JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES

УРНА ІН Н РНИХ НАУ

УРНА ИН Н РНЫХ НАУ
Web site: http://jes.sumdu.edu.ua
Volume 4, Issue 2 (2017)

UDC 669.71-034.7:539.2/.6:629.33:338.5

Modern materials for automotive industry

Hovorun T. P.1, Berladir K. V.1*, Pererva V. I.1, Rudenko S. G.1, Martynov A. I.1
1
Sumy State University, 2 Rymskogo-Korsakova St., 40007, Sumy, Ukraine

*
Article info: Corresponding Author’s Address:
Paper received: September 30, 2017 kr.berladir@pmtkm.sumdu.edu.ua
The final version of the paper received: December 2, 2017
Paper accepted online: December 4, 2017

Abstract. The car industry uses a tremendous number of materials to build cars, including iron, aluminum, steel,
glass, rubber, petroleum products, copper, steel and others. These materials have evolved greatly over the decades,
becoming more sophisticated, better built, and safer. They've changed as new automotive manufacturing technologies
have emerged over the years, and they're used in increasingly innovative ways. This article is devoted to systematiza-
tion information on the introduction and application of modern materials in the automotive industry.
Given both domestic and foreign sources of information, it follows that car manufacturers are constantly pushing
to create the lightest cars possible to increase speed and power. Research and development into lightweight materials
is essential for lowering their cost, increasing their ability to be recycled, enabling their integration into vehicles, and
maximizing their fuel economy benefits. Light weighting without loss of strength and speed properties is the present,
and the future, of the automotive manufacturing industry. It brings innovative materials to the frontline of design.

Keywords: steel, aluminum, aluminum alloys, aluminum matrix composites, polymer and composite materials, plas-
tics, lightweight materials.

1 Introduction The performance of the cars is constantly improving,

because the engines become more efficient, the body is
Automotive is one of the largest consumers of con- more aerodynamic, the transmission is improved, the
struction materials in the world [1]. Increasing the dura- rolling resistance of tires is reduced.
bility and reliability of the work of the parts of cars is a When creating a car, it is very important to reduce its
relevant and important problem of materials science. The mass. This allows maintaining the basic characteristics of
development of the automotive industry, increasing the the car, using less powerful engines that consume less
requirements for the quality and safety of used materials fuel and emit less harmful substances into the atmos-
requires the creation and application of new forms. At the phere. In addition, the inertia of the car decreases and for
same time, the growth of resource requirements forms its acceleration or breaking it is necessary to spend less
competition between manufacturers of different materials energy. Lowering the weight of the car also reduces the
stimulates progress in developing their new types and load on the suspension parts, which increases their
improving quality [2–4]. lifespan [5].
The automotive industry employs the latest innovative Lowering the weight of the car is due to the need to
developments that emerge from the development of sci- use new, lighter but rather durable materials that are usu-
ence and new technologies. Among the main vectors in ally more expensive, at the same time cars, for objective
the modern automotive industry are: reasons, are becoming more complex and, accordingly,
more difficult. New light construction materials should be
─ creation of intelligent cars that can handle various offset by weight, including new units, and active and
difficult situations on the road without driver involve- passive safety systems, reduced toxicity, and continuous
ment; improvement in comfort levels [6]. Lightweight construc-
─ development of cars with alternative energy sources tions are increasingly used in automotive, aerospace and
among them the most well-known and successful Tes- construction sectors, because using the low density mate-
la car line. rials allows reducing the structural weight of products.
That may result in substantial fuel savings and a lower

F8 Materials Science
carbon footprint in transportation and facilitates manipu- parts of a very complex form, which would be very diffi-
lation of details in the house construction applications [7]. cult to do with sheet steel.
Moreover, the low material density leads to conserva- Polymer materials have virtually unlimited service life.
tion of natural resources, since less material is required They are not subject to corrosion; easily withstand the
for manufacturing consumer goods. effects of significant loads and vibrations. The strength
More than half of the total volume in the production of and stiffness of the car body elements made of synthetic
a modern car consists of cast iron and steel parts(55 %), fibers, can significantly improve the reliability and safety
about 11 % – plastics, the third place – aluminium alloys of the car while reducing its weight. The only obstacle to
(9 %); rubber and glass – 7 and 3 % respectively; the the widespread use of carbon fiber in automotive industry
share of non-ferrous alloys (magnesium, titanium, copper is the very high cost of its manufacture. A part made of
and zinc) does not exceed 1 %; other materials (varnish- synthetic fibers costs 30–40 times more expensive than a
es, paints, electric wires, facing materials, etc.) make similar but made of steel. This leads to the fact that com-
13.5 % (Fig. 1). ponents from polymer materials are most often used in
the manufacture of tuning cars of an individual assembly.
However, over time, refinement of carbon fiber technolo-
gies will inevitably lead to a reduction in its value to the
level of steel and light alloys.
In connection with the above, the main direction of
development of the automotive industry should be a sig-
nificant increase in the quality of products using scientific
and technical advances and the development of new ma-
terials to be used in the automotive industry. And this
continues the development of the scientific direction of
applied material science in the automotive industry.
Figure 1 – Parts of various types of materials The purpose of this work is to systematize information
used for the manufacture of car parts on the introduction and application of modern materials
in the automotive industry.
Traditionally, steel or various metal alloys are used to
make all responsible parts of the car. Steel has high 2 Steel construction materials for the
strength and reliability, but it is prone to corrosion, and manufacture of car parts
the parts made of it, differ a fairly large mass [8]. F
Back in the 40th of the twentieth century, the first at- Despite the increasing use of new construction materi-
tempts were made to facilitate the design of the car als in the automotive industry, steel production continues
through the use of parts made of synthetic fibers. Insuffi- to play a leading role in the production of steel.
ciently worked out technology did not allow at that time On modern cars, most of the weight comes from steel.
to receive a material of high strength, therefore, from In 2007, for example, the average car contained 1 090 kg
synthetic fibers originally manufactured only decorative of steel, and the average pickup truck or SUV used nearly
panels of the car body. 1 360 kg [12].
Today, thanks to the use of the latest advances in sci- The automobile industry is imposing very high de-
ence, polymer compounds demonstrate much greater mands on steel because, first of all, it must meet two
hardness and strength than conventional steel. Due to the diametrically opposite criteria. On the one hand, the re-
interweaving of synthetic fibers, a strong reinforcing quirement to reduce the mass of products involves the use
frame is formed by which the load is evenly distributed of high-strength materials, on the other – the growth re-
over the entire surface of the part. In addition, carbon quirements for the production of technology involve the
fiber parts weigh almost three times less than steel-like use of high-plastic materials [13].
strengths [9]. Steel is the time-tested material. This material has
In the manufacture of elements of modern engines, been used in the manufacture of car bodies for a long
materials on the basis of composite with an aluminium time, thanks to its strength [13] (Fig. 2).
matrix are widely used [10]. They represent an alloy of
aluminium, in which are added fibers of silicon and car-
bon, previously passed through a special matrix made of
titanium or aluminium. Such technology allows in several
times to increase the strength of the material for tension.
The use of polymer materials can significantly reduce
the cost of manufacturing automotive components
[11].The details made of synthetic fibers by forming in
the matrix, leave it fully ready for installation, without
requiring additional processing and even colouring. From
synthetic materials, it is not particularly difficult to make
Figure 2 – Materials used for the manufacture of car bodies

Journal of Engineering Sciences, Volume 4, Issue 2 (2017), pp. F 8–F 18 F9

 Requirements for materials for the manufacture of au-
tomobile bodies [14]:

─ high strength;
─ energy intensity (ability to absorb impact energy when
collision);
─ manufacturability(the possibility of manufacturing
parts of a complex form with a minimum number of
operations); Figure 3 – Advantages and disadvantages of using
─ minimum car body weight(the smaller the mass, the steel materials for automotive industry
less the gas flow and the number of congenital emis-
sions); (0.65–2) mm. Thanks to the latter, it managed to reduce
─ corrosion resistance; the overall weight of the car and increase the rigidity of
─ maintainability. the body.
The use of steel materials for cars has its advantages
Steel manufacturing has evolved greatly, so carmakers and disadvantages [13] (Fig. 3).Most car bodies, due to
these days can make different types of steel for different many reasons, are made of sheet steel. The most im-
areas of the vehicle that are rigid or that can crumple to portant of these reasons are: high strength, deformability
absorb different impacts [15]. (possibility of extraction), welding, coloring, sufficient
The main parts of the car body are made of steel, alu- service life with proper anticorrosion treatment, satisfac-
minium alloys, plastics and glass. Moreover, the ad- tory cost (Table 1).
vantage is given to low-carbon sheet steel in the thickness
of

Table 1 – Types of sheet steel for car bodies

Type
Steel Properties Appoinment
of steel
Thin sheet, the limit of strength 270–350 MPа,
specific external panels (roof, hood, door,
cold-rolled RRST 1405 relative elongation is more than 36 %,
sidewalls, etc.)
killed thickness 0.6–0.9 mm
F the limit of strength 270–410 MPа, painted external panels and floor parts
Thin sheet, UST 1203,
relative elongation 28–32 %, (inner frame, amplifiers, floor panels,
boiling steel UST 1303
thickness 0.6-0.9 mm cross bars)
the limit of strength 280–380 MPa, for parts located beneath the car body
Hot-rolled
ST 4 relative elongation is more than 38 %, (amplifiers, supports, flanges, etc.),
steel tape
thickness 1.5-2.5 mm especially large thickness
The design and manufacturing technology of the parts
Figure 4 – Possibilities of application of ultra-high-strength
should be guided by the maximum width of the supplied
alloys of new generation for details of the car
steel sheet (currently 2 000 mm).For parts working in a
corrosive-aggressive environment, it is necessary to use
An example of using high-strength and especially
galvanized sheet steel, given that in the manufacture of
high-strength steels in a car can serve as a model Audi
parts, such steel does not allow large decompositions
Q5. The share of standard soft steels in the car body of
(bend, a small exhaust).In special cases aluminum sheet
this crossover is 31 % (made of especially stubborn com-
steel can be used. Both surfaces of steel sheets can be
ponents and external components that absorb energy
specially treated. Material scientists are also working
when struck), high-strength – more than 44 % (almost the
towards the development and application of ultra-high-
entire power frame protecting passengers), especially
strength alloys of the new generation [13] (Fig. 4).
high-strength – almost 25 % (of which 9.1 % are ultra-
high strength steel of the new generation, which are used
in the most responsible areas) [4].
Among the steels used in automobile construction, it is
possible to note [4]:
1. Highly-plastic IF-steel, the structure of which is stabi-
lized with micro-nutrients of titanium and/or niobium,
and contains an extremely low carbon (≤ 0.005 %),
which, together with nitrogen, is completely bound to
carbides, nitrides and carbonitrides.
2. Steels, which are strengthened during the drying of
paint and varnish coating (ВН-steel). The advantage of

F 10 Materials Science
 ВН-steels is the strengthening, which is achieved in a trix, volumetric ferrite particles and nano-dispersed
single technological flow during the drying of the paint particles of carbides. This is achieved by thermal
and varnish coating of the car body. treatment with a controlled and even distribution of
3. Dual Phase (DP) steels with ferrite-martensitic (or fer- k-carbides, which results in a precision uniform dis-
rite-bainite) structure have high properties. «Soft» fer- placement of the crystal lattice. This leads to extreme-
rite (up to 80 %) provides high plastic properties of ly high formability. This mechanism is designated as
DP-steels in its original state. SIP-effect (shear band induced plasticity).
4. Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP) steels, the 11. Nano-structured hot-rolled steel NANOHITEN (de-
microstructure of which is a ferrite matrix with disper- velopment by the company JFE Steel) with high limit
sion-distributed inclusions of a strong martensitic of fluidity (780 N/mm2) is based on ferrite structure,
and/or bainitic component. strengthened with dispersed particles. Such a micro-
5. Complex Phase (CP) steels have a highly dispersed structure provides a high value of relative elongation
ferrite structure with a large volume fraction of solid (up to 25 %). Since NANOHITEN steel does not con-
phases (structural components). tain silicon, it is well exposed to hot zinc and is al-
6. Sheet steel containing 0.07 % , 0.6 % Si, ready used in body structures and safety components,
2.4 % Mn, has such typical properties of properties: as well as for levers, brackets and chassis parts.
σT = 710 N/mm2, σB = 1 010 N/mm2, δ5 = 14 %,
δр = 8 %. Perspectives of the development of steel materials for
7. Martensitic (Mart) steels provide the value of the tem- automotive industry are shown in Figure 5.
porary resistance to 1 500 N/mm2. These were subject-
ed to quenching with subsequent tempering to increase
the plasticity and ensure high molding at very high de-
formation values.High-strength sheet steel is used
mainly for rigidity elements. Details from such steels
are made flexible in the stamps or roller machines, but
such become prone to cracking and elastic return.In
recent years, transition to more high-tech processes –
hot sheet punching with hardening in the die.
8. Each year, the use of high-strength steels of the new
generation such as AHSS (advanced high-strength
steels) and UHSS (ultra high-strength steels) with the
limit of fluidity of 400 to 1 200 N/mm2 increases. It F
should be borne in mind that their application requires Figure 5 – Perspectives for the development
not only significant changes in methods design details, of steel materials for automotive industry
but also stamping technology, the development of new
technologies for the manufacture of parts and units
(hydro-forming, profiling, laser welding of the body, 3 Results and discussion
etc.) [15]. Foreign experience shows that the steel of
these types is expedient to use on automakers manu-
3.1 Aluminum alloys and composites with an
facturing components that affect the passive safety of aluminum matrix for automotive industry
the car (safety bars, spares, elements of the bumper in order to reduce the weight of cars
system, etc.). Aluminum alloys for the manufacture of car bodies be-
9. High-strength austenitic steels (σT ≥ 600 N/mm2) gan to be used relatively recently [17]. But this metal has
(Twinning Induced Plasticity – TWIP steels), which already gained popularity among automakers, because it
have very high plastic properties (full elongation of is lightweight and virtually non-corrosive. With the use
more than 80 %), are actively developed. The unique of aluminum alloys are made both body and some parts
properties of these high-manganese (up to 30 % Mn) of the suspension and engine. The disadvantage of using
steels containing up to 9 % aluminum are provided by aluminum is a laborious process of welding components
double-crystalline lattice. Low energy of packing de- and high conductivity vibration and noise. To reduce
fects combined with reinforcing deformation marten- vibration and noise, manufacturers use silent insulation,
sitic transformations allows to effectively strengthen which ultimately affects the price of the car [13] (Fig. 6).
these steels when hydro-pressing. Aluminum car bodies have already reached the level of
10. High-strength and super-plastic steels of a new genera- mass production, although only on expensive models.
tion for lightweight structures (TRIPLEX-steels) on Many parts of the chassis have been mastered from alu-
the basis of a four-component system Fe-Mn-Al-C minum instead of steel, as well as lighter components.
with an aluminum content of up to 12 % are character- But the struggle with the weight of the car continues and
ized by a lower specific mass (up to 14 %), high limit goes to a new level in connection with the rigor of de-
of fluidity (800–1 000 N/mm2) increased relative elon- mands for efficiency and environmental friendliness.
gation (up to 70 %) and excellent ability to deep ex-
tract. The structure of steel consists of austenitic ma-

Journal of Engineering Sciences, Volume 4, Issue 2 (2017), pp. F 8–F 18 F 11

 Figure 6 – Advantages and disadvantages of using aluminum for automotive industry

Aluminium in this struggle, of course, is still a leading silumines in the bulk crystallization of castings in con-
place, since there are also more attractive materials with ventional non-stationary processes of traditional casting.
high mechanical properties, but even more light. Master- The production and casting of aluminum alloys are
ing them in mass production are leading automotive firms widely used modification. Additives are introduced as a
and component manufacturers [4]. ligature in the charge or directly into the melt. Among the
Audi Company uses new aluminum in its production, modifiers of the first kind of aluminum alloys are titani-
which affects the price. But not all manufacturers can um and vanadium, which form refractory inter-metallic
completely switch to aluminum car bodies, so they have TiAl3 and VAl6, and ultrafine particles of oxides, car-
to combine aluminum with steel to make the car cheaper. bides, borides and other nonmetallic inclusions. Modifi-
Concern BMW manufactures some series of cars with ers second kind are surfactants which positively affect the
this technology.For example, in the fifth series the front structure of aluminum alloys, most of which are elements
part of the car body is made entirely of aluminum alloy of group (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs), and sulfur and phosphorus.
and welded with a steel frame. At the same time, numerous studies have shown the high
The use of aluminum and its alloys for the manufac- efficiency of complex modifiers [18].
ture of car bodies is practiced by automobile manufactur- Effective grinding of grain of aluminum alloys is pos-
erssuch as Rover, Jaguar, Audi and BMW. Thanks to sible due to the adding of fine-dispersed aluminum-
F aluminum, the car gets much easier; this affects the in- titanium-boron (AlTiB) and aluminum-titanium-carbon
crease in speed, reducing CO2 and fuel consumption.This (AlTiC) crystals in the melt of various compositions that
material is almost not subject to corrosion. Due to the serve as crystallization centers. Adding this ligature re-
excellent ductility metal effectively quenches impacts in sults in improved mechanical properties and reduced gas
case of an accident. But this same plasticity leads to the porosity. The ligature is applicable to all aluminum alloys
deformation of aluminum body parts, even when there are (pure aluminum, deformed alloys, and cast silumines.
not very serious blows. The authors [21] with the aim of improving the struc-
Aluminum alloys are now used not only for the body ture, mechanical and service properties, lower porosity,
of the car, but also for a number of parts of the steering based on laboratory and pilot studies as a baseline for
knobs and suspensions. The physical and mechanical hypo-eutectoid silumins proposed a modifier containing
properties of this metal impose special requirements for elements which act as modifiers and second kind. The
the preparation and repair of aluminum parts. modifier included sulfur, sodium carbonate, ultrafine
Low density of aluminum alloys, high machinability, silicon carbide and electrolytic titanium. The results of
ductility and fatigue strength; up to 30 % less, in compar- research on the basis of the modifying complex allowed
ison with cast iron, the coefficient of transmission from developing a number of highly effective refining-
gas, as well as high thermal conductivity at the level 125– modifying complexes for the processing of aluminum
146 W/m∙K made them the main piston materials of the alloys obtained from low-grade raw materials [22–24].
present [18]. Actual problem is the cheapening of raw materials of
aluminum alloys by their recycling. The authors [18]
3.2 Aluminum alloys for automotive industry
have shown that the increase in the quality of silumins
The problem of improving the quality of aluminum al- derived from 100 % of secondary raw materials to the
loys is relevant for all developed countries [19, 20]. level of primary, possibly due to the use of experimental
The main tasks for the production of aluminum alloys refining-modifying complexes. The developed complexes
used for automotive industry include the development of have a low cost, do not complicate the technology of
materials with the highest hardness, durability, corrosion obtaining alloys, reduce the amount of harmful emissions
resistance, plasticity and other physical and mechanical into the environment and improve the sanitary standards
properties. To do this, various methods and techniques in foundries, reduce the need for universal refining-
for improving these characteristics are used. modifying preparations in 10–15 times.
One of the most important tasks is the purposeful Due to the use of proposed modifiers, the possibility of
management of the molded structure and properties of using silumins for more stringent conditions of forced

F 12 Materials Science
work in knots and mechanisms of machines, especially or borides (Al2O3 or SiC or TiB2) and present in volume
for products of tribo-technical purposes, expands. Cast fraction less than 30% when used for structural and wear
billet of silumines having sufficient level of plasticity resistance applications [28–30].
(not less than 4–6 %), can be subjected to pressure treat- In general, PAMCs are manufactured either by solid
ment to enhance the properties and to ensure the accuracy state (PM processing) or liquid state (stir casting, infiltra-
of the shape of the product [25]. tion and in-situ) processes.
PAMCs are less expensive compared to CFAMCs.
3.3 Aluminum matrix composites for the
Mechanical properties of PAMCs are inferior compared
automotive industry to whisker/short fiber/continuous fiber reinforced AMCs
Aluminum matrix composites (AMCs) refer to the but far superior compared to unreinforced aluminium
class of light weight high performance aluminum centric alloys. These composites are isotropic in nature andcan
material systems. The reinforcement in AMCs could be in be subjected to a variety of secondary forming operations
the form of continuous/discontinuous fibers, whisker or including extrusion, rolling and forging. Figure 8a shows
particulates, in volume fractions ranging from a few per- the microstructure of cast aluminium matrix composite
cent to 70 %. Properties of AMCs can be tailored to the having high volume fraction (40 vol. %) SiC particle
demands of different industrial applications by suitable reinforcements [17].
combinations of matrix, reinforcement and processing Whisker or short fiber-reinforced AMCs (SFAMCs)
route [17, 26] contain reinforcements with an aspect ratio of greater
ThemajoradvantagesofAMCscomparedtounrein- than 5, but are not continuous. Short alumina fiber rein-
forcedmaterialsareasfollows: greater strength, improved forced aluminium matrix composites is one of the first
stiffness, reduced density (weight), improved high tem- and most popular AMCs to be developed and used in
perature properties, controlled thermal expansion coeffi- pistons. These were produced by squeeze infiltration
cient, thermal/heat management, enhanced and tailored process. Figure 8 b shows the microstructure of short
electrical performance, improved abrasion and wear re- fiber reinforced AMCs. Whisker reinforced composites
sistance, control of mass (especially, in reciprocating are produced by either by PM processing or by infiltra-
applications) and improved damping capabilities [17]. tion route [17]. Mechanical properties of whisker rein-
AMCs can be classified into four types depending on forced composites are superior compared to particle or
the type of reinforcement [26] (Fig. 7).

a b

c d
Figure 8 – Microstructures of aluminum matrix composite
having high volume fraction of SiC particle reinforcement
(40 % vol.) (a), short fiber-reinforced aluminum matrix
composite (b); continuous fiber-reinforced aluminum matrix
composite (c); hybrid composite containing 10 % SiC
Figure 7 – Types of AMCs and 4 % graphite particles (d)

Particulate Reinforced Aluminum Matrix Composites short fiber reinforced composites. However, in the recent
(PAMCs) are one of the key research and development years usage of whiskers as reinforcements in AMCs is
areas of metal matrix composites. The development pro- fading due to perceived health hazards and, hence of late
spect is very broad and will lead the revolution of ad- commercial exploitation of whisker reinforced compo-
vanced materials through large-scale production and ap- sites has been very limited. Short fiber reinforced AMCs
plication [27]. display characteristics in between that of continuous fiber
These composites generally contain equated ceramic and particle reinforced AMCs[31].
reinforcements with an aspect ratio less than about 5. Continuous fiber-reinforced aluminum matrix compo-
Ceramic reinforcements are generally oxides or carbides sites (CFAMCs). Here, the reinforcements are in the form

Journal of Engineering Sciences, Volume 4, Issue 2 (2017), pp. F 8–F 18 F 13

 of continuous fibers (of alumina, SiC or carbon) with a Moreover, the abundant aluminium resources in the
diameter less than 20 m. The fibers can either be parallel world, coupled with conventional equipment and process
or pre woven, braided prior to the production of the com- processing and processing, and thus the preparation and
posite. AMCs having fiber volume fraction upto 40 % are production of aluminium-based composite materials than
produced by squeeze infiltration technique. More recently other metal-based composite materials more economical,
3MTm corporation has developed 60 % vol. alumina easy to promote and apply. Therefore, the PAMCs in the
fiber (continuous fiber) reinforced composite having a economic field have a wide range of applications, and
tensile strength and elastic stiffness of 1 500 MPa and have been generally attached [27].
240 GPa respectively. These composites are produced by Granular aluminium composite materials used in the
pressure infiltration route. Figure 8 c shows the micro- car, can reduce the weight of the car and improve its per-
structure of continuous fiber (alumina) reinforced AMCs formance, and can save oil, reduce pollution and extend
[17]. the service life. Compared with cast iron, with
Mono filament reinforced aluminium matrix compo- A359 + 20 % vo1. SiC brake discs, weight reduction of
sites (MFAMCs). Monofilaments are large diameter 50 to 60 %, such as 5.4 kg weight cast iron plate with a
(from 100 to 150 m) fibers, usually produced by chemical composite material instead of weighing only 2.5 kg, after
vapour deposition (CVD) of either SiC or B into a core of 5 000 km travel test shows that the composite brake disc
carbon fiber or W wire. Bending flexibility of monofila- wear less, and can reduce the brake noise and improve the
ments is low compared to multifilament. Monofilament thermal conductivity (cast iron is 5 to 7 times) [27].
reinforced aluminium matrix composites are produced by Knorr Bremse AG developed a high-speed train brake
diffusion bonding techniques, and is limited to super disc for the German ICE-2 high-speed rail with a weight
plastic forming aluminium alloy matrices. In CFAMCs loss of 500 kg per unit using 20 % SiCp/AlSi7Mg com-
and MFAMCs, the reinforcement is the principal load- posites manufactured by Duralcan. Kolbenschmidt devel-
bearing constituent, and role of the aluminium matrix is oped 20-30% SiCp/Al-Si composite brakes for the
to bond the reinforcement and transfer and distribute Volkswagen Lupo – 3L TDI, similar brake discs for
load. These composites exhibit directionality. Low Toyota RAV – 4 EV cars, Plymouth prowler, Ford prodi-
strength in the direction perpendicular tothe fiber orienta- gy, Lotus Elise, etc. The Japan Toyota Motor Corporation
tion is characteristic of CFAMCs and MFAMCs. In parti- manufactures 2 ZZ – GE engine piston, piston ring, brake
cle and whisker reinforced AMCs, the matrix is the major disc. Toyota Altezza has developed and produced
load-bearing constituent. The role of the reinforcement is TiB2/Ti composite exhaust valves [27] by powder metal-
to strengthen and stiffen the composite by preventing lurgy instead of 21-4 N steel. The high cost of particle
F matrix deformation by mechanical restraint. reinforced aluminium-based composites limits its large-
In addition to four types of AMCs described above, scale production and application in the transportation
another variant of AMCs known as hybrid AMCs have sector.
been developed and are in use to some extent. Hybrid In the paper [27] the research status of PAMCs prepa-
AMCs essentially contain more than one type of rein- ration and forming technology in recent years is re-
forcement. For example, mixture of particle and whisker, viewed. Although the preparation and forming process of
or mixture of fiber and particle or mixture of hard and PAMCs still remain in the laboratory stage, with the con-
soft reinforcements. Aluminium matrix composite con- tinuous maturing of preparation and forming process, the
taining mixture of carbon fiber and alumina particles used reduction of preparation cost and the new process of new
in cylindrical liner applications is an example of hybrid technology have been continuously developed to enhance
composite. Figure 8d shows microstructure of hybrid the aluminium matrix composites will be its excellent
AMC having both hard SiC and soft graphite particles as characteristics in the automotive and aerospace, aero-
reinforcement [17]. space, military and other high-end areas play a greater
Their advantages are low density, specific strength, role.
high specific stiffness, high shear strength, low thermal Primary processes for manufacturing of AMCs at in-
expansion coefficient, thermal stability and thermal con- dustrial scale can be classified into two main groups
ductivity, good electrical conductivity, wear resistance (Fig. 9).
and resistance to organic liquids and solvent erosion.

Figure 9 – Primary processes for manufacturing of AMCs

F 14 Materials Science
 The selection of the processing route depends on many It is evident from the Table 2, that very often it is pos-
factors including type and level of reinforcement loading sible to manufacture AMC of specific formulation (hav-
and the degree of microstructural integrity desired. Ta- ing the same matrix and reinforcement combination) by
ble 2 provides feasibility of various primary processes for more than one route [32].
manufacturing different types of AMCs.

Table 2– Primary processing routes of AMCs

Primary processes Types of AMCs

for manufacturing CFAMCs MFAMCs PAMCs SAMCs
Blending and
Not in practice Not in practice In use In use
consolidation
Diffusion
Not in practice In use Not in practice Not in practice
Bonding
Vapour deposition
In use In use In use In use
and consolidations
Stir casting/slurs
Not in practice Not in practice In use Generally not use
casting
Infiltration
In use Generally not use In use Generally not use
process
Spray deposition
Not in practice In use In use In use
and consolidation

About 80 % of plastics used in automobiles consist in

3.4 Modern polymer and composite materials
five types of materials: polyurethanes, polyvinylchlo-
The polymer composites in automotive applications rides, polypropylenes, ABS plastics, fiberglass plastics.
today are glass fiber-reinforced thermoset polymers used The remaining 20 % are polyethylenes, polyamides, pol-
mostly in non-structural parts of the vehicle especially for yacrylates, and polycarbonates.
low- and mid-volume cars and trucks [33]. Fiber- Under the fiberglass there is meant any fibrous filler
reinforced thermoplastics and, especially, carbon fiber that is impregnated with polymer resins. The most fa-
reinforced thermosets show great potential, the latter mous fillers are carbon fiber, glass fiber and kevlar. The
having twice the weight reduction potential of glass fiber- outer panels of the bodies are made of fiberglass, which F
reinforced thermoset polymers. Fiber-reinforced thermo- provides a significant reduction in the mass of the car
plastics share the advantageous properties of polymer (Fig. 10).
matrix composites and are also recyclable, have indefinite Pillows and seat backrests, shock-resistant pads made
shelf life, and feasible for automated, high volume pro- of polyurethane. A relatively new direction is the use of
cessing with a potential for rapid and low cost fabrica- this material for the manufacture of wings, hoods, trunk
tion. The cost is the single most major barrier for the lid. Polyvinylchloride is used for the manufacture of
limited application of polymer composites in automobiles many fittings (shields, grips) and upholstery materials
today [11].For example, from carbon plastic were made (fabrics, mats).From polypropylene make body of head-
such cars: Chevrolet Corvette, Audi R8 and Lamborghini lights, steering wheels, partitions and much more. ABS
Veneno. plastics are used for various facing details.

Figure 10 – Advantages and disadvantages of using glass fiber reinforced plastic for automotive industry

Journal of Engineering Sciences, Volume 4, Issue 2 (2017), pp. F 8–F 18 F 15

 The body of the new electric car BMW i3 is largely to receive not only light but also extremely durable prod-
made of carbon fiber, which made it possible to increase ucts. The economical two-component injection molding
the weight of the battery by 250–350 kg. In fact, the body allows the use of polymers in the exterior of the car.
is made of synthetic material reinforced with carbon fi- Therefore, the consumer will soon be available light-
ber. In the terminology of BMW, a new material is weight panoramic roofs, luggage compartment covers
named Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic (CFRP). It is with integrated locks and handles, etc.
very durable and light but expensive composite material The Swiss company EMS-Chemie has developed a
with fiberglass reinforced plastic. Some composites con- polyphthalamide suitable for areas where metals need to
tain both carbon fibers and other fibers such as kevlar, be replaced. This polymer, used in the central gearbox
aluminum and fiberglass reinforcement. Less commonly switch, replaces ordinary aluminum. Such material is
used materials such as graphite reinforced with fiberglass stable in size and wear, while maintaining high pressures
or miligraphite fibers reinforced with plastic (fiberglass). and temperatures, with peak values well above 200 °C.
The car body of this material is 50 % lighter than steel Long-lasting loads at temperatures up to 160 °C are pos-
and 30 % lighter than aluminium. Structural elements of sible. In comparison with aluminum structural elements,
the new material can be easily combined with aluminum which require eight technological operations, a
body panels or metalized [34]. polyfetamide component can be made in two operations.
At the moment, carbon fiber is used for light sports Auto experts predict that by 2040 half of all new cars
models and for very expensive cars. The process of mak- that come down from the conveyor will be hybrid. How-
ing car body and other models of carbon fiber plastics or ever, in a hybrid car there is one problem: the battery
with the content of carbon fiber takes a lot of time, and whose energy is used to operate the electric motor is very
therefore this way is expensive. However, the study of cumbersome and difficult, even with the current devel-
this material allows you to improve the technology of opment of lithium-ion batteries. In Europe, a group of
manufacturing parts from it in the direction of reducing nine automakers are currently testing body panels that
production time. This will allow you to arrange a serial can accumulate energy and charge faster than conven-
release and lower the price accordingly. tional batteries. They are made of polymer carbon fiber
Company ZF Friedrichshafen AG has developed a rear and resin; the batteries are sturdy but flexible. Thanks to
suspension for small class cars, where the elastic element the development of car weight may fall by 15 % [35].
is a transverse single-leaf springs made of synthetic mate- To the novelties you can add the following [35]:
rial, but not carbon-fiber reinforced. The leaf spring is
called the Transverse Composite Leaf Spring and also 1. Airless tires. The specific design of tires made of
F performs the function of the suspension guide. Such sus- thermoplastic resin, allows you to maintain the weight
pension can be applied also for electric cars. As is well- of the car thanks to the curved spokes.
known, McPherson’s pendant has a widespread distribu- 2. Smart lights. Researchers at the Carnegie Mellon Uni-
tion, consisting of a single block, which includes a spring versity have developed a headlight system that com-
springs, and a shock absorber, and quite powerful binding bines the camera, projector, split-prism and processor,
and fixing elements. which surprisingly reduces the number of drops in the
Polymer materials, mostly made in the form of cast driver's field of vision; the camera detects drops, the
products, films and technical textiles, are highly valued in processor determines their future location, the projec-
areas of modern economy in many thanks to their heat tor in turn “bypasses” particles, covering only what is
resistance, thermal resistance, mechanical strength, di- behind them; with the whole process taking about
mensional stability, and resistance to chemical reagents, 13 μs.
fire and moisture resistance, low specific density and 3. Hydrophobic windows. Properties to repel water im-
other consumer properties. plemented in the model KIA CADENZA 2014.
Along with this, the most important area is construc-
tive details where long-fiber reinforced materials such as 4 Conclusions
Vertron from GE Plastics Deutschland, with excellent
shock properties and heat resistance, will be used. The Thus, we can conclude that the automotive industry is
similar characteristics are the long-fiber thermoplastic not standing still and developing to the satisfaction of the
Celstran, which has found application in the external consumer who wants a fast and safe car. At the expense
interface and in the door module of the Jaguar car. of innovative development of automobile industry, it is
Today, due to the usability of the equipment, polymers possible to realize competitive products both on the na-
are required to be used even where they are more expen- tional and international markets, which will ensure the
sive. For example, the production of polycarbonate head- country’s entry into the international economic communi-
lamps is 2.5 times more expensive than mineral glass; ty. This leads to the fact that in the production of cars
nevertheless, it leaves this automotive sector. New types used increasingly new materials that meet modern re-
of coatings and molding technologies of complex three- quirements.
dimensional parts made of polycarbonate make it possible

F 16 Materials Science
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