CHAPTER 1

ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR IN HISTORICAL

CONTEXT

CHAPTER OVERVIEW
This chapter presents an overview of past and future conceptions of abnormal behavior.
Specifically, the chapter introduces the concept of abnormal behavior and its definitional
components; outlines some primary professions in the field and terms for understanding
psychological disorders; describes biological, psychological, and supernatural models of
abnormal behavior in a historical context; and summarizes a multidimensional integrative
scientific approach for understanding psychopathology.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Define abnormal behavior (psychological disorder) and describe psychological
dysfunction, distress, and atypical or unexpected cultural response.
2. Describe a contemporary scientific approach to abnormal behavior, including the
background and training of mental health care professionals, the scientist-
practitioner model, and the domains of clinical description.
3. Place abnormal behavior in historical context by comparing and contrasting the
historical views of abnormal behavior, including supernatural, biological and
psychological (including psychoanalysis, humanistic, and behavioral)
explanations.
4. Explain the importance of science and the scientific method as applied to abnormal
behavior.
5. Describe the multidimensional-integrative approach to diagnosing and evaluating
abnormal behavior and explain why it is important.

LECTURE OUTLINE
I. Understanding Psychopathology
A. The Case of Judy: The Girl who Fainted at the Sight of Blood
1. Use the case of Judy or a similar case to illustrate the definition of a
psychological disorder.

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 B. A psychological disorder, or abnormal behavior, is defined as some
psychological dysfunction associated with distress or impairment in functioning
that is not a typical or culturally expected response.
1. Psychological dysfunction is a breakdown in cognitive, emotional, or
behavioral functioning. Provide examples of each.
2. Distress occurs when a person is extremely upset.
3. An atypical or not culturally expected response refers to those behaviors or
attitudes that do not occur in a society very frequently.

 DISCUSSION POINT:
What are some behaviors that may be considered “abnormal” by the above definitions,
but do not constitute a psychological disorder?

C. An Accepted Definition of a Psychological Disorder

1. As defined in the DSM-IV-TR, an accepted definition of abnormal behavior
is behavioral, emotional, or cognitive dysfunctions that are unexpected in
their cultural context and associated with personal distress or substantial
impairment in functioning.
2. Planning for the 5th edition of the DSM (DSM-V) has begun, and three
research processes form the basis for the inclusion of psychological disorders.
a. An evaluation of the degree to which specified behaviors conform (or
not) to our previously understood definitions of disorders will be
conducted.
b. A survey process of mental health practitioners will be utilized to
search for commonalities in abnormal behavior across cultures.
c. Using the same survey process, mental health practitioners will
provide information about what separates individuals who truly meet
criteria for the disorder from others who show milder forms of the
same problem.

II. The Science of Psychopathology

A. Mental Health Care Professionals (Background, Training, & Approach)
1. Clinical and counseling psychologists typically receive a Ph.D., but may also
receive an Ed.D. or Psy.D. Clinical psychologists focus more on severe mental
illness, whereas counseling psychologists typically work with adjustment and
vocational issues. A Psy.D. degree usually denotes a greater emphasis on
clinical training than on research.
2. Psychiatrists earn an M.D., and then specialize in psychiatry during a 3-4 year
residency. They often draw from a biological perspective and prescribe
medications, though many use psychosocial treatments as well.
3. Psychiatric social workers have a master’s degree in social work and focus on
understanding an individual’s social and family situation.
4. Social workers may also treat disorders, and typically utilize the context of
social and family situations as well.

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 5. Psychiatric nurses have advanced degrees and typically serve as part of a
treatment team.
6. Marriage and family therapists usually have 1-2 years of training in a
master’s program and are often supervised by doctoral-level clinicians in the
treatment they provide.

B. The Scientist-Practitioner Framework

1. The scientist-practitioner is a mental health professional who takes a
scientific approach to their clinical work.
2. The function of a scientist-practitioner
a. Consumer of science
b. Evaluator of science
c. Creator of science

C. Clinical Description of Abnormal Behavior

1. A presenting problem typically refers to one first noted as the reason for
coming to a clinical setting.
2. One important function of clinical description is to specify what makes a
disorder different from normal behavior and other disorders.
3. Prevalence refers to the number of people in the population as a whole who
have the disorder.
4. Incidence refers to the number of new cases of a disorder occurring during a
specific period of time (e.g., a year).
5. Course refers to the pattern of the disorder over time, and can be described as
chronic, episodic, or time-limited. This concept is related to prognosis.
6. Acute onset refers to disorders that begin suddenly, whereas insidious onset
refers to disorders that develop gradually over time.
7. Important associated features (e.g., age, developmental stage, ethnicity, race)

D. Causation, Treatment, and Outcome in Psychopathology

1. Etiology refers to factors or dimensions that cause psychological disorders.
Such factors include biological, psychological, and social dimensions (covered
in detail in Chapter 2 of the textbook).
2. Treatment can include psychological, psychopharmacological, or some
combination of the two. Obtaining a successful outcome can assist in making
inferences about the variables leading to and maintaining a disorder, but not in
the determination of the actual causes of a disorder (e.g., aspirin alleviates
headache, but headache is not caused by deficits of aspirin in the brain).

 DISCUSSION POINT:
What are some of the factors that may lead a person to have a psychological disorder,
such as depression? Be sure to elicit answers involving biological, psychological, and
social components.

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III. Historical Conceptions of Abnormal Behavior
A. Overview of Supernatural, Biological, and Psychological Traditions

B. The Supernatural Tradition

1. Deviant behavior as battle between “good” vs. “evil”
a. In the Great Persian Empire from 900-600 B.C., the origins of mental
and physical illnesses were considered the work of the devil.
b. The position that mental illness was due to the presence of evil demons
persisted throughout the Middle Ages. As a result, treatment included
exorcism, or tortuous, drastic action to dispossess a spirit from a
human body.
c. The 14th and 15th centuries were characterized by the view that the
cause of madness and other “evils” was due to sorcery, witches, and
heresy.
d. Some theorists increasingly viewed abnormality as a purely natural,
physical phenomenon (i.e., as an illness). Common treatments were to
prescribe rest, sleep, and a healthy environment.
e. Because many people believed that sin and psychological disorders
were linked, the person with mental illness was largely blamed for his
or her difficulties.
2. An interesting phenomenon of the Middle Ages was mass hysteria (also
known as Saint Vitus' Dance or Tarantism), which is characterized by
outbreaks of strange behavior on a grand scale. This led individuals in the
Middle Ages to conclude that their beliefs about possession were correct.
3. Paracelsus, a Swiss physician who lived during the 16th century, introduced
the idea that the movement of the moon and stars affected people's
psychological functioning; this theory inspired the use of the word lunatic
(Latin word for moon, luna) to describe those who exhibited behavioral
disorders. Many of his views still persist today.

C. The Biological Tradition

1. The Greek physician Hippocrates (460-377 B.C.), the father of modern
medicine, presumed that psychological disorders could be conceptualized as a
brain or hereditary disease, while recognizing the importance of psychological
and interpersonal factors in psychopathology. Hippocrates also coined the
term hysteria and believed the cause to be due to a wandering uterus, and the
cure marriage and pregnancy. A Roman physician Galen (129-198 A.D.)
expanded upon the work of Hippocrates, and the Hippocratic-Galenic approach
to psychopathology extended to the 19th century.
a. A legacy of this approach was the humoral theory of mental disorder
(i.e., blood, black bile, yellow bile, phlegm)– a view that foreshadowed
modern views linking psychological disorders with chemical
imbalances in the brain.

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 2. Symptoms associated with advanced syphilis, a sexually transmitted disease
caused by a bacterial microorganism, are similar to symptoms associated with
schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders. During the 19th century, syphilis
was discovered to be a cause of general paresis (a disorder characterized by
both behavioral and cognitive symptoms). Eventually scientists (Pasteur)
discovered that syphilis could be cured by penicillin, which in turn led many
mental health professionals to believe that similar cures could be discovered
for all psychological disorders.
3. John P. Grey, an American psychiatrist, believed that insanity was always due
to physical causes and that mentally ill patients should be treated like the
physically ill. Reformers, such as Dorothea Dix, stated that the treatment of
those with mental illness should parallel the treatment of those with physical
illness. As a result, mental hospital conditions improved significantly and
many advocated the practice of “deinstitutionalization.”
4. Biological treatments for mental disorders in the 1930s (such as insulin, ECT,
and brain surgery) were periodically administered to persons with psychoses to
calm them (leading to insulin shock therapy and lobotomy). In addition,
Joseph von Meduna thought that schizophrenia was rare in persons with
epilepsy; hence, the deliberate induction of brain seizures was soon considered
useful.
5. The first effective drugs for treating severe psychotic disorders emerged in the
1950s. The discovery of rauwolfia serpentina (reserpine), neuroleptics, and
major tranquilizers proved useful for treating hallucinations, delusions,
agitation, and aggression.
6. The consequences of the early biogenic approach to psychopathology included
an ironic tendency not to pursue new drug treatments. Instead, more effort was
devoted to diagnosis, legal issues, and the study of brain pathology itself.
7. Emil Kraepelin became a dominant figure in the field of diagnosis and
classification. A central theme of his approach was that separate, discriminately
valid syndromes could be culled, each comprising different symptoms, course,
and onset.
8. By the end of the 1800s, a scientific approach to psychological disorders and
their classification was couched as a search for biological causes and
medicalized and humane treatments.

D. The Psychological Tradition

1. Psychosocial models of mental disorder became influential in the 18th century
with the advent of moral therapy (originated by well-known French
psychiatrist Philippe Pinel and his former patient Jean-Baptiste Pussin) – the
practice of allowing patients to be treated in settings as normal as possible to
encourage and reinforce social interaction.
2. The roots of moral therapy can be traced to the 6th century B.C. Greece and
Middle East’s traditions of caring well and providing a soothing environment
for individuals.

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3. William Tuke followed Pinel’s lead in England, and Benjamin Rush
(founder of American psychiatry) introduced moral therapy in his early work
at Pennsylvania Hospital. The rise of moral therapy in England and the
United States is what made institutions habitable and even therapeutic.
4. The decline of moral therapy and humane treatment was precipitated by factors
such as the belief that psychopathology was caused by incurable brain
pathology; also, providing individual attention to increasing numbers of
patients with mental illness (an important practice of moral therapists) was
becoming impossible with limited hospital staffing.
5. Although the psychodynamic model partially grew out of the work of Anton
Mesmer (father of hypnosis) and Jean Charcot, it is largely the result of the
work of Sigmund Freud and Josef Breuer.
6. Psychoanalytic Theory
a. Freud developed a comprehensive theory on the development and
structure of personality, including hypotheses about how both can lead
to psychopathology. Freud believed that mind was composed of the id,
ego, and superego. The id operates on the pleasure principle, or the
maximization of pleasure and minimization of competing tension. The
id was thought to be the source of sexual and aggressive thoughts and
behaviors. The ego was thought to develop a few months after birth to
realistically address one's environment; it operates on the reality
principle via the secondary process, with an emphasis on logical and
reasonable thought. The superego (conscience) develops last and
represents the moral standards instilled by parents or other important
influences. The primary purpose of the superego is to suppress id
drives.
b. When the id or superego gather enough strength to challenge the
conscious ego, anxiety results. To ward off anxiety, the ego may
employ defense mechanisms, or unconscious protective processes to
keep intrapsychic conflicts in check. Though Freud initially introduced
the idea of defense mechanisms, it was his daughter Anna Freud that
developed them.
c. Examples of defense mechanisms include displacement (i.e.,
redirecting anger on a less threatening object or person); denial (i.e.,
refusal to acknowledge some aspect of objective reality or subject
experience that is apparent to others); projection (i.e., falsely
attributing one’s unacceptable feelings, impulses, or thoughts on
another individual or object); rationalization (i.e., concealing true
motivations for actions, thoughts, or feelings through elaborate
reassuring or self-serving but incorrect explanations); reaction
formation (i.e., substituting behavior, thoughts, or feelings that are
direct opposites of unacceptable ones); repression (i.e., blocking
disturbing wishes, thoughts, or experiences from conscious awareness);
and sublimation (i.e., directing potentially maladaptive feelings or
impulses into socially accepted behavior).

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 d. Freud also theorized that people progress through psychosexual
developmental stages. The oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital
stages represent distinct patterns of gratifying libidinal needs. The most
controversial developmental stage is the phallic stage.

 DISCUSSION POINT:
How might Freudian theorists use the psychosexual stages to explain obsessive-
compulsive disorder?

7. Later Developments in Psychoanalytic Thought: Neo-Freudians

a. The Neo-Freudians adapted the classic psychoanalytic approach and
modified and developed it in a number of different directions. For
example, Anna Freud developed self-psychology to emphasize the
influence of the ego in defining behavior, while Melanie Klein and
Otto Kernberg developed object relations, (the study of how children
incorporate [introject] the images, memories, and values of significant
others [objects]).
b. Other theorists rejected the classic psychoanalytic approach and
developed their own principles. For example, Carl Jung rejected many
of the sexual aspects of Freud’s theory, and introduced the concept of
collective unconscious, or a source of accumulated wisdom stored in
human memory and passed from one generation to the next. In
addition, Alfred Adler focused on feelings of inferiority, superiority,
and a drive toward self-actualization. Finally, Karen Horney, Erich
Fromm, and Erik Erickson concentrated on life-span development
and societal influences on behavior.
c. Psychoanalytic theory is intertwined into psychodynamic therapy. The
goal of this approach is to help a person understand the true nature of
his/her intrapsychic conflicts and psychological problems. Several
techniques, such as free association and dream analysis, are used by
the psychoanalyst to help reveal such conflicts to the client. The
relationship between therapist and client in psychoanalysis is very
important, for it is here where transference (i.e., when the patient
begins to relate to the therapist as they did with important people in
their lives) and countertransference (i.e., where the therapist projects
their own personal issues and feelings, usually positive, onto the
patient) play out. Therapy is often long term, taking 4-5 weekly
sessions over a period of 2 to 5 years.
8. Humanistic Theory
a. Primary humanistic theorists include Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow,
and Fritz Perls. A major theme running through this work is the view
that people are basically good.
b. A central concept of this approach is self-actualization, or the
assumption that all people strive to reach their highest potential. With

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 freedom and support, one's drive toward self-actualization can be
highly successful. If this drive is thwarted, however, psychological
problems may develop. Unlike psychoanalysis, the therapist takes a
passive role, makes very few interpretations, and attempts to convey to
the client a sense of unconditional positive regard.
9. The Behavioral Model
a. The behavioral, cognitive-behavioral, or social learning model was
derived from a scientific approach to the study of psychopathology.
b. Ivan Pavlov discovered a simple form of learning, known as classical
conditioning, where a neutral stimulus is paired with a response until it
elicits that (conditioned) response (e.g., phobias, nausea associated with
chemotherapy, food aversions).
c. John Watson stated that the field of psychology should be based on
scientific analyses of observable and measurable behavior. Such
analyses could be used in the prediction and control of behavior.
Watson is credited with creating the school of Behaviorism, whereas
one of his students, Mary Cover Jones, can be credited for providing
one of the first demonstrations of successful treatment (via extinction)
of fear of furry objects in a 2-year-old boy named Peter.
d. In the mid-20th century, Joseph Wolpe developed therapeutic
procedures based on the work of these early behaviorists, particularly
the work of Pavlov and Hull. In systematic desensitization, for
example, a person may extinguish fear by practicing relaxation and
pairing it with the phobic stimulus. Such a process could be done
through imagining the stimulus (in vivo).
e. B. F. Skinner was strongly influenced by Watson’s conviction that the
science of psychology must take as its subject matter behavior, but
unlike Watson also believed that the task of psychology was to account
for all behavior, even behavior that can not be observed directly (e.g.,
thoughts, feelings). Skinner developed the field of behavior analysis
and concepts related to operant conditioning (i.e., learning which
occurs when responses are modified as a function of the consequence
of the response). Skinner maintained that this principle was applicable
to daily learning in particular but also to society and culture in general.
Though Skinner was not a behavior therapist, many of his technologies
and concepts form the core of several contemporary behavior therapies.

IV. The Present: The Scientific Method and an Integrative Approach

A. The view that psychopathology is determined by different processes does have a
historical basis, and recent evidence suggests a strong reciprocal influence among
biological, psychological, and social factors. No account alone is complete.
Therefore, this textbook is devoted to an integrative multidimensional approach in
describing various topics.

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 KEY TERMS

Behaviorism (p. 16) Person-centered therapy (p. 22)

Behavioral model (p. 22) Phobia (p. 2)
Behavior therapy (p. 24) Presenting problem (p. 6)
Catharsis (p. 17) Prevalence (p. 6)
Classical conditioning (p. 22) Prognosis (p. 6)
Clinical description (p. 6) Psychoanalysis (p. 16)
Collective unconscious (p. 20) Psychoanalyst (p. 20)
Course (p. 6) Psychoanalytic model (p. 17)
Defense mechanisms (p. 18) Psychodynamic psychotherapy (p. 21)
Dream analysis (p. 20) Psychological disorder (p. 2)
Ego (p. 18) Psychopathology (p. 5)
Ego psychology (p. 19) Psychosexual stages of development (p. 19)
Etiology (p. 7) Psychosocial (p. 14)
Extinction (p. 23) Reinforcement (p. 24)
Free association (p. 20) Scientist-practitioner (p. 5)
Id (p. 18) Self-actualizing (p. 21)
Incidence (p. 6) Shaping (p. 24)
Intrapsychic conflicts (p. 18) Superego (p. 18)
Introspection (p. 23) Systematic desensitization (p. 23)
Mental hygiene movement (p. 16) Transference (p. 21)
Moral therapy (p. 14) Unconditional positive regard (p. 22)
Neuroses (p. 19) Unconscious (p. 17)
Object relations (p. 20)

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 INFOTRAC KEY TERM EXERCISES
Each exercise is linked to key terms from the Wadsworth InfoTrac online searchable
database. Key terms must be entered exactly as written.

Exercise 1: Medieval Mass Hysteria: Fact or Fiction?

Article: A63693007
Citation: (Rethinking the Dancing Mania). Robert E. Batholomew
Skeptical Inquirer, July 2000 v24 i4 p42
Though medieval dance frenzies (i.e., St. Vitus' dance or Tartanism) have long been
regarded as a classic example of stress-induced mental disorder affecting mostly women, there is
much evidence to the contrary. Review the InfoTrac article on this topic and answer the
following questions: (a) Were most dancers crazy? (b) Was there a spontaneous, uncontrollable
urge to dance? (c) Were most dancers hysterical females? Lastly, what does the author suggest as
the likely cause of dance manias? Be sure to justify your response to each question with
appropriate arguments/evidence from the article. Limit your answer to 3-5 typed double-spaced
pages.

Exercise 2: The Stigma of Mental Illness

Key Terms: Mental Illness, Attitudes
Many persons who fit the definition of psychological disorder in the textbook feel
stigmatized by society. Yet, the same sort of stigmatization does not normally occur with most
physical diseases. Review the InfoTrac articles on this topic and prepare a 3-5 typed double-
spaced page essay where you address the following points: (a) What does it mean to be
stigmatized? (b) What forms does stigmatization take regarding mental illness? (c) Why does
stigmatization exist with regard to mental illness? (d) What steps would you propose to reduce
the sense of shame and stigmatization often experienced by those suffering from psychological
disorders? In formulating your answer, you may want to consider how most physical diseases
differ from psychological disorders in terms of how society responds to persons suffering from
them, and how you might feel with a diagnosis of a psychological disorder (e.g., a phobia) vs. a
diagnosis of, say “a severe case of the flu.”

Exercise 3: Future Trend: Alternative Therapies and Psychology’s Battle for Legitimacy
In recent years there has been a proliferation of alternative treatments for various
psychological problems. This list includes various herbal and homeopathic remedies (e.g., St.
John’s Wort), rebirthing therapy, and more recently thought field therapy (TFT). Proponents of
such treatments claim that they are far superior to standard treatments both in terms of
effectiveness and efficiency. Opponents, however, are quick to point out that such claims are
well ahead of the data. Moreover, there is the issue of whether the largely unregulated
availability of such treatments is good for psychology in general. Here you may have students
select one of several “new wave” alternative treatments for psychological disorders and evaluate
the evidence supporting (or not supporting) them. This activity could be arranged as an in-class
debate, or in the form of a brief paper. The goal, however, is to help students become critical
consumers about knowledge claims. Below are several InfoTrac articles that may serve as good
starting points.

10
 Gaudiano, B. A., & Herbert, J. D. (2000). Can we really tap our problems away?: A
critical analysis of Thought Field Therapy. Skeptical Inquirer, v24 i4, p29.
Sampson, W. (1997). Inconsistencies and errors in alternative medicine research.
Skeptical Inquirer, v21 n5, p35(4).

 IDEAS FOR INSTRUCTION 
1. Activity: Distinguishing Normal from Abnormal Behavior. An exercise that helps
students recognize the difficulty of distinguishing normal from abnormal behavior is to
begin by presenting a small amount of information about a case. If your class is large,
break your students into groups of 4-5. Instruct each group to list the top four questions
they would want to know about the case to evaluate the behavior. For example, present
the following information:

Case #1: Tom is uncomfortable riding escalators. As a result, Tom avoids using any
escalator.
(After your students have explored the case, encourage them to ask the following types of
questions):
a. How old is Tom? Is it more "normal" for Tom to fear escalators if he is a child
versus an adult? Discuss developmental issues.
b. What culture does Tom come from? Has he ever had exposure to an escalator?
Cultural contexts must always be considered when evaluating abnormal behavior.
c. How does Tom manage his fear? What symptoms does he have?
d. To what extent does Tom avoid using escalators? Does his fear significantly
interfere with his life? Also ask if your students would consider the behavior more
abnormal if he had a fear of flying in airplanes versus escalators. In other words,
at what point would the behavior be considered an abnormal fear versus a normal
fear?

Case #2: Rachel has been caught urinating in the corner of her bedroom. Is her behavior
abnormal?
(Encourage students to ask):
a. How old is Rachel? The clinical picture is very different if Rachel is one year old
than if she is 13 years old. Discuss the importance of understanding
developmental psychology.
b. How many times has she engaged in the behavior? A pattern of behavior may be
viewed differently than if it is a rare occurrence.
c. Does Rachel have a medical condition? Is she on any medications? Rachel may
have a medical or organic condition that accounts for her behavior. Ask your
students if identifying an organic condition would change their perception of
Rachel. Discuss the implication of assigning less social stigma to medical versus
psychiatric patients.
d. Has Rachel experienced a recent trauma or is she exposed to unusual stressors?
e. How does Rachel feel about her behavior? How does she explain it?

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 Examples such as these stimulate students to explore cases more fully before
making snap judgments about people's behavior, and illustrate the complexity in teasing
out normal from abnormal behavior.

2. Activity: What is Normal vs. Abnormal? A similar exercise is to break students into
groups and have them work with HANDOUT 1.1. Students should complete the handout
on their own and then discuss their opinions.

3. Activity: Examples of Conditioning in Everyday Life. To illustrate learning theory,

ask your students to apply what they have learned about conditioning and behavior
therapy to their own lives. Students may choose a behavior they would like to change or
eliminate, or may identify a new behavior they would like to acquire. Ask them to keep a
journal of the conditioning technique they are using and the exact procedure they are
employing. For example, a student may want to stop biting her nails. She could keep a
journal to describe if she is using a classical or operant procedure and monitor the
progress (or success!) of the conditioning.

4. Activity: The Blind Men and the Human Elephant. To illustrate the importance of
taking an integrative, multidimensional approach and the dangers of scientific tunnel
vision, read John G. Saxe’s (1963) poem “The Blind Men and the Elephant.” The poem
is available from several sites on the web (using the complete search phrase “Saxe’s
Blind Men and the Elephant”), including
http://www.wordinfo.info/words/index/info/view_unit/1/?letter=B&spage=3. Then have
students discuss what behaving as one of the blind men would look like from a
supernatural, biological, or psychological perspective (include psychoanalytic,
behavioral, humanistic views). Use human behavior in place of the elephant illustrated in
the poem. Try wearing a Turban, a robe, or using other props while reading the poem as
a means to elicit humor and to make the message stick.

5. Activity: Myths, Magic, & Placebos: What Do They Have to Do With Having Rocks
in Your Head? When you discuss material dealing with treatment of the mentally ill
during the Middle Ages, see whether students know where the phrase “rocks in your
head” originated. This phrase originated during the Middle Ages, where city street
vendors would commonly perform pseudosurgery on street corners. Troubled persons
with symptoms associated with mental illness would often frequent the vendors for relief.
The vendors, in turn, would make a minor incision on the skull, while an accomplice
would sneak the surgeon a few small stones. The surgeon would then pretend to have
taken the stones from the patient’s head. The stones were claimed to be the cause of the
person’s problems and that the person was now cured. A similar variant on this theme is
quite popular with modern magicians and some faith healers who purport to painlessly
remove diseased organs from the bodies their subjects. The procedure involves an
elaborate ritual, accompanied by chicken or beef blood and associated meat parts. The
magic rests in the illusion of the magician’s arm twisting and turning into the blood-
covered exposed belly of the subject and the slow removal of what appears to look like a
body part. Ask students to think about other examples of modern-day cures that they
have heard in the media or that they may have experienced themselves. This is a good

12
 place to tie in the concept of the placebo effect, and perhaps open up a discussion about
the role of beliefs and expectancies in producing and alleviating medical and
psychological forms of distress and suffering.

6. Activity: Course Journal. At the beginning of your class, ask students to keep a journal
regarding their experiences in learning about abnormal psychology. One suggested
format would be have the students to answer, on a weekly basis, the following questions:

o What is the most significant fact that I learned about abnormal psychology this
week?

o What did I learn this week about the field of abnormal psychology that changed
my existing perceptions (e.g., what “myth” did I once believe that I now see
differently)?

o One idea I had for a research study in abnormal psychology this week is:

You can have the students to turn in this journal at the end of the course, or to reflect on
their experiences completing the journal in a small paper. If you are going to assign and
collect the journals, don’t forget to remind the students that they should only disclose
information that they are comfortable with you reading!

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COPYRIGHT (c) 2005 Wadsworth Group.
Wadsworth is an imprint of the Wadsworth Group, a division of Cengage Learning, Inc.

HANDOUT 1.1
WHAT IS ABNORMAL?
Consider the following situations. Most people would consider at least some of the
actions of the people involved to be abnormal. What do you think? Think about each one
as you read through the list. Then, talk with your group about your judgments. When you
are through talking about each, elect a group spokesperson who will take notes on the
reasons that the group members come up with as to why you did or did not consider each
situation to be abnormal. You will have to "dig" mentally to put some of these reasons
into words.

1. Your uncle consumes a quart of whiskey per day; he has trouble remembering the
names of those around him.

2. Your grandmother believes that part of her body is missing and cries out about this
missing part all day long. You show her the part that is missing but she refuses to
acknowledge this contradictory information.

3. Your neighbor has vague physical complaints and sees 2-3 doctors weekly.

4. Your neighbor sweeps, washes, and scrubs his driveway daily.

5. Your cousin is pregnant, and she is dieting (800 calories per day) so that she will
not get "too fat" with the pregnancy. She has had this type of behavioral response
since she was 13 years old.

6. A woman's husband dies within the past year. The widow appears to talk to herself in
the yard, doesn't wash herself or dress in clean clothes, and has evidently lost a lot
of weight.

7. A 10-year-old wants to have his entire body tattooed.

8. A 23-year-old female smokes 4-5 marijuana joints a day, is a straight A student in

college, has a successful job, and is in a solid long-term relationship.

9. A person experiences several unexpected panic attacks each week, but is otherwise
happily married, functions well at work, and leads an active recreational lifestyle.

10. A 35-year-old happily married man enjoys wearing women’s clothes and underwear
on the weekends when he and his wife go out on the town.

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 SUPPLEMENTARY READING MATERIAL
InfoTrac Articles:

The following articles can be found on “InfoTrac, the online library,” a resource available
through Wadsworth/Cengage Learning.

Shorter, E. (1997). A history of psychiatry: From the era of asylum to the age of
Prozac. New York: Wiley. Only reviews of this book are available on InfoTrac.

Windholz, G. (1995). Pavlov on the Conditioned Reflex Method and its limitations.
American Journal of Psychology, 108(4), 575-588.

Windholz, G. (1998). Pavlov's conceptualization of voluntary movements within the

framework of the theory of higher nervous activity. American Journal of Psychology,
111(3), 435-439.

Additional Readings:

Bjork, D. W. (1993). B.F. Skinner: A life. New York: Basic.

Bolles, R. C. (1993). The story of psychology: A thematic history. Pacific Grove, CA:
Brooks/Cole.

Grob, G. (1994). The mad among us: A history of the care of America’s mentally ill.
New York: MacMillan.

Hatfield, A. B., & Lefley, H. P. (1993). Surviving mental illness. New York: Guilford.

Hunt, M. M. (1993). The story of psychology. New York: Doubleday.

Watson, R. I. (1991). The great psychologists: A history of psychological thought. (5th

ed.). Reading, MA: Addison Wesley Longman. Traces the history of psychology by
examining the work of its’ pioneers.

Weitz, R. D. (1992). A half century of psychological practice. Professional Psychology:

Research and Practice, 23, 448-452.

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 SUPPLEMENTARY VIDEO RESOURCES

Abnormal behavior: A mental hospital. (CRM/McGraw-Hill Films, 110 15th Street, Del
Mar, CA 92014). Portrays life in a modern mental hospital, including views of schizophrenics
and of a patient receiving ECT. (28 min)

Adlerian therapy. (Insight Media: 2162 Broadway, New York, NY 10024/ (800)-233-
9910). Dr. Jon Carlson examines and demonstrates Adlerian therapy (also known as individual
psychology). (100 min)
B. F. Skinner and behavior change: Research, practice, and promise. (Research Press:
Department 95, P.O. Box 9177, Champaign, IL 61826/ (800)-519-2707). This video features a
discussion with B. F. Skinner and addresses some controversial issues related to behavioral
psychology. (45 min)

Carl Rogers. (Insight Media: 2162 Broadway, New York, NY 10024/ (800)-233-9910).
Carl Rogers discusses the humanistic model of personality as well as his views on encounter
groups, education, and other issues facing psychologists. (2 programs, each 50 min)

Freud: The hidden nature of man. (Insight Media: 2162 Broadway, New York, NY 10024/
(800)-233-9910). Through interviews with Sigmund Freud himself, this video explores the
concepts of psychoanalysis. (29 min)

Is mental illness a myth? (NMAC-T 2031). Debates whether mental illness is a physical
disease or a collection of socially learned behaviors. Panelists include Thomas Szasz, Nathan
Kline, and F. C. Redlich. (29 min)

Keltie’s beard: A woman’s story (1983, FL). About a woman with heavy facial hair that
she chooses not to cut. Useful in discussing the criteria for abnormal behavior (film and video,
9 min).

Man facing southeast. (Hollywood, Drama). Fascinating Argentine film about a man
with no identity who shows up at a psychiatric hospital claiming to be from another planet. It
seems that this is not just another patient, and neither the hospital staff nor the film’s audience
ever figure out exactly what is happening.

Out of sight. (From the PBS Madness series; PBS Video Catalog, 1-800-344-3337).
Discusses the development of institutions for the mentally ill and traces custodial care practices
of the mentally disturbed. (VHS, color, 60 min)

Pavlov: The conditioned reflex. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences: P.O. Box 2053,
Princeton, NJ 08543-2053/ (800)-257-5126). A documentary focusing on the classic work of Ivan
Pavlov, this video includes rare footage of his investigations on the conditioned reflex. (25 min)

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 The dark side of the moon. (Fanlight Productions, 1-800-937-4113). Chronicles the lives
of three men with mental disorders from living on the streets to becoming useful members of
society. They now work to help other people in similar situations. (VHS, color, 25 min)

To define true madness. (From the PBS Madness series; PBS Video Catalog, 1-800-344-
3337). Examines mental illness through history and considers the progress made to understand
psychological disorders. (VHS, color, 60 min)

INTERNET RESOURCES
Abraham Maslow
http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/maslow.html
A short biography of Abraham Maslow as well as an elaborate explanation of his
humanistic theory can be found at this website.

American Psychiatric Association

http://www.psych.org/
APA's website contains psychology-related links, information on legal cases that have
affected psychiatry, continuing education for therapists, and much more.

Clinical Psychology News

http://www.clinicallypsyched.com/
This is a collection of articles relevant to abnormal psychology. Many articles are in the
form of press releases, and you may want to track down the original sources. The topics covered
span the discipline of abnormal psychology.

Internet Mental Health

http://www.mentalhealth.com/
A comprehensive site containing information related to the assessment, diagnosis, and
treatment of mental illness.

Mental Health History

http://www.mdx.ac.uk/www/study/mhhtim.htm
An interesting site containing a timeline tracing the history of mental health care and
asylums, asylum care, and community care.

National Alliance for the Mentally Ill

http://www.nami.org/
Links, membership information, and searchable indexes of mental disorders are all
included on this site.

Personality Theories
http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/perscontents.html

17
 This is an electronic textbook ("e-text") created for undergraduate and graduate courses
in personality theory.

Sigmund Freud Museum Vienna Homepage

http://www.freud-museum.at/e/index.html
Includes a chronology of events in Freud’s life and the history of psychoanalysis, plus
excellent descriptions of psychoanalytic terminology.

The History of Psychology Website

http://academic.udayton.edu/gregelvers/hop/welcome.asp
Links to many psychology-related web pages on the Internet.

The National Institute of Mental Health

http://www.nimh.nih.gov
The NIMH website offers information about diagnosis and treatment of several mental
health disorders.

Today in the History of Psychology

http://www.cwu.edu/~warren/today.html
The American Psychological Association created this website which allows the user to
access information on the history of psychology by selecting a date on the calendar.

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COPYRIGHT (c) 2009 Wadsworth, a division of Cengage Learning, Inc.

WARNING SIGNS FOR

PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS IN ADULTS
 Confused thinking
 Prolonged depression (sadness or irritability)
 Feelings of extreme highs and lows
 Excessive fears, worries, and anxieties
 Social withdrawal
 Dramatic changes in eating or sleeping habits
 Strong feelings of anger
 Delusions or hallucinations
 Growing inability to cope with daily problems and activities
 Suicidal thoughts
 Denial of obvious problems
 Numerous unexplained physical ailments
 Substance abuse

19
COPYRIGHT (c) 2009 Wadsworth, a division of Cengage Learning, Inc.

WARNING SIGNS
FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
IN YOUNGER CHILDREN
 Changes in school performance
 Poor grades despite strong efforts
 Excessive worry or anxiety (i.e., refusing to go to bed or school)
 Hyperactivity
 Persistent nightmares
 Persistent disobedience or aggression
 Frequent temper tantrums

20
COPYRIGHT (c) 2009 Wadsworth, a division of Cengage Learning, Inc.

WARNING SIGNS FOR

PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
IN OLDER CHILDREN AND PRE-ADOLESCENTS
 Substance abuse
 Inability to cope with problems and daily activities
 Change in sleeping and/or eating habits
 Excessive complaints of physical ailments
 Defiance of authority, truancy, theft, and/or vandalism
 Intense fear of weight gain
 Prolonged negative mood, accompanied by poor appetite or thoughts of
death
 Frequent outbursts of anger

21