 유동조건과 버켓 열이 형성하는 기하학적 데이터를 이용하면 유입되는 배기가스에 의해 버켓에

접선방향으로 작용하는 힘의 크기 계산 가능
• 이와 같은 방법으로 버켓을 빠져나가는 유동조건을 이용하면 버켓을 빠져나가는 배기가스의 반작용에 의

해 발생하는 접선방향 힘의 크기 계산
• 그리고 유입되는 배기가스와 배출되는 배기가스에 의해 접선방향으로 작용하는 두 힘의 크기를 합치면

버켓에 접선방향으로 작용하는 전체 힘의 크기가 됨
• 그러나 이 방법으로는 버켓에 작용하는 힘의 크기를 정확하게 계산하기 어려움. 그 이유는 버켓 날개 표

면에서 발생하는 경계층 때문에 버켓을 빠져나오는 유동이 균일하지 못하기 때문임
 버켓에 작용하는 힘을 계산하기 위한 또 다른 방법으로 날개이론
• 이 방법은 버켓 표면에 작용하는 압력분포를 이용하여 양력을 계산하는 방법으로써 가장 정확하면서 실

제적으로 가장 많이 이용
• 흡입면 압력이 압력면에 비해서 낮으며, 이로 인해 버켓에 양력 발생

날개 주위 유체 거동
NACA 4412
Velocity distribution
1 1
po  p1  1V12  p2   2V22
2 2
Pressure distribution

 버켓 단면에 나타나는 공기역학적 현상을 살펴보면, 배기가스가 버켓을 지나면서 압력면(pressure

surface)에 흡입면(suction surface)보다 높은 압력 형성
 이로 인해 버켓 압력면에서 흡입면 방향으로, 즉 접선방향으로 버켓을 들어올리는 양력 발생
 그런데 버켓은 터빈 디스크에 체결되어 있기 때문에 버켓에 발생하는 양력은 터빈 축을 회전시키는 토크로
작용하며, 이 토크가 압축기와 발전기 구동에 사용되는 회전력으로 작용
 버켓에서 생산된 양력에 버켓이 회전한 거리를 곱하면 버켓이 한 일의 크기가 되며, 이 일의 크기가 버켓에서
생산된 기계적인 일의 크기가 됨. 한편, 일을 시간으로 나누면 동력이 됨
1
p2 p1 p
c1
½ c12
Direction of
b Rotation P S S P
P: Pressure Surface
S: Suction Surface ½ c22
c2 2 p2 po

Last Stage Blade [1/8]
Flow in a Convergent-Divergent Nozzle
Blade
dA dV Compressor direction Turbine
= (M21) Blades Blades
A V
Axial
direction
M1 M1
M  1 Convergent Nozzle M  1 Convergent Nozzle
(Nozzle) (Nozzle)
M  1 M  1
Divergent Nozzle M1 Divergent Nozzle M  M  1
(Diffuser) (Diffuser)

Convergent-divergent nozzle
dA dV
= (M21)
A V
M=1
M1 M1
[ Convergent-Divergent Nozzle ]
Blade Overlap
[ Supersonic Converging-Diverging Nozzle, GE ]

삼천포화력본부 #6 LSB LSB developed by Siemens

(33.5”/3600 rpm) (32”/3600 rpm)

Mach Number Distribution Siemens
32-LSB/3600rpm (Siemens)

LSB Features
1) LSB는 LP터빈 형상을 결정하는 중요한 요소
2) LSB 길이는 사이트 대기조건과 응축계통에 의해서 가장 큰 영향을 받음
3) LSB가 길어질수록 배기손실이 감소하여 증기터빈 성능 향상. 그러나 동일한 출력을 가지는 증기터빈의 경우
LSB가 길어질수록 제작비 증가
4) LSB는 큰 출력 생산. 일반적으로 대형 화력발전의 경우 LSB는 증기터빈 전체 출력의 약 10%를 생산. 복합발
전의 경우 LSB는 증기터빈 출력의 15~17% 정도 생산
5) LSB가 길어지면 큰 회전속도가 나타나는 LSB 팁 부위에서 초음속유동 발생. 따라서 길이가 긴 LSB 팁 부위
날개형상은 초음속유동에 적합한 수축-확산노즐 형태를 가짐
6) LSB는 습증기 영역에서 운전되며, 큰 회전속도를 가지는 팁 부위에서는 물방울과 큰 속도로 충돌하기 때문
에 습분침식 발생. 따라서 대부분의 LSB는 화염경화나 방식막(erosion shield) 부착 등을 통해 습분침식 대
비
7) LSB에는 고속회전으로 인한 큰 인장응력 발생. 최근에는 인장응력을 이겨내기 위해서 비중이 철금속의 절반
정도인 티타늄합금을 이용하여 LSB 제작. 티타늄합금은 습분침식과 부식 저항성이 우수하기 때문에 LSB 재
료로 많이 사용되고 있음. 그러나 티타늄합금은 가공성이 불량하기 때문에 LSB는 고가임
8) LSB는 길어질수록 고유진동수가 작아지기 때문에 진동특성 불량

57 inch 69 inch 75 inch

1.45 m 1.75 m 1.9 m
[ A typical LSB for Fossil Power Plants ] [ Typical LSBs for Nuclear Power Plants ]

Turbine Output and Annular Exhaust Area
 45 LSB results in a 28% increase in annulus area over that of the 40 LSB.
 Longer LSB provides reduced leaving velocity, which results in low exhaust losses and improved heat rate.
 Increasing the turbine exhaust annular area gives increased capacity and turbine efficiency, but it increases
turbine size and capital and construction costs.
 Increasing the LSB length is restricted by centrifugal stresses in blades, and the number of LP flows and LP
cylinders cannot be too great because of the total turbine length.
 A way to reduce the centrifugal loads and make the longer LSB is to use titanium materials, which is lighter
and stronger than steel.
 Longer blades are more expensive than shorter ones because they have a better resistance to water droplet
erosion.
 The longer the blades, the harder vibration control of blades because of lower natural frequency.
 A cylinder with too long a rotor has to be designed with increased radial clearances in its steam path because
of weight bowing of the rotor and danger of its increased vibration.

Convergent-Divergent LSB Siemens
 The convergent-divergent LSB gives higher efficiency than

conventional LSB for higher discharge velocities of Mach
number of 1.4 in the tip section
 However, the LSB having flat profile becomes more efficient

below a Mach number of 1.4 Convergent-divergent nozzle
 Therefore, it should be investigated flow behaviors at the tip

region of LSB during part load operation and changed back
pressure
 It was found that, with reduced volumetric flow in the last stage
blade, the steam moves towards tip section, Thus, when the
overall volumetric flow is decreased, the flow distribution over
the blade length changes, resulting in a much larger reduction
of flow in the hub section and little change at the tip section
 Typically, discharge velocity at the tip of LSB does not drop

below a Mach number of 1.3, which justifies the application of
the convergent-divergent profile under typically changing
operating conditions of power plants
[ Free standing LSB (Siemens) ]
Typical Turbine Location of Problems
SPE of Valves WDE of LSB
SPE of Blades Rotor Bow

due to rubbing
in transient
operation such as
during startup
Bearing Rubbing Seal Rubbing Fouling Stress Corrosion Cracking

Component Deterioration Potential
Potential Components Causes

LSB • WDE
• SPE - high temperature and velocity
HP-1 stage • creep (bucket)
high
• high cycle fatigue - partial arc admission
• SPE - high temperature
IP-1 stage
• creep (bucket)
LSB & L1 stage • corrosion
stages with drilled hole in the vane for
• corrosion
lacing wires
medium
HP-2, 3 & IP-2, 3 • SPE
HP-1 & IP-1 diaphragm • creep
Nozzle box • SPE

All other components and stages in the
low
unit

Formation of Wet Steam
Water Droplet
Erosion
Fog Formation
(Condensation Shock)
Phase
Dry Steam Change Wet Steam

2 Steam Path Parts
3 Valves
4 Rotor
5 Casing
6 Bearing

Steam Turbine Flow Diagram
Main Steam
Stop V/V Crossover pipe
Control V/V
HP bypass
HP IP LP
station
LP Gen
Cold Ventilation
V/V
Reheat
Reheat Stop and

Reheater Intercept V/V
Condenser
Hot Reheat HRH bypass station

(HRH: Hot Reheat)

Throttling Process [1/8]
 유체가 노즐이나 오리피스와 같이 갑자기 유로가 좁아지는 곳을 통과하면 외부와 열량이나 일의 교환 없이

도 압력이 감소하는 교축과정(throttling process) 발생.
 교축과정이 발생하면 와류가 생성되어 에너지가 손실되면서 압력손실 발생.
 작동유체가 액체인 경우 교축과정이 일어나서 압력이 액체의 포화압력보다 낮아지면 액체의 일부가 증발하
며, 증발에 필요한 열을 액체 자신으로부터 흡수하기 때문에 액체 온도 감소.
P
Pressure
1 2

열역학 제1법칙:
q12  h2  h1    
c2  c1  g z2  z1   w12
1 2 2
2
단순유동에서 교축과정이 일어나면, 벽면에서의 열전달이 없으며, 이루어진 일이나 공급된 일도

없으며, 위치에너지 변화량도 무시할 수 있으므로,
h2  h1   1 c22  c12   0

2
속도가 40m/s 이하인 경우 운동에너지 변화량은 엔탈피 변화량에 비해 매우 작다.
h2  h1 (교축과정 = 등엔탈피 과정)
교축과정은 발전설비에서 자주 일어나는 과정인데, 특히 증기가 밸브를 통과할 때 교축과정이 발

생하며, 이때 압력강하가 발생한다.

증기 특성
 작동유체가 이상기체인 경우 교축과정이 발생한 후에 엔탈피는 일정하게 유지됨.
 엔탈피는 온도만의 함수이므로 교축과정 발생 후에 온도변화 없음.
 그러나 작동유체가 증기인 경우에는 교축과정이 발생하면 압력과 온도가 떨어져서 에너지 수준이 낮아짐.
 주울-톰슨 효과(Joule-Thomson effect).
 증기터빈 버켓커버 상부에는 증기누설을 방지하기 위해서 seal을 설치하여 증기누설 방지.
 Seal을 통해서 누설되는 증기는 seal strips을 통과하면서 교축과정이 발생하기 때문에 실을 빠져나온 증기
는 온도와 압력이 떨어져서 엔탈피가 낮아짐.
 따라서 누설증기가 다음 단에서 주유동과 합류하더라도 주유동의 에너지 수준을 높이지 못하기 때문에 손실
발생  누설손실
 즉 누설증기가 실을 빠져나오면서 에너지를 잃지 않았다면 다음 단에서 사용할 수 있지만 이미 잃어버렸기

때문에 손실이 됨.

A Basic Concept for Part Load Operation
MS R
C/V
HP Turbine LP Turbine
Pressure
100% Power
75% Power
50% Power
25% Power

Output and Efficiency at Part Load
Example: 460 MW, supercritical power plant
500 49.0

470 48.3
  Efficiency  

440
  47.6
  Power 
410  46.9

Efficiency, %

Power, MW
380  46.2


350 45.5
 
320  44.8

290  44.1


260 43.4

230   42.7
200 42.0
45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Load [%]

Velocity Diagram at Various Loads
Nozzle Row
U 25% load
25%
100% 100% load
U
75% load
50% load
Bucket Row
Design efficiency of the turbine blades is maintained during part load operations by using the control
valve

Effect of Throttling on Non-Reheat Steam Turbine Expansion Line
h p0 p1
p1’
 A turbine has different expansion lines as T0
the load is decreased. p0: Inlet pressure
1 1′
p1: Throttle pressure
 But the part load expansion lines are Design-flow expansion line
generally parallel to the full load expansion
Partial-flow expansion line
Available Energy
line.
Expansion lines are

essentially parallel
 This means that the internal efficiency under
part load conditions is very close to that
under full load conditions. pc
2′
2
 However, the cycle efficiency is reduced
under part load conditions.

Principle of Labyrinth Seal
 The steam has an initial pressure P1 at the entry to the seal

assembly.
 After expanding past the first constriction, the pressure will

have been reduced to condition Xo, with pressure P2.
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
 In the chamber formed between the first and second seal X Y Z
strips, the kinetic energy of the steam is destroyed and
Rotation Side Leakage
reconverted at constant pressure P2 to condition X.
Flow
 From point X, there is then a further expansion of the steam
past the second constriction, with the pressure falling to P3 at
condition Yo.
h P1 P2 P3 P4
 The kinetic energy is again reconverted in the chamber
between the second and third seal strips, raising the thermal    
T1 X Y Z
energy level from Yo to Y at constant pressure P3. P5
 
 This process of expansion and kinetic energy reconversion is
Xo Y 
o
Zo 
continued throughout the series of seal strips until the final Qo
expansion takes the steam to condition Qo at pressure P5.
 The locus of the points Xo….Qo is called the Fanno curve.

s

Main Steam Valves
Generals
Valve 개수(표준화력 500MW 기준)

- Stop v/v : 2
- Control v/v : 4
Stop valve = on-off valve

Control valve = throttle valve라고도 불리며,
load 연동
Typical closing time during emergency

- Stop v/v : 0.09초 10%
- Control v/v : 0.11초 10%

Typical Individual Stop and Control Valve Assembly
GE
Steam
Steam Strainer
Inlet
Valve Disc
Pressure
Valve Seat Seal Head
MSV
Steam
Actuator Outlet
Valve Stem
MCV
Closing
Spring
Actuator Actuator
[ Main Stop Valve ]

Main Stop Valves [1/3]
 The main stop valves are located in the main steam piping between the boiler and the turbine control valve
chest.
 The primary function of the stop valves is to provide backup protection for the steam turbine during turbine
generator trips in the event the main steam control valves do not close.
 The energy contained in the main steam can cause the turbine to reach destructive overspeed quickly when
generator loose the load.
 The main stop valves close from full open to full closed in 0.15 to 0.5 s.
 The main stop valves are closed on unit normal shutdown after the control valves have closed.
 A secondary function of the main stop valves is to provide steam throttling control during startup.
 The main stop valve bypass valves are also used for full arc operation during startup and shutdown of the
turbine.
 The main stop valves typically have internal bypass valves that allow throttling control of the steam from
initial turbine roll to loads of 15% to 25%.
 During this startup time, the main steam control valves are wide open and the bypass valves are used to
control the steam flow.
 The main steam stop valves are operated and controlled by the turbines Electro Hydraulic Control System.
 Some recent and current designs do not have these bypass valves.
 Initial turbine speed runup is controlled by the main stop valves.

Bypass Valve GE
 The bypass valve is held in the valve disk by a

bolted cap. Holes are located in the cap for steam
entrance, and holes in the valve disk pass the Bypass
steam when the bypass valve is utilized. Valve Disc
Main Stop
 When the stop valve is opened the bypass valve Valve Disc
Bypass
opens first as the valve stem moves in the open Main Stop Valve Ports
direction. Valve Disc (8 ea)
Seating
 When the bypass valve is fully open it contacts a Surface
bushing on the stop valve and pulls it open. When Main Stop
Valve Stem
the stop valve is fully open, a bushing seats on the
inner end of the valve stem bushing and prevents
[ Stop Valve Bypass ]
steam leakage along the valve stem.
 Each stop valve has two steam leakoff points where the stop valve stem passes through the stop valve
casing.
 The first leakoff point located closest to the stop valve is referred to as the high-pressure leakoff and is
routed to the steam seal header.
 During startup or low loads steam is supplied to this leakoff to assure a seal. After the turbine is loaded,
steam is fed through this line from the stop valve stem into the steam seal header.
 The second leakoff point is referred to as the low-pressure leakoff and is routed to the gland steam
condenser.

Bypass Valve

Main Steam Control Valves [1/4]
 The steam from the stop valves flows to the Steam from Steam from
No.1 C/V Snout Pipes No.3 C/V
main steam control or governor valves.
Snout
 The primary function of control valves is to Pipe
Seal
regulate the steam flow to the turbine and thus Rings
HP
control the power output of the steam turbine Inner
Shell
generator.
 The control valves also serve as the primary 180 Degree Nozzle Box
shutoff the steam to the turbine on unit normal
shutdowns and trips. HP
HP
Inner
Inner Shell
Shell
Upper
Lower
Actuator HP HP
Inner Inner
Shell Shell
MSV 180 Degree Nozzle Box
HP
Inner
Actuator Snout Shell
MCV Pipe
Seal
Rings
Steam from Steam from

MHI No.2 C/V Snout Pipes No.4 C/V
Siemens

#1
Fully Open
#1
#2 Steam
Partially Open Flow
#3
Closed
#2
#4
Closed
Stop V/V Control V/V Nozzle Bucket

(1.5% p) (1.5% p @ VWO) First stage
shell pressure

GE
 The control valves regulate the steam flow to the turbine to
control the main turbine speed and/or load. The four control
valves are mounted in line on a common external valve chest.
Steam is supplied to the external valve chest through the main
Closing
stop valves. The valve chest is separated from the turbine, and
Spring
individual steam leads from the valve chest are provided from
each control valve to the inlet of the HP turbine. Each control
valve is operated by a hydraulic power actuator which positions
the control valves in response to signals from the Electro
Hydraulic Control System.
 During startup, the control valves are wide open (full arc), and
the stop valves’ internal bypass valves control the steam flow to
the turbine. Under these conditions, steam is admitted through Balance
Chamber
all four steam leads around the entire periphery of the HP
turbine inlet. The purpose of this full arc admission is to reduce
thermal stresses caused by unequal steam flow through the Steam
nozzle sections. During full arc admission, throttling of the Valve
Seat Valve Chest
steam occurs at the stop valve bypass valves only, and there is Disc
uniform steam flow into the HP turbine. This also results in
lower steam velocities at the turbine inlet. Because of the lower
steam velocities the temperatures cannot change as rapidly.
Full arc admission is used until the high transfer point is [ Main Steam Control Valve ]
reached, at which time transfer to partial arc will occur.

GE
 During normal operation, the main stop valves are wide open and the control valves control steam flow to
the turbine. The control valves operate sequentially to control steam flow to the turbine and the unit load.
 All four control valves are never open the same amount for any given load up to full load with wide-open
control valves. This is referred to as partial arc admission.
 Transfer to partial arc admission is normally automatically performed by the low transfer and high transfer
micro- switches but may also be initiated by the operator when the OK TO TRANSFER light comes on.
 The control valves are throttled until they have control of steam flow and the stop valves then automatically
run full open.
 Number l and 2 control valves are balanced type, with internal pilot valves. Number 3 and 4 control valves
are unbalanced single disk type.
 The balanced type valves are equipped with an internal pilot valve connected to the valve stem. When
opening, the pilot valve is opened first to equalize the pressure across the main valve disk. Further opening
of the stem opens the main disk.
 The disk of the unbalanced type valve is directly connected to the stem.
 Each control valve is provided with two steam leakoff points where the control valve stem passes through
the external steam chest wall. The first leakoff point located closest to the external steam chest is referred to
as the high-pressure leakoff and is routed to the hot reheat steam line. The second leakoff point is referred
to as the low-pressure leakoff and is routed to the steam seal header.

Reheat Stop and Intercept Valves [1/3]
[ Combined Reheat Stop and Intercept Valve, GE ]

 Two combined reheat stop and intercept GE

valves are provided, one in each hot
reheat line supplying reheat steam to the
IP turbine.
Steam
 As the name implies, the combined Balance Strainer
reheat intercept valve is actually two Chamber
valves, the intercept valve (IV) and the
reheat stop valve (RSV), incorporated in Steam
one valve casing. In
 Although they utilize a common casing,

these valves have separate operating Intercept
mechanisms and controls. Disc Intercept
Reheat Actuator
 The function of the intercept valves and Stop Disc
reheat stop valves is to protect the Steam Out
turbine against overspeed from stored
steam in the reheater.
Closing
Spring
Reheat Stop
Actuator
[ Reheat Stop and Intercept Valves (SKODA) ]
 The function of the reheat stop and intercept valves is similar to the main steam stop and control valves.
 The reheat stop valve offer backup protection for the steam turbine in the event of a unit trip and failure of
the intercept valves to close.
 The intercept valves control unit speed during shutdowns and on large load changes, and protect against
destructive overspeeds on unit trips.
 The need for these valves is a result of the large amount of energy available in the steam present in the HP
turbine, the hot and cold reheat lines, and the reheater.
 On large load changes, the main steam control valves start to close to control speed, however, energy in the
steam present after the main steam control valves may be sufficient to cause the unit to overspeed.
 The steam after the main steam control valves could expand through the IP and LP turbines to the
condenser, supplying more power output than is required, causing the turbine to overspeed.
 The intercept valves are used to throttle the steam flow to the IP turbine in this situation to control turbine
speed.
 During unit shutdowns, a similar situation could occur, and the intercept valves are used to control speed
under these conditions as for the trip condition.
 During unit trips, both the reheat stop and the intercept valves close, preventing the reheat-associated steam
from entering the IP turbine.
 During normal unit operation, the reheat stop and intercept valves are wide open, and load control is
performed by the main steam valves only.

Ventilation Valve
 During unit trips, the closure of the main stop and control valves and of the
reheat stop and intercept valves traps steam in the HP turbine.
 During the turbine overspeed and subsequent coastdown, the HP turbine

blades are subject to windage losses from rotating in this trapped steam.
 The windage losses cause the blades to be heated.
 This heating, in combination with the overspeed stress, can damage the HP
turbine blades.
 To prevent this, a ventilation valve is provided to bleed the trapped steam to

the condenser.
 On a unit trip, the valve is automatically opened.
 The bleeding action causes the trapped steam to flow through the HP turbine,
maintaining the HP turbine temperature within acceptable limits by preventing
heat buildup from the windage losses. [ Ventilation Valve, CCI ]

2 Steam Path Parts
3 Valves
4 Rotor
5 Casing
6 Bearing

LP Rotor Shaft [1/2]
 블레이드가 장착되어 있는 로터축은 LP터빈 전체 가

격의 약 40% 차지.
 로터축 가격은 허브 지름에 의해서 결정. 로터축 가격

을 낮추기 위하여 허브 지름을 줄이면 버켓 단 수와 로
터축 길이 증가 (h  U2). 로터축이 가늘고 길어지면
회전체 동력학 측면에서 설계 어려움. 아울러 로터축
이 길어지면 터빈빌딩이 커지기 때문에 발전소 건설비
용 증가.
 단 수와 허브 지름은 LP터빈 구성과 로터축 설계를 결

정하는 가장 중요한 요소.
Shrunk-on rotor
Monoblock rotor
Welded rotor
LP Rotor Shaft [2/2]
 열박음 로터축(shrunk-on rotor)

• 초대형 잉곳을 확보하기 어려울 때 사용.
• 지름이 작은 로터축을 제작한 후에 휠 디스크를 제작하여 열박음을 통하여 일체화.
• 제작이 쉬운 반면에 기동정지 시에 불안정한 진동이 발생하기 쉬우며, 휠 디스크에 응력부식균열이 발생
하는 단점 보유.
• 최근에는 거의 채택하지 않고 있음.
 일체형 로터축(monoblock rotor)
• 최근 제강기술이 발달하여 가공중량 200톤 정도의 일체형 로터축 제작
• 열박음 로터축에 비해 강도가 한층 높으며, 응력부식균열이 나타나지 않기 때문에 신뢰성이 높음.
• 열박음 로터축에 비해 제작에 많은 시간이 소요.
• 국내 화력발전 LP터빈 로터축은 모두 일체형이며, 원자력발전은 영광 5.6호기와 울진 5.6호기부터 모두
일체형으로 설계.
 용접 로터축(welded rotor)
• 원자력발전과 같은 대형 LP터빈에 사용. 현재는 용접기술과 열처리기술이 발달하여 몇 개의 로터를 용접
으로 연결하여 하나의 로터축으로 제작한 용접 로터축을 많이 사용.
• 가격이 상대적으로 저렴한 작은 잉곳 여러 개를 이용하기 때문에 전체적으로 가격 저렴.
• 제작단계에서 재료결함 검사가 용이하기 때문에 신뢰성 우수. 일반적으로 로터축 내부 빈 공간은 부식 방
지를 위해 진공 유지.
• 두 가지 이상의 서로 다른 재료를 용접하여 사용할 수 있기 때문에 로터축 온도분포에 따른 최적의 로터축
제작. 초임계압 발전에서 나타나는 고온부식을 줄이기 위해 전통적으로 사용하던 CrMoV에 9Cr과 12Cr강
을 용접하여 사용.

Wheel Type vs. Drum Type
Bucket
Tip
Impulse Reaction
disc wheels cylindrical

shrunk on to a drum type
rotor shaft Diaphragm rotor
Root

2 Steam Path Parts
3 Valves
4 Rotor
5 Casing
6 Bearing

Casing
제작 구조
HP/IP Casing Casting Single Casing 저압력 터빈(원자력) & Small turbine
LP Casing Fabrication Double Casing High pressure & Large turbine
Crossover Pipe
HP Outer Casing
HP Inner Casing
LP Outer Casing
LP Inner Casing
IP Outer Casing
IP Inner Casing
Bearing Pedestal

Generals for Casing
 케이싱 특성
• 대형 증기터빈의 경우 고압(HP)/중압(IP)/저압(LP) 케이싱으로 구성
• 분해/조립이 쉽도록 수평면 기준 2분할 구조이며, 볼트로 결합
• 배럴형(barrel type, or cylindrical type)으로도 제작 – 열응력과 강도 측면에서 우수, 터빈을 수직
으로 세워 분해/조립해야 하므로 정비 측면에서는 불리
• 저압 케이싱 하부는 복수기와 연결
• Inner casing에는 노즐과 다이아프램(블레이드 링) 장착
• 열팽창이 자유로우며, 일정한 형상 유지
• 케이싱 하부에 배수관(drain tube) 설치 - 터빈 정지 시 케이싱 내부 응축수 생성으로 인한 부식
및 열변형 방지
 2중 케이싱 특성
• 열응력 감소 – 터빈 출구 증기를 inner casing과 outer casing 사이로 흐르게 하여 각각의 케이싱
내면과 외면의 온도차를 감소시켜 열응력 발생 감소
• 기동/정지 시간 단축
• 케이싱 두께 감소 – 케이싱 내면과 외면의 압력차 감소
Barrel type casing (Siemens)

HP/IP Casing

IP Casing
Single casing (GE)
Double casing (Siemens)

LP Casing [1/7]

LP Casing [2/7]
LP Turbine (Siemens) LP Turbine Inner Casing (Siemens)

LP Casing [3/7]
Siemens
 A push rod concept permits parallel axial thermal expansion of LP rotor and inner casing.
 This reduces clearances between rotor and casing and improves the efficiency.

LP Casing [4/7]
Atmospheric Relief Diaphragm
 외부케이싱 외부는 대기압, 내부는 복수기 진공압력이 작

용하기 때문에 외부케이싱에는 약 500톤의 진공하중이 작
용. 외부케이싱은 진공하중 이외에 내부케이싱 중량과 약
150톤 정도의 외부케이싱 자중이 작용. 따라서 외부케이
싱은 이들 하중에 견딜 수 있도록 강도와 강성을 확보하기
위하여 내부 여러 곳에 지지대와 리브 설치.
 외부케이싱 상부에는 동판으로 제작된 대기방출판

(atmospheric relief diaphragm, or breakable
diaphragm, or rupture disc) 설치.
 대기방출판은 증기터빈 안전장치로서 복수기에 냉각수 공

급이 정지하거나 어떤 다른 원인에 의해서 LP exhaust
hood 압력이 대기압보다 높은 압력(130~140 kPa)으로
올라가면 외부케이싱 외부로 증기압력이 작용하여 동판이
칼날에 의해 절단되면서 증기를 외부로 방출시켜 LP
exhaust hood 및 복수기 파손을 방지.
 만약 운전 중에 배압이 상승하면 경보가 울리며, 계속해서

상승하면 low vacuum trip이 작동하여 증기터빈을 트립시
켜 LP exhaust hood와 복수기를 보호하지만 그 이상으로
올라가면 최종적으로 대기방출판이 절단되면서 증기터빈
보호.

LP Casing [5/7]
LP Exhaust Hood
Siemens
 LP exhaust hood is a transition structure Inner Casing

between the LSB exit and the condenser. Collector
Steam
Outer Casing Guide
 It consists of a steam guide, bearing cone,
butterfly vane, outer casing, end wall, and End
Bearing Wall
various plates.
Cone
 It changes the direction of the steam flow

exiting LSB plane from axial to radial of
the downward flow LP exhaust hood.
 It supports the main components of LP

turbine, such as inner casing, diaphragms, LSB
bearings etc. Steam Flow
Condenser Flange

LP Casing [6/7]
LP Exhaust Hood - Axial Flow Exhaust
Siemens
 It is generally employed for small industrial steam turbines.
 The steam exiting LSB enters condenser in axial direction.
 The flow distribution is uniform on the LSB exit plane along circumferential direction.
 It has a lower exhaust loss than downward flow LP exhaust hood.
 It requires a larger plant area than downward flow LP exhaust hood.
SST-800 (Siemens) SST-600 (Siemens)

LP Casing [7/7]
LP Exhaust Hood - Downward Flow Exhaust
 It is generally employed for large steam turbines.
 It has a higher exhaust loss than axial flow LP exhaust hood because of the change of flow direction
from axial to radial, and then downward finally.
 It requires a smaller plant area than axial flow LP exhaust hood.

Exhaust Loss
h
hT1
W = Work
hS1 HL = Hood Loss
LL = Leaving Loss
EL = Exhaust Loss
EEL = Effective EL
Static Total Expansion Line
UEEP = Used Energy End Point (or TEP)
Expansion W
Line ELEP = Expansion Line End Point
SEP = Static End Point
sB EL = Change in EL
W = Change in Work
hT2 EEL = Change in EEL
EL W=EEL pc = Static Pressure at Turbine
LL EEL Exhaust Flange
EL
pTB = Total Pressure at Last Blade Exit
HL SEP pSB = Static Pressure at Last Blade Exit
ELEP

Typical Exhaust Loss Curve
UEEP = ELEP + Exhaust Loss
Annulus
50
Restriction
Loss
The internal efficiency of a
Exhaust Loss, Btu/lb of dry flow

steam turbine does not include 40
the loss at the turbine exhaust Gross Hood
Loss
end.
The exhaust loss includes Total
30 Exhaust
(1) actual leaving loss, Turn-up Loss
(2) gross hood loss, Loss
(3) annulus-restriction loss,
(4) turn-up loss. 20
Actual
10 Leaving
Loss
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Sonic
Annulus Velocity, fps

Exhaust Loss [3,600 rpm, GE]
50 23
2 3 4 5 Bucket Pitch Last stage 1
4
Curve length diameter annulus area 5
46
no. (inches) (inches) single flow (ft2)
1 14.3 52.4 16.3
42 1 16.5 57.5 20.7
1 17 52 19.3
38 1 20 60 26.2
Exhaust Loss, Btu/lb of dry flow
2 23 65.5 32.9
3 26 72 41.1
34
4 30 85 55.6
5 33.5 90.5 66.1
30 Van = Annulus velocity (fps)
m = Condenser flow (lb/hr)
 = Saturated dry specific volume (ft3/lb)
26 1 Aan = Annulus area (ft2)
Y = Percent moisture at ELEP
22 ELEP = Expansion line end point at actual
exhaust pressure (Btu/lb)
UEEP = Used energy end point (Btu/lb)
18
(1) Read the exhaust loss at the annulus velocity obtained from
the following expression:
14
Van = m(1-0.01Y) / 3600Aan
(2) The enthalpy of steam entering the condenser is the quantity
10 obtained from the following expression:
UEEP = ELEP + (Exhaust loss)(0.87)(1-0.01Y)(1-0.0065Y)
6
(3) This exhaust loss includes the loss in internal efficiency
which occurs at light flows as obtained in tests.
2
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Annulus Velocity, ft/s

Exhaust Hood Spray [1/6]
Turn-up Loss
Turn-up
Region
Normal Rating Operation Low Load Operation

Water supply line
Water
spray
LSB
Water running down

casing walls
Recirculating steam
[ Source: 한전KPS ]
[ Eroded Trailing Edge of LSB near the Hub ] [ Recirculation in the Exhaust Hood ]

 When the relative velocity leaving LSB is very low, LSB acts like a compressor, and this makes the exhaust
loss is getting higher.
 Evidence this pumping action can be detected on turbines with an L-1 extraction. That is, the pressure of
extracted steam from L-1 stage is lower than the condenser pressure during part load operations.
 The heat produced by the pumping action requires cooling on both LSB and LP exhaust hood.
 In order to remove the windage heat that is generated by recirculation occurred in the lower half of last stage
blade, water is sprayed into the exhaust hood.
 The spray water cools the LSB and exhaust hood.
 The spray water starts at 60C(140F) in LSB exit and turbine is tripped at 107C(225F) in LSB exit or at
260C(500F) in L-1 stage.
 Additional evidence can be detected by the slight water droplet erosion occurred near the root on the suction
side of trailing edge of LSB.
 This water droplet erosion is caused by the suction of the spray water into the trailing edge of LSB because
of reverse pressure gradient between L-1 and the last stage.
 It had also been found that a large recirculation flow is formed near the root of LSB because of reverse
pressure gradient between L-1 and the last stage.
 This recirculation flow produces another loss, which is called as “turn-up loss”.

Trailing Edge Erosion
A crack emanating from a

trailing edge gouge
Trailing edge erosion on the Crack in the trailing edge

suction side caused by erosion - PT

Turn-up Region에서의 사고사례 [1/2]

Turn-up Region에서의 사고사례 [2/2]

2 Steam Path Parts
3 Valves
4 Rotor
5 Casing
6 Bearing
8 Type of Steam Turbines

Bearing
 베어링과 접촉하고 있는 축 부분을 저널(journal)이라고 하며, 그 접촉상태에 따라 미끄럼베어링(sliding
bearing)과 구름베어링(rolling bearing) 두 종류로 분류
 미끄럼베어링은 베어링이 저널부의 표면 전부 또는 표면의 일부를 둘러싼 것 같이 되어 있으며, 베어링과
저널의 접촉면 사이에는 보통 윤활유 존재. 이 베어링은 면과 면이 접촉하기 때문에 축이 회전할 때 마찰저
항이 구름베어링보다 크지만 큰 하중을 지지할 수 있음
 구름베어링은 축과 베어링의 볼 또는 롤러가 접촉하며 축이 회전하면 볼 또는 롤러도 같이 회전하기 때문에
마찰저항이 작음.
 회전하는 기계축에는 하중이 축과 수직으로 걸리는 경우와 축방향으로 걸리는 경우가 있음.
 베어링은 하중 방향에 따라 그 구조가 많이 달라지며, 축과 수직으로 하중이 걸리는 경우에 사용하는 것을
저널 또는 레이디얼(journal or radial)베어링이라 하고, 축방향으로 하중이 작용하는 경우에 쓰이는 것을 스
러스트(thrust)베어링이라 함
Journal
(Radial) Force
Thrust Force

Journal Bearing [1/7]
Tilting Pad Journal Bearing
Rotation
Oil Discharge Oil Inlet

[ Typical Forces Acting on Individual Pads ]

Film Pressure
Distribution
W  mAUB (h1/h2)2
U
Q1  h1 - Q1' (P)
2
U W: Load capacity
Q2  h2  Q'2 (P)
2
Q1  Q2  Qs m: Oil viscosity
A: Shoe area
U: Runner velocity
h1: Inlet film thickness
U Q2 h2
Q1 h2: Outlet film thickness
h1
Q: Flow rate
Qs Qs: Side flow rate
X
X/B: Pivot ratio
B

Elliptical Journal Bearing
Rotation

 The journal bearings are numbered 1 through 10 beginning with No. 1 located in the front standard, and
proceeding through No. 6 located at the generator end of No. 2 LP turbine. Journal bearings No. 7 and 8 are
generator bearings, and 9 and 10 are exciter bearings.
 Journal bearings No. 1 and 2 are tilting pad, self-aligning bearings consisting of six Babbitt-lined steel pads.
The pads are supported on a straight seal in the bearings shells, three in each half, so as to be free to pivot
in the direction of shaft movement and adapt them to the greatest oil film wedge during operation.
 Oil is fed into the bearing at the center joint on the upcoming side of the journal. The oil groove at the
opposite joint contains a drilled hole, which restricts the flow sufficiently to build up a slight pressure on the
discharge side of the bearing. Oil passing through this discharge hole is carried to the oil sight box; most of
the oil, however, discharges through the ends of the bearings.
 Journal bearings No. 3 through No. 10 are elliptical bore-type bearings.
 The ellipse of the bearing bore is obtained by machining the bore to the larger horizontal diameter, with
shims inserted in the joints of the bearings; the shims are then removed for final assembly. The bore has an
overshot oil groove extending over the top half of the lining.
 To facilitate the entrance and discharge of the oil, the bearing has the Babbitt cut away at the horizontal joint.
This forms oil grooves with well rounded edges, which extends to within a short distance of the ends of the
bearing.
 The TURBINE BRG TEMP HIGH alarm is energized whenever the exiting oil temperature exceeds 155F.

Elliptical Journal Bearing
정지상태 회전 시작 회전 시작 후 고속 회전
Load Rotation Rotation Rotation
Journal at rest Rotation begins Journal pushed Journal moves to

No oil film Oil film forms over to left against right in direction of
direction of rotation rotation

Y
Divergent
Cavitated Film
Bearing
Converging
Oil Wedge
X
Rotation
Hydrodynamic Minimum Film

Pressure Profile Maximum Film
Temperature
Center Line
Maximum Pressure

Thrust Bearing [1/4]
Leveling Plates Oil Wedge
Base Ring Thrust

Collar
Thrust Direction of
Equalizing Thrust Bearing Rotating Thrust Collar Rotation
Pivoted
Shoe
[ Tapered Land Oil Wedge ]

Equalizing Thrust Bearing - Kingsbury

Copper Backed
Tapered Land
Thrust Plates
Thrust Runner Thrust Runner
Thrust case
Turbine Shaft
Thrust case
Spacer Plates

 The thrust bearing is located on the main shaft of the turbine. Independently mounted inside the middle
standard, the thrust bearing absorbs the axial thrust of the turbine and generator rotors, which are
connected by a solid coupling.
 This tapered-land thrust bearing consists of two stationary thrust plates, and two rotating thrust collars on
the turbine shaft, which provide the front and back faces to the bearing. These plates are supported in a
casing so that they may be positioned against the rotating faces of the collars. The thrust collar faces are
machined and lapped, producing smooth, parallel surfaces.
 The surfaces of the two thrust plates are babbitted, and have tapered lands of fixed converging surfaces,
permitting a wedge of oil to exist between the rotating thrust collars and the thrust plates. The thrust plates
are constructed as split copper rings, with the babbitted surfaces divided into lands by radial, oil feed
grooves. The surface of each land is tapered, so that it slopes toward the rotating collar, both in the direction
of rotation and from the inner to the outer radius at the leading edge of the land. The radial grooves are
dammed at the outer ends, maintaining an oil pressure in the groove.
 Bearing oil, at 25-psi, is fed into the thrust bearing by separate feed pipes to each thrust plate. The proper
amount of oil is metered to the bearing by an orifice in each pipe. The individual oil supplies enter the lower
half of the casing radially, and are carried into the radial oil grooves of each thrust plate.
 Most of the oil from the thrust bearing discharges through the casing and into the bottom of the standard,
where it is returned to the oil tank through the drain pipe. A portion of the discharge oil is piped through a
sight box on the standard. This permits a visual inspection of the oil flow and temperature measurement of
the oil.
 The temperature of the inlet oil should be 110 to 120F. The normal temperature rise of the oil should not
exceed 45F. The bearing should operate at a fairly constant temperature rise under full-load conditions.
Any sudden increase in the average temperature rise [5F or greater] should be considered abnormal, even
though the total rise may be within 45F. The TURB THRUST BRG TEMP HIGH alarm is energized
whenever the exiting oil temperature exceeds 175F.
Combined Type Bearing
정상운전 상태에서 하중을 담당하는 패드를 active pad라 하며,
반대 편에 있는 것을 inactive pad라 함
Active Thrust
Plate
Active Thrust
Collar
Inactive
Pin
Thrust Plate
Shim
Inactive Thrust
Journal Collar
Bearing
Thrust Collars
Steam Integral with
Flow Rotor Rotor
[ A Thrust – Journal Bearing ]
Oil
Oil
Scoop
Feed

2 Steam Path Parts
3 Valves
4 Rotor
5 Casing
6 Bearing

Classification of Fossil Plants
EPRI
Net Plant Net Plant Heat Rate
Nomenclature Steam Conditions
Efficiency, % (HHV), Btu/kWh
2400 psig (16.5 MPa)
Subcritical 35 9751
1050F/1050 F (565C/565C)
3600 psig (24.8 MPa)
Supercritical (SC) 38 8981
1050F/1075F (565C/585C)
3600 psig (24.8 MPa)
Ultrasupercritical (USC)  42  8126
1100F/1150 F (593C/621C)
5000 psig (34.5 MPa)
Advanced
1292F (700C)  45  7757
Ultrasupercritical (A-USC)
and above
 Critical point of water = 3208 psia/705°F

(22.09 MPa/374.14C)
 Supercritical steam cycles: Operating

pressure is higher than critical pressure of
water. Water to steam without boiling.
 Ultra-supercritical steam cycles: Steam

temperatures above 1100°F as defined by
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)

Introduction to USC Steam Turbine
 Coal-fired power generation is still a fundamental part of energy supply all over the world.
 Reliability, security of supply, low fuel costs, and competitive cost of electricity make a good case for coal-
fired power plants.
 Requests for sustainable use of existing resources and concerns about the effect of CO2 emissions on global
warming have strengthened the focus of plant engineers and the power industry on higher efficiency of
power plants.
 Efficiency has more recently been recognized as a means for reducing the emission of carbon dioxide and
its capture costs, as well as a means to reduce fuel consumption costs.
 USC power plant is an option for high-efficiency and low emissions electricity generation.
 USC steam conditions are characterized by 250 bar and 600C main steam and 600C reheat steam
conditions.
 It is based on increased steam temperatures and pressures, beyond those traditionally employed for
subcritical plants.
 Every 28C (50F) increase in throttle and reheat temperature results in approximately 1.5% improvement in
heat rate.
 Besides increasing the steam parameters, optimizing the combustion process, reducing the condenser
pressure, and improving the internal efficiency of the steam turbines are some of the well known means for
raising the overall plant efficiency.
 Due to the efficiency penalties associated with carbon capture and storage, such improvements are more
than ever needed to ensure a sustainable generation of electricity based on coal.
Efficiency Improvement in PC-Fired Plant
Siemens
% %
46 Plant Net Efficiency Based on HHV 0.88 in.Hga
Plant Net Efficiency Based on LHV
45 43
Advanced Hood
Double reheat
44 42
USC 1.9 in.Hga
300 bar/600C
43 41 Single reheat
USC
42 40
120C
1.15
130C 250 bar/540C
41 39 1.25
Excess Air Discharge Main Steam Reheat Back

Flue Gas Condition Pressure
Temperature

Comparison of Cost
Source: Best Practice Brochure (DTI, 2006)
Parameter Units Subcritical USC
Plant size MW 600 600
Net plant efficiency % LHV 38.0 46.0
Total investment cost EU/kW 874 920
Fuel price EU/GJ, bituminous 1.6 1.6
Load factor % 85 85
c/kWh 3.5 3.3

Cost of electricity
UK p/kWh 2.3 2.2
Fuel 1.5 1.2
Breakdown of cost
Capital c/kWh 1.3 1.4
of electricity
O&M 0.7 0.7

History of USC
Siemens
Steam Cycle
Simple Reheat Supercritical
800 10000
Max Output Tandem Compound [MW]

700
Temperature [C], Pressure [bar]
60 Power Output
600 1000
Temperature
Thermal Efficiency [%]
50 500
40 400 100
Thermal Efficiency
30 300
200 10
20 Pressure
100
10
0 1
0 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020

Heat Rate Improvement by USC
Siemens
5800 psig (400 bar)
5050 psig (350 bar)
Double Reheat vs. Single Reheat: 4350 psig (300 bar)
8 Heat Rate Improvement = 1.6%
3650 psig (250 bar)
7
Plant Net Heat Rate Improvement, %
2.4 % USC 2900 psig (200 bar)
6
2400 psig (165 bar)
5
Comparison
3
2400 psig/1000F/1000F
versus
2 2.8 % 4500 psig/1100F/1100F
2.8% + 2.4% + 1.6% = 6.8%
1
Sub-Critical
0
1000 1100 1200
Temperature, F

History of USC Development

USC Steam Turbine – Siemens
Key Technical Features

Model SST5-6000
Gross power output 813 MW
Net plant efficiency (based on
~45.6% (@ design point)
cooling tower)
Main steam conditions 280 bar/600C/610C
LP turbine - LSB 4 Flow - 45
Feedwater preheating 9-stages
Final feedwater temperature 308C
Specific CO2 emission Well below 800 g/kWh

Model SST-6000

USC Steam Turbine – GE

Net plant efficiency 48.7% (@ design point)
250 bar/600C/610C
Main steam conditions
(3626 psia/1112F/1130F)
Arrangement of rotor shaft Cross-compound

Net plant efficiency ?
260 bar/610C/621C
Main steam conditions
(3770 psia/1150F/1180F)
Arrangement of rotor shaft Tandem-compound

USC Steam Turbine – Alstom
700C Steam Turbine Development [ALSTOM]
Welding Balance Piston

USC Steam Turbine - Doosan
Output @ Max Guarantee Rating 1000 MW
Output @ VWO 1100 MW
Net plant efficiency 49% (estimated value)
LSB 4 Flow - 45
Cycle Single reheat regenerative
Wheels and Bearings

Diaphragms
Packing
Head
LP Casing
LP Inner Casing
Packing Reheat Stop and

Double Shells Intercept Valves
Head

Alloy Strength
50
        
Austenitic
45         
Ferritic Nickel Alloys
40 
  H282
35  IN740
 H230

Allowable Stress, ksi
  TP310HCbN
30
         IN617
  S304H

25  T24
     

 
    
 T92
  
 

 
     TP347H
     
20    
  
      
 
 
 T22
    T12

     
15         
 
     
 
 
10  

   
 
 
  

   
5 
   
 
  
 

  
 

0
700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600
Temperature, F

A-USC Steam Conditions
Steam Conditions Remark

Net plant efficiency = 43.4% (HHV)
EPRI 5100 psia/1290F/1330F (347 bar/700C/721C) • Boiler efficiency = 87.2%
• HP/IP/LP effi. = 90/94.2/88.6%
US. DOE 5015 psia/1350F/1400F (341 bar/732C/760C) Materials program objective

EU 5500 psia/1290F/1330F (375 bar/700C/721C) Net plant efficiency = 52-55% (LHV)
Some abbreviations and its definition
TPC: Total Plant Cost.

LCOE: Levelized Cost of Electricity.
Fixed O&M: personnel and insurance costs.
Variable O&M: cost depending upon the operation regime of the plant. Included items are:
• Inspection and overhauls, including labor, parts, and rentals
• Water treatment expenses
• Catalyst replacement
• Major overhaul expences
• Air filter replacements

Background for USC Power Plants
 Clean and cheap power generation is of prime importance to cope with the challenges imposed by an
increasing energy demand throughout the world.
 In recent years, costs associated with CO2 emissions have attracted more attention because of global
warming.
 Carbon capture and storage (CCS) and capture ready power plant designs are becoming increasingly
important for the evaluation of investments into new power plants and in addition retrofit solutions for the
existing power plants are required.
 Efficiency improvement is a means for reducing emission of CO2, the costs of carbon capture, water use,
particulates, sulfur dioxides (SOx) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions, and fuel consumption.
 As coal is more abundant in many parts of the world, coal price is more stable than natural gas price.
 However, greater CO2 emissions increase the need for more efficient coal-fired power plants.
 USC steam power plants meet notably the requirements for high efficiency to reduce both fuel costs and
emissions as well as for a reliable supply of electric energy at low cost.
 Recent developments in steam turbine technologies and high-temperature materials allowed for significant
efficiency gains.
 Due to CO2 emission limits and corresponding penalties, the conventional coal-fired power plant with the
efficiency lower than 40% become less cost-effective.
 NETL and EPRI studies show that current CCS technologies have CO2 removal costs of $50 to 70/ton.

CO2 Emission vs. Plant Efficiency
 The need of further reduction of environmental emissions from coal combustion is driving growing interest in
high-efficiency and low-emissions coal fired power plants.
 Every 28C (50F) increase in throttle and reheat temperature results in approximately 1.5% improvement in
heat rate.
 Every 1% improvement in plant efficiency results in approximately 2.5% reduction in CO2 emission.
 An increase in plant efficiency from 30% to 50% reduce CO2 emissions about 40%.
 A-USC plants having net plant efficiency of 45%, without CCS(Carbon Capture and Sequestration), will
produce about 22% less CO2 than the average subcritical plants that include the majority of units currently in
service and operating at about 35% net plant efficiency.
 Combining CCs with A-USC plants will provide lower cost of electricity generation with 90% carbon capture.
 A-USC will lower the CO2 per kWh, thus reducing the size of the CCS equipment.
 Oxy-combustion CCS plant that achieve 90% carbon capture use about 20.5% auxiliary power which
includes the compression purification unit (CPU), additional cooling tower, air separation unit (ASU), and
polishing scrubber.
 The efficiency penalty associated with CO2 capture based on Siemens advanced process is 9.2%.

CO2 Emission vs. Plant Efficiency
1200
1000
CO2 Emission, g/kWh
800
600
400
200
0
28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56
Net Plant Efficiency, % (LHV)

Post-Combustion Capture Technology
Remove
90% of
CO2
Remove
85-90% of
NOx
Chimney
Remove Remove
Capture
Flue Gas
Cooling
CO2
99.7% of 90-95% of
Fly Ash SO2
DeNOx
Continuous
Emission
FGD
Monitoring
EP
System

질의 및 응답
작성자: 이 병 은 (공학박사)
작성일: 2016.02.15 (Ver.1)
연락처: ebyeong@daum.net
Mobile: 010-3122-2262
저서: 실무 발전설비 열역학/증기터빈 열유체기술

Steam Turbine: Bearings Wheels and Diaphragms

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5.

Packing Reheat Stop and

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Lube Oil Unit

Lube Oil Cooler

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 This separation of functions enables steam turbines to operate

 The energy is transferred from the steam generator to the turbine

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Spring Supported Foundation

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Turbine parameters Values

Steam conditions 2400 psig/1000F/1000F

Condenser pressure 1 in.Hga

Steam flow 3,800,000 lb/h

Turbine capacity 512,094 kW

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 Steam then enters the center of each seven-stage LP turbine.

 The LP turbines consist of two identical sets of LP turbine stages.

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Diaphragms Steam Flow

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500 MW (3,500 psig, 1,000F)

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Stage = 1 row of nozzle + 1 row of bucket

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Diaphragms are fitted into the casing and contain the

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Nozzle is used to accelerate the flow.

 This jet of steam impinges on the moving blades, mounted on a shaft.

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Nozzle Row Bucket Row

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Short bucket Long bucket

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Fir tree type

Axial entry dovetail Pine tree type Finger type

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Blade Thickness Suction Side

Camber Trailing Edge

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 V1 sin 1  V2 sin  2 

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