Nanomaterials: 1. Basics of Nano Materials and Nanochemistry - Features Nanoscience and Nanotechnology
Nanomaterials: 1. Basics of Nano Materials and Nanochemistry - Features Nanoscience and Nanotechnology
Nanomaterials: 1. Basics of Nano Materials and Nanochemistry - Features Nanoscience and Nanotechnology
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3 1. Basics of nano‐materials and nanochemistry – features Nanoscience and nanotechnology
4 • Nanoscience deals with the scientific study of objects with sizes in the 1 – 100 nm range in at least one
5 dimension.
6 • Nanotechnology deals with using objects in the same size range to develop products with possible
7 practical application. It is usually based on nanoscience insights.
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9 Nanoscience and Nanochemistry
10 • Nanoscience is interesting in part of course because it by definition is new. But a more profound
11 and important reason is that it deals with objects which are only slightly larger than an atom. This means
12 that the properties of the objects can be influenced by direct manifestations of quantum mechanics.
13 • It is also possible that nanoscale objects do behave just like as expected from (semi)classical Physics, but
14 the downgrading in size opens up possible new applications.
15 Nanotechnology is the creation of functional materials, devices, and systems through control of matter on
16 the nanometer (1 to 100 nm) length
17 scale and the exploitation of novel properties and phenomena developed at that scale.
18 • A scientific and technical revolution has begun that is based upon the ability to systematically organize
19 and manipulate matter on the nanometer length scale.
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22 Cross‐sectional area of human hair
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24 Characterization of nanomaterials
25 The properties of nanomaterials depend on size, crystal structure, surface characteristics and particle
26 size. The following instrumentation methods used to characterize nanomaterials,
27 • X ray diffraction
28 • Low energy electron diffraction
29 • Scanning electron microscopy
30 • Atomic force microscopy
31 Carbon nanostructures
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35 2. Distinction between molecules, nano‐particles and bulk materials – illustration with
36 examples.
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38 1. Reduced Melting Point ‐ Nanomaterials may have a significantly lower melting point or phase
39 transition temperature and appreciably reduced lattice constants (spacing between atoms is
40 reduced), due to a huge fraction of surface atoms in the total amount of atoms.
41 2. Ultra‐Hard ‐ Mechanical properties of nanomaterials may reach the theoretical strength,
42 which are one or two orders of magnitude higher than that of single crystals in the bulk form. The
43 enhancement in mechanical strength is simply due to the reduced probability of defects.
44 3. Optical properties of nanomaterials can be significantly different from bulk crystals.
45 4. Electrical conductivity decreases with a reduced dimension due to increased surface scattering.
46 Electrical conductivity increases due to the better ordering and ballistic transport.
47 5. Magnetic properties of nanostructured materials are distinctly different from that of bulk
48 materials. Ferromagnetism disappears and transfers to superparamagnetism in the nanometer
49 scale due to the huge surface energy.
50 6. Self‐purification is an intrinsic thermodynamic property of nanostructures and nanomaterials due to
51 enhanced diffusion of impurities/defects/dislocations to the nearby surface.
52 7. Increased perfection enhances chemical stability.
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54 Two primary factors cause nanomaterials to behave significantly differently than bulk materials: surface effects
55 (causing smooth properties scaling due to the fraction of atoms at the surface) and quantum effects (showing
56 discontinuous behavior due to quantum confinement effects in materials with delocalized electrons). These
57 factors affect the chemical reactivity of materials, as well as their mechanical, optical, electric, and magnetic
58 properties. The fraction of the atoms at the surface in nanoparticles is increased compared to microparticles or
59 bulk. Compared to microparticles, nanoparticles have a very large surface area and high particle number per unit
60 mass. For illustration, one carbon microparticle with a diameter of 60 µm has a mass of 0.3 µg and a surface area
61 of 0.01 mm2. The same mass of carbon in nanoparticulate form, with each particle having a diameter of 60 nm,
62 has a surface area of 11.3 mm2 and consists of 1 billion nanostructures with sizes as small as a few nanometers.
63 The electronic behavior of quantum dots is similar to that of individual atoms or small molecules, and quantum
64 dots are regarded as akin to artificial atoms Nano materials have superior properties than bulk materials.
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Bulk (eg. Gold) Nano (eg. Gold)
Lustrous–Shiny surface when polished. Vary in appearance depending on size & shape of cluster.
Malleable–Can be hammered, bent or Are never gold in colour!
rolled to any desired shape. Are found in a range of colours.
Ductile–Can be drawn out into wires Are very good catalysts.
Yellow colour when in a mass Are not ―metals‖ but are semiconductors.
Heat & electricity conductor Melts at relatively low temperature (~940º C).
High densities Size & Shape of the nanoparticles determines the color.
High melting point (1080ºC) For example; Gold particles in glass: 25 nm —
Tough with high tensile strength Red reflected 50 nm — Green reflected
Inert‐unaffected by air and most reagents (Unexpected visible properties & they are
small enough to scatter visible light rather
than absorb)
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69 3. Size‐dependent properties‐ nano‐particles: nano‐clusters etc.
70 Size dependent properties nanomaterials
71 Nanoparticles are of great scientific interest as they are, in effect, a bridge between bulk materials and atomic
72 or molecular structures. A bulk material should have constant physical properties regardless of its size,
73 but at the nano‐scale size‐dependent properties are often observed. Thus, the properties of materials change
74 as their size approaches the nanoscale and as the percentage of atoms at the surface of a material
75 becomes significant. For bulk materials larger than one micrometer (or micron), the percentage of atoms at
76 the surface is insignificant in relation to the number of atoms in the bulk of the material. The interesting
77 and sometimes unexpected properties of nanoparticles are therefore largely due to the large surface area
78 of the material, which dominates the contributions made by the small bulk of the material. Nanoparticles often
79 possess unexpected optical properties as they are small enough to confine their electrons and produce
80 quantum effects. For example gold nanoparticles appear deep‐red to black in solution. Nanoparticles of
81 yellow gold and grey silicon are red in color. Gold nanoparticles melt at much lower temperatures (~300°C for
82 2.5 nm size) than the gold slabs (1064 °C). Other size‐dependent property changes: The high surface area to
83 volume ratio of nanoparticles provides a tremendous driving force for diffusion, especially at elevated
84 temperatures. Sintering can take place at lower temperatures, over shorter time scales than for larger
85 particles. In theory, this does not affect the density of the final product, though flow difficulties and the
86 tendency of nanoparticles to agglomerate complicates matters. Moreover, nanoparticles have been found
87 to impart some extra properties to various day to day products. For example, the presence of titanium
88 dioxide nanoparticles imparts what we call the self‐cleaning effect, and, the size being nano‐range, the
89 particles cannot be observed. Zinc oxide particles have been found to have superior UV blocking properties
90 compared to its bulk substitute. This is one of the reasons why it is often used in the preparation of sunscreen
91 lotions, and is completely photostable.
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93 4. Properties and applications of nano‐materials.
94 Properties of Nanomaterials
95 Mechanical properties: The mechanical properties of carbon nanotubes in the radial (transverse)
96 direction. Carbon nanotubes are one of the strongest materials in nature. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are
97 long hollow cylinders of graphene. Although graphene sheets have 2D symmetry, carbon nanotubes
98 by geometry have different properties in axial and radial directions. It has been shown that CNTs are
99 very strong in the axial direction. Young's modulus on the order of 270 ‐ 950 GPa and tensile strength
100 of 11 ‐ 63 GPa were obtained. On the other hand, there was evidence that in the radial direction they
101 are rather soft. The first transmission electron microscope observation of radial elasticity suggested
102 that even the van der Waals forces can deform two adjacent nanotubes. Later, nanoindentations with
103 atomic force microscope were performed by several groups to quantitatively measure radial elasticity
104 of multiwalled carbon nanotubes and tapping/contact mode atomic force microscopy was also
105 performed on single‐walled carbon nanotubes.
106 Catalytic Properties: Functionalized metal nanoparticles are more stable in solution compared to
107 non‐functionalized metal nanoparticles. In liquid solutions, the metal nanoparticles are close enough
108 together to be affected by van der Waals force. If there isn’t anything to oppose these forces, then the
109 nanoparticles will aggregate, which will lead to a decrease in catalytic activity by lowering the surface
110 area. For organometallic functionalized nanoparticles, ligands are coordinated to the metal center to
111 prevent aggregation. Using different ligands alters the properties and sizes of the nanoparticle catalysts.
112 Nanoparticles can also be functionalized with polymers or oligomers to sterically stabilize the
113 nanoparticles by providing a protective layer that prevents the nanoparticles from interacting with each
114 other. Alloys of two metals, called bimetallic nanoparticles, are used to create synergistic effects on
115 catalysis between the two metals.
116 Magnetic Properties: In magnetic nanoparticles, the energy of magnetic anisotropy may be that small
117 that the vector of magnetization fluctuates thermally; this is called superparamagnetism. Such a material
118 is free of remanence, and coercitivity. Touching superparamagnetic particles are loosing this special
119 property by interaction, except the particles are kept at distance. Combining particles with high
120 energy of anisotropy with superparamagnetic ones leads to a new class of permanent magnetic
121 materials.
122 Optical Properties: Distributions of non‐agglomerated nanoparticles in a polymer are used to tune the
123 index of refraction. Additionally, such a process may produce materials with non‐linear optical
124 properties. Gold or CdSe nanoparticles in glass lead to red or orange coloration. Semi‐conducting
125 nanoparticles and some oxide‐polymer nanocomposites exhibit fluorescence showing blue shift with
126 decreasing particle size.
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128 Applications of nanomaterial
129 Since nanomaterials possess unique, beneficial chemical, physical, and mechanical properties, they can be
130 used for a wide variety of applications. These applications include, but are not limited to, the following:
131 Next‐Generation Computer Chips: The microelectronics industry has been emphasising miniaturisation,
132 whereby the circuits, such as transistors, resistors, and capacitors, are reduced in size.
133 Kinetic Energy (KE) Penetrators with Enhanced Lethality: The Department of Defense (DoD) is currently
134 using depleted‐uranium (DU) projectiles (penetrators) for its lethality against hardened targets and
135 enemy armoured vehicles.
136 Better Insulation Materials: Nanocrystalline materials synthesised by the sol‐gel technique result in
137 foam like structures called "aerogels." These aerogels are porous and extremely lightweight; yet, they
138 can loads equivalent to 100 times their weight. Aerogels are composed of three‐dimensional, continuous
139 networks of particles with air (or any other fluid, such as a gas) trapped at their interstices. Since they
140 are porous and air is trapped at the interstices, aerogels are currently being used for insulation in offices,
141 homes, etc.
142 Phosphors for High‐Definition TV: The resolution of a television, or a monitor, depends greatly on the
143 size of the pixel. These pixels are essentially made of materials called "phosphors," which glow when
144 struck by a stream of electrons inside the cathode ray tube (CRT). The resolution improves with a reduction
145 in the size of the pixel, or the phosphors.
146 Low‐Cost Flat‐Panel Displays: Flat‐panel displays represent a huge market in the laptop (portable)
147 computers industry. However, Japan is leading this market, primarily because of its research and
148 development efforts on the materials for such displays.
149 Tougher and Harder Cutting Tools: Cutting tools made of nanocrystalline materials, such as tungsten
150 carbide, tantalum carbide, and titanium carbide, are much harder, much more wear‐ resistant, erosion‐
151 resistant, and last longer than their conventional (large‐grained) counterparts.
152 Elimination of Pollutants: Nanocrystalline materials possess extremely large grain boundaries relative to
153 their grain size. Hence, nanomaterials are very active in terms of their of chemical, physical, and
154 mechanical properties. Due to their enhanced chemical activity, nanomaterials can be used as catalysts
155 to react with such noxious and toxic gases as carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxide in automobile catalytic
156 converters and power generation equipment to prevent environmental pollution arising from burning
157 gasoline and coal.
158 High Energy Density Batteries: Conventional and rechargeable batteries are used in almost all applications
159 that require electric power. These applications include automobiles, laptop computers, electric vehicles,
160 next‐generation electric vehicles (NGEV) to reduce environmental pollution, personal stereos, cellular
161 phones, cordless phones, toys, and watches. The energy density (storage capacity) of these batteries
162 is quite low requiring frequent recharging. The life of conventional and rechargeable batteries is also
163 low. Nanocrystalline materials synthesised by sol‐gel techniques are candidates for separator plates in
164 batteries because of their foam‐like (aerogel) structure, which can hold considerably more energy than
165 their conventional counterparts.
166 High‐Sensitivity Sensors: Sensors employ their sensitivity to the changes in various parameters they are
167 designed to measure. The measured parameters include electrical resistivity, chemical activity, magnetic
168 permeability, thermal conductivity, and capacitance.
169 Automobiles with Greater Fuel Efficiency: Currently, automobile engines waste considerable amounts of
170 gasoline, thereby contributing to environmental pollution by not completely combusting the fuel. A
171 conventional spark plug is not designed to burn the gasoline completely and efficiently. This problem is
172 compounded by defective, or worn‐out, spark plug electrodes.
173 Aerospace Components with Enhanced Performance Characteristics: Due to the risks involved in flying,
174 aircraft manufacturers strive to make the aerospace components stronger, tougher, and last longer. One
175 of the key properties required of the aircraft components is the fatigue strength, which decreases with the
176 component’s age.
177 Better and Future Weapons Platforms
178 Longer‐Lasting Satellites
179 Longer‐Lasting Medical Implants
180 Ductile, Machinable Ceramics
181 Large Electrochromic Display Devices.