INSTRUMENTATION DEVICES AND

SYSTEMS-I

SUBJECT CODE: PCEI4302

B.Tech, Fourth Semester

Prepared By

Dr. Kanhu Charan Bhuyan

Asst. Professor
Instrumentation and Electronics Engineering

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

BHUBANESWAR

1
 INSTRUMENTATION DEVICES AND SYSTEMS-I
Module-1
Elements of Measurement System;
Static Characteristics, Systematic Characteristics, Statistical Characteristics, calibration
Dynamic Characteristics, transfer functions of typical sensing elements, step and frequency
response of first and second order elements, dynamic error in measurement systems

Module-2
Sensing Elements:
Resistive sensing elements: potentiometers, Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD),
thermistors, strain gages.
Capacitive sensing elements: variable separation, area and dielectric;
Inductive sensing elements: variable reluctance and LVDT displacement sensors;
Electromagnetic sensing elements: velocity sensors,
Thermoelectric sensing elements: laws, thermocouple characteristics, installation problems,
cold junction compensation.
IC temperature sensor
Elastic sensing elements: Bourdon tube, bellows and diaphragms for pressure sensing, force
and torque measurement.

Module-3
Signal Conditioning Elements:
Deflection bridge: design of resistive and reactive bridges, push-pull configuration for
improvement of linearity and sensitivity
Amplifiers: Operational amplifiers-ideal and non-ideal performances, inverting, non-inverting
and differential amplifiers, instrumentation amplifier, filters, A.C. carrier systems, phase
sensitivity demodulators and its applications in instrumentation
Flow Measurement:
Basics of flow measurement: differential pressure flowmeters- Pitot tube, Orifice plate, Ventri
tube; Rotameter, turbine type flowmeter, electromagnetic flowmeter, Doppler shift flowmeter.
Text Books:
1. Principle of Measurement Systems- J.P. Bentley (3/e), Pearson Education, New Delhi,
2007.
2. Introduction to Measurement and Instrumentation- A. K. Ghosh(3/e), PHI Learning,
New Delhi, 2009

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3. Transducers and Instrumentation- D. V. S. Murthy(2/e), PHI Learning, New Delhi,
2009.
Reference Books:
1. Measurement Systems Application and Design- E. O. Doeblin (4/e), McGraw-Hill,
International, NY.
2. Instrumentation for Engineering Measurements- J.W. Dally, W.F. Riley and K.G.
McConnel (2/e), John Wiley, NY, 2003.
3. Industrial Instrumentation- T.R. Padmanabhan, Springer, London, 2000

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Module-I
1. Elements of Measurement System:

I/p O/p
Measurement
True value System Measured value
value
Block Diagram of Measurement System

Signal O/p
I/p Sensing Signal Processing Data
Conditioning
Element Element Representation
Element

1. Sensing Element

Sensing elements take the input and give the output which depends on the variable to
be measured. It consists of two parts.

I. Primary Sensing Element

II. Secondary Sensing Element
 Sensor: - Sensor is a primary sensing element which converts one form of physical
quantity to another form.
 Transducer: - It is a device which convert one form of energy to another form.
In electrically form generally transducer convert mechanical energy to electrical
energy.
[Ques. Difference between Sensor and Transducer?]

Ex: - Strain gauge mounted on the load cell. Load cell is the primary Sensing element.

Load cell

Strain gauge

I/p- Strain O/p- Resistance change finally voltage

Ex: Thermocouple.

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 2. Signal Conditioning Element

The input to signal conditioning element is from the sensing element and it gives an output that I
more suitable for further processing. The Output is generally in the form of DC voltage, DC current and
frequency.

Ex1: Bridge circuit

E Strain R Bridge V
gauge Circuit

Signal
Conditioning
Ex2: Oscillator Element

I/p Z F
Capacitance Probe Oscillator Ckt.

3. Signal Processing element

It takes the output of signal conditioning element as an input and gives an output which is
suitable for the presentation.

Ex: 1. Analog to digital converter (A-D-C)

2. Micro Computer

4. Data Representation

It takes the output of signal processing element as an input and gives an output which is
easily observed/measured by the observer.

Ex: 1. Pointer scale indicator

2. Alpha Numeric Display

3. Visual Display

Ex. of Measurement system:

Amplifier mV-V,
Weight Measuring System,
A-D-C,
Sensing Element,
Micro Computer visual Display,
Bridge Circuit: Change in Resistance to electrical form,
Visual Display.

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 2. Static Characteristics

Static Characteristics

Statistic Systematic

Static Characteristics means the input is not going to be changed or, changed very shortly.

Statistical Characteristics: those characteristics which can be exactly quantify by any

particular element.

Ex: Repeatability

Tolerance level

Systematic Characteristics: Those characteristics which can be exactly quantified by a

particular element.

1. Dead Space 7. Non-Linearity

2. Threshold 8. Hysteresis
3. Lag 9. Resolution
4. Range 10. Sensitivity
5. Span 11. Wear and ageing
6. Linearity 12. Error Band

Systematic Characteristics:
1. Dead Space: It is the range of input for which there is no change in output.

2. Threshold: If dead space occurs at the beginning of the measurement then that is called
threshold.

3. Lag: It is the time taken by an element or, Instrument to respond to an activity.

I O

t1 T Lag= t2-t1 t1 t2 T
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4. Range:

For minimum input range IMIN For Minimum output range OMIN

For Maximum input range IMAX For Maximum output range OMAX

5. Span: Span is the maximum variation between input and output.

Input Span= Ispan= IMAX-IMIN

Output Span= Ospan= OMAX-OMIN

6. Linearity: The variation of input and output makes a straight line.

O  OMIN 
O  OMIN   MAX  .I  I MIN 
 I MAX  I MIN 

OIDEAL= KI + a

O MAX  O MIN
K
I MAX  I MIN

 a  OMIN  KI MIN
O
B (IMAX, OMAX)

A (IMIN, OMIN) I

7. Non-linearity: It is the difference between linear line and the actual line.
O
B (IMAX, OMAX)

KI+a

O (I)

A (IMIN, OMIN) I

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 N (I )  Oactual  Olinear

O(I )  N (I )  KI  a

Nˆ  Max Non  linearity in FSD

Percentage of Full Scale Deflection (FSD)

Nˆ
Nˆ  100 %
OMAX  OMIN

8. Sensitivity: The rate of change of output with respect to input.

dO
 K  Linearity
dI

dO dN I 
K   Non  Linearity
dI dt

Environmental Effect

1. Modifying input (IM) Changes the sensitivity or, Slope k

2. Interfering input (II) Changes the intercept ‘a’.

IM  0 II  0
O O
IM  0 II  0

‘a’

I I
(Modifying input)

O( I )  N (I )  KI  a
O(I )  N (I )  (K  K M I M )I  a  K I I I
 O(I )  N (I )  KI  K M I M I  a  K I I I
KM and KI are environmental Coupling constants.

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9. Hysteresis: For the given value of input the output may be different whether the input
is increasing or, decreasing.

H ( I )  O( I ) I   O( I ) 

H (I )
Hˆ 
O Max  O Min

O
B

H (I)

A
I

Ex: Backlash: Conversion of rotational movement to linear movement

10. Resolution: It is defined as the largest change in the input that can occur without any
corresponding change in output.

Ex: Potentiometer resistance change with respect to distance.

11. Accuracy:

True value Measurement Measured value

System

A= Measured Value – True value

12 Wear and ageing: These effects can cause the characteristic of an element. E.g. ‘K’ and
‘a’ to change slowly but systematically throughout its life.

Ex: Stiffness of the spring

K(t) =K0-bt

K0 initial Stiffness

b constant,

K(t)Stiffness of the spring.

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13 Error Band:
O
IMAX, OMAX
h
h
h h

h
OIDEAL

IMAX, OMAX I

P (O) = Probability Function

In rectangular form

P (O)

2h

IDEAL O

P(O)  1, OIDEAL  h  0  OIDEAL  h

 0, 0  OIDEAL  h
 0, 0  OIDEAL  h

In Gaussian form
x2

P(O) x1, x2   P( x) dx
x1

P(x) Probability density function

P(x)

X1 X2 x

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 Symbols

Addition Scalar Multiplication

x y
x K
Z=x+y y=Kx
y
Subtraction Variable Multiplication

x
x
Z=x-y
Z=xy
y y

Function Integration

x y
x
f(.)
y 
y=f(x) y=  xdx
Differentiation

x d y
dt
dx
y=
dt

Generalised Model of system element.

O  KI  a  N (I )  KM I M I  K I I I
IM
KI
KM
O
I G(s)
K
KI
a
N() N (I)

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Statistical Characteristics:

1. Repeatability: It is the property of an element to repeat itself give same output for
same input when the input is applied.

To centralise the mean value the Gaussian density function is used

1   ( x  x )2 
P( x)  exp  
 2  2
2


  Standard deviation
x  Mean Value
Where, 
x  xP( x)dx


Variance   2

   ( x  x )P( x)dx
2



O  KI  a  N (I )  K M I M I  K I I I

 O   O   O 
O   I   I M  
  I
I I

 I   I M   M 

y a1x1 a2 x2 a3x3

 a 
2 2
1 1  a22 22  a32 32 

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Standard deviation of output for a single element

2 2
 
2
    
 o   O   I 2   O   I 2   O  I 2
 I   I  M  I  I
 M   I 

The Mean value of output or a single element is

O  KI  a  N ( I )  K M I M I  K I I I

Identification of Static Characteristics:

Callibration: -

 The static characteristics of an element can be found experimentally by measuring

corresponding values of the input ‘I’, the output ‘O’ and the environmental input (IM,
II). When I either at a constant value or changing slowly. This type of experiment is
referred to as Callibration
 The instruments and techniques used to quantify the variables I, O, IM and II are referred
to as standard.
 The true value of a variable is the measured value obtained with a standard of ultimate
accuracy.

Ultimate Standard Eg. NPL Pressure Balance

Transfer Standard Eg. Dead weight Tests

Increasing
Accuracy

Laboratory Standard Eg. Standard Pressure Gauges

Element to be Callibrated Eg. Pressure Transducer

NPL National Physical Laboratory

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There are three steps to measure a parameter:
(i) O vs. I
IM=II=0
(ii) O vs. IM, II
I=Constant
I= (IMIN + IMAX)/2

O  2 
KM =   

I M  I MIN  I MAX 

O  KI  a  N (I )  K M I M I  K I I I (1)

O  O  KI  a  N (I )  K M (I M  I M ) I  K I I I (2)

Subtract (1) from (2)

O  K M I M I

O O  2 
KM   KM   
I M I I M  I MIN  I MAX 
Interfering I/P with known value of KI

O  KI  a  N (I )  K M I M I  K I I I (1)

O  O  KI  a  N ( I )  K M ( I M  I M , I ) I  K I ( I I  I I ,M ) (2)

Subtracting (1) from (2)

O  K M I M , I I  K I I I , M

 K M I M , I I  O  K I I I ,M

O  K I I I , M
 KM 
I M , I I

 O  2 
 KM    KI  
 I M , I  I MIN  I MAX 
  

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(iii) Repeatability test

15
3. Dynamic Characteristics:

When TF > T
Outflow=U
Inflow (W) =UA (TF - T)

dT
W= MC
dt

dT Change in temp. C Specific heat

WInflow dt Change in time

Characteristics of sensor is defined by heat balance equation.

Rate of heat flow to sensor - Rate of heat outflow

= Rate of change of sensor heat content

U= Overall heat transfer co-efficient

A= Effective area of sensor Unit
M=Mass of sensor U= watt/m2 .c
C=Specific heat of sensor material C=J/kg .c
TF = Temperature of Fluid
T= Temperature of sensor

when t  0, TF  T
t  0, TF  T F  TF
T  T  T

W  UATF  TF  T  T 

d (T  T )
MC  UA (TF  TF  T  T )
dt

dT dT
 UA(TF  T )  UATF  UAT  MC  MC
dt dt
d (T )
 UATF  UA T  MC
dt

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 d (T )
 UA (TF  T )  MC
dt

MC d (T )
 TF  T 
UA dt

MC d (T )
  T  TF  Linear 1st order differential equation
UA dt
for thermal system

MC
  (time constant)
UA

d (T )
.  T  TF
dt
k J / k C
MC g g
Units   J  sec
w
2  m
UA w 2
m C

For Fluidic System

R F  Resistanceof fluid

Pin  ghin ( P  gh)

Pin  P  ghin  h

Pin  P Adh g hin  h  Adh

  
RF dt RF dt

Adh
 RF .  gh  ghin
dt

AR F dh
 .  h  hin  1st order differential equation for
g dt thermal system

17
 ARF
  time constant
g
For Electrical System

Vin  IR  V  0

Q
C  Q  CV
V

dQ
Vin  V  R
dt

dV
 Vin  V  RC
dt

dV
 RC  V  Vin
dt
Time Constant( )  RC

For Mechanical System

dx

dt
  damping co  efficient

k  Stiffness of spring

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F  kx
dx
 F  kx   (when there is a change in displacement)
dt
d x  x 
F  F  k ( x  x) 
dt

dx d x 
 F  kx  F  kx   
dt dt

d x 
F  kx 
dt
d x 
  kx  F
dt
 d x F
  x 
k dt k

  time constant
k

Property Thermal Electrical Fluidic Mechanical

MC ARF 
τ RC g
UA k
1
R R RF 
UA
A 1
C MC C g k

d T 
  T  TF
dt
Taking laplace Transformon both sides

 
  ST (S )  T (0)  T (S )  TF (S )

 ST (S )  T (S )  TF (S )

 T (S )S  1  TF (S )

T ( S ) 1

T F ( S ) S  1

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 G(S )  Transfer Function

Laplace Transformof change in output temp.

G(S ) 
Laplace Transformof change in input temp.

FO ( S )
G(S ) 
Fi ( S )

T ( S ) 1
 G(S )  
TF ( S ) S  1

Fi (S ) FO (S )
G(S) [General transfer function block]

TF (S ) T (S ) [1st order transfer

1
1  S
function block]

Static Characteristics is given by the equation

O  KI  a  N (I )  K M I M I  K I I I

I0  Steady state input

O N ( I )
 K  KM IM 
I I0 I

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 Module-II
Sensing Elements
1. Resistive sensing element
 Potentiometer
 Thermistor
 Helipot
 Resistance Thermometer or, RTD (RTD- Resistance temp. Detector)
 Strain Gauge
It can sense temperature, strain, displacement, heat, loss etc.

R L
A

Potentiometer [POT]

Passive transducer: Those transducer which requires external power for energy conversion is
known as passive transducer.

Active transducer: Those transducer which don’t require external power sources for energy
conversion, known as active transducer.

Ex: - Piezo-electric Crystal, Thermocouple

Potentiometer is used for displacement measurement.

 Strain Strain Gauge

 Temperature Thermistors

It is a potential divider called POT and it is a passive sensing element.

It measures linear as well as angular displacement.

(1) Translational POT

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 (2) Rotational POT

Schematic Diagram:

dlength covered by the wiper

dTTotal length of the resistive element

RPTotal Resistance of the POT

d/dt=x=Fractional Displacement

ei  R p x
E th  Rp

Eth  ei .x
R p (1  x). R p x
RTh  R p (1  x) || R p x   R p .x.(1  x)
Rp

E th R L ei xR L
VL  
Rth  R L R p x(1  x)  R L

ei xRL
VL   Non  Linear Equation
R p x(1  x)  RL

when RL is large linearity can be obtained

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 ei xRL ei x
VL   VL 
 Rp  Rp
RL  x(1  x)  RL  x(1  x)  1
 RL  RL

When RL  

VL  ei x  Linear property of potentiometer

 POT are of two types: -

i) Wire Wound type: - In this type 0.01 mm diameter of platinum or nickel alloy
each wounded over an insulated former.
ii) Plastic thin film type: - These have zero resolution but have higher temperature
co-efficient of resistance. This covers displacement span from 25-250mm with
Non-linearity up to ±0.04% and resistance value from 500 ohm- 80 K ohm.

Resistance Thermometer (RTD)

It is made up of metal like Nickel, Cr and Pt.

Platinum (Pt) is suitable metal for construction of RTD’s because it is

chemically inert and the range of temperature it can withstand is very large.

Characteristics of Pt. with respect to temperature is linear. General relationship

between change in resistance and change in temperature of any metal is given by

RT =R0 [1+ αT + βT2 + ϒT3 + …….]

RT= Resistance at T ºC
R0= Resistance at 0 ºC
α, β, ϒ = Temperature co-efficient of resistance of the metal

 β, ϒ are Non-linear terms and values are very small.

RT =R0 [1+ αT]

A typical Platinum element has R0=100 ohm and R100=138.5 ohm

[R100-R0]= Fundamental Interval

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 Requirement of Conductivity material to be used in RTD:

1) A change in resistance of material for unit change in temp should be as large as

possible (sensitivity is High)
2) Resistance of material should have continuous and stable relationship with
temperature.

Connecting leads

Thermistor (Thermal Resistor)

These are resistive sensing element made up of semiconductor material used for
measurement of temperature.

The material used are metallic oxide of Cu, Ni, Fe, Co, Cr, Mn etc.

24
They have very high negative (-ve) temperature co-efficient of resistance as large as several
percent per degree Celsius, resistance of thermistor at room temperature may decrease as much
as 5% per degree rise in temperature.

Resistance-Temperature characteristics is given by the equation:

1 1
R  R1 e    
  1 

Where, ϴ= Temperature to be measured in Kelvin

ϴ1= Reference Temperature

Rϴ=Resistance of temperature after rise from ϴ1 to ϴ

Rϴ1=Resistance at reference temperature

β= Constant depends on material used for thermistor and

Its value is (3500-4500) k

Advantages:

1) Small size and low cost

2) Fast Response over Narrow temperature range
3) Good Sensitivity in the NTC (-ve temp. Co-efficient) region.

Disadvantages:

1) Non-linearity in resistance vs. temperature characteristics.

2) Unstable for wide temperature range.

25
Strain Gauge (Piezo-Resistive Gauge)

Strain Gauge is a metal of semiconducting element whose resistance changes when it is

under strain.

l  l   l  l  e
Longitudinal Strain= L
l l

W  W   W 
 W
 eT
Transverse Strain=
W W

Stress
Elastic Modulus=
Strain

When it is linear then it is called Young’s Modulus.

Poisson Ratio:

It is the ratio of transverse Strain by Longitudinal Strain

   eT e  eT  eL
L

Piezo-resistive Effect:

The change in resistivity of material when it is under strain is called Piezo resistive effect.

26
Derivation of Gauge Factor:

L
R
A
 R   R   R 
R   L   A   
 L   A    

 L L
 L  A  
A  A2 A

A  w t
A A
A  .w  .t
w t
 t . w  w.t

A w t
   eT  eT
A w t

A
  2eT
A
L L L
R    2eT  
A A A
R L 
  2eT 
R A 

R  
 e L  2e L    e L  2e L 
R  

27
 R

 R  1  2 
eL eL 

Gauge Factor is the change in unit resistance per strain

R R
GF  R R
e L
L

1 
GF  1  2 
eL 

Due to change in Piezo-resistive

Due to change Due to change effect (very small)
in length in Area
Only for semiconductor gauge we
have to consider this effect

For most of the metals Poisson ratio is approximately equals to 0.3 and the Piezo-resistive
effect is 0.4.

So, metal gauge factor is around 2.

For semiconductor strain gauge Piezo-resistive effect term is very large. So gauge factor
(GF) of Semiconductor strain gauge is very large. Hence Sensitivity is high for semiconductor
type strain gauge.

Disadvantages of semiconductor strain gauge is its resistance decreases with increase in

temperature and consequently there is a decrease in gauge factor of strain gauge i.e. decrease
in sensitivity.

28
 2. Capacitive Sensing Elements

d r

 0 r A
e
d
 0 =Permittivity of free space (8.85 10 12 F
m)

 r =Permittivity of relative medium

a) Variable displacement Sensor

 0 r A
e
d dx

b) Variable Area Sensor

x d

W=width of the plate

 0 r ( A  wx)
e
d
c) Variable Di-electric type sensor

x
C1 C2

l
29
 C  C1  C2

 0 r1 wx  0 r2 w(l  x)
C 
d d

C 
 0w
d
 r2 l  x( r2   r1 ) 
d) Capacitive Pressure Sensor

3 1   2  2
y .
16 Et 3
a  r2   
C (1   2 )a 4

C 16 Edt 3

Where, PApplied Pressure

C Change in Capacitance

aRadius of the Diaphragm

rRadius in which we are applying pressure to generate displacement

tThickness of Diaphragm

EYoungs modulus of Material

 Poisson’s Ratio

COriginal Capacitance of capacitor before application of pressure

30
 e) Three Plate Differential or, Push Pull Displacement Sensor

 0 r A
C1 
dx

 0 r A
C2 
dx

For avoiding non-linearity we have to incorporate this with a bridge circuit.

f) Capacitive level Sensor

2 0 r
Capacitance / length 
log e b
a
 

2 0 r h 2 0 r (l  h)
C
 
log e b
a

log e b
a
 

g) Thin Film Capacitance Humidity Sensor

If all the H20 molecule is not going to be absorbed by the polymer layer, then it won’t go
down.

31
 C  Relative Humidity

C = (375+1.7 RH) pF

RHRelative Humidity

pFPico Farad

The humidity sensor has an input range of 0 to 100% RH and a capacitance of 370 pico-
Farad which RH is 0% and a linear humidity of 1.7pF per percent RH.

The di-electric medium is characterised by a word called loss tangent.

1 L
tan   ,Q  R
CR C

3. Inductive Sensing Element

Inductive sensing element

LVDT
Variable Inductance/reluctance

Displacement Sensor

mmf    R (R  Reluctance )

ni n 2i
 , N
R R

32
 n 2i n 2 Total flux
L  , Inductance(L) 
Ri R Current

l
R
0 A

Where, l= Total length of flux path

A=Cross-sectional area of flux path

0 =Permeability of Free space

 0  4  10 7 Henery m

 =Relative Permeability

Rtotal=Rcore1+Rair gap+Rcore2

Variable inductance/reluctance displacement Sensor

 Variable reluctance displacement Sensor

 Push pull or, Differential displacement sensor

33
Rtotal=Rcore + Rair gap+Rarmature

R R
R core  
0 c r 2 0 c r 2

2d
Rair gap 
0 r 2

2R R
Rarmature  
0  A 2 rtr 0  A rtr

R 2d R
Rtotal   
0 c r 2
 0 r 2  0  A rt r

R  1 1  2d
   
0 r  c r  A tr   0 r
2

RT  R0  kd

R  1 1 
 R0    
0 r  c r  A tr 

2
k [k value depends upon the structure of the material]
 0 r 2

2 2
n2
n n R0 L0
LT    
RT R0  k . d R0  k. d 1  d
R0 R0

 L  n2 and   k 
 0 R0 R0 

L0Inductance of sensor at zero air gap, k & α depends upon the structure of
the sensor.

34
 Push pull or, Differential displacement sensor

L0 L0
L1  , L2 
1   (a  x) 1   (a  x)

In order to avoid non-linearity, we design this type of sensor. We have to incorporate this
with bridge circuit.

LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer)

 The soft iron core makes a flux linkage between the primary winding and the two secondary
winding.

The two secondary windings are identically placed either side of the primary windings.

Number of turns of two secondary windings are equal.

The core is made up of high permeability (unwanted fizzer component) Nickel iron which is
having low harmonics, low null voltages and is of high sensitivity.

35
The core is slotted longitudinally to reduce the eddy current loss. (Current due to the back
e.m.f.)

LVDT Electrical equivalent Circuit:

The two secondary coils are connected in series so as to get one output.

Phase sensitive demodulator- to produce positive voltage and negative voltage.

Note
Low Pass Filter (LPF)

The Band width B.W. of LPF is less than the sampling frequency to filter out the carrier
signal and more than maximum frequency not to filter out the measurement signal.

Frequency of AC applied to primary winding is in the range of 50Hz-20KHz. The Primary

winding is excited by AC source produce an alternating magnetic field which includes A.C
voltage in the two secondary winding.

36
To represent the output from the two secondary’s in to a single voltage, the two secondaries
are connected in series opposition.

Reason for Occurrence of Residual Voltage in LVDT

 This may be due to an account of presence of harmonics in the input supply voltage and
also the harmonics present or produced in the output voltage.

 The Residual voltage may be due to either an incomplete magnetic or, electrical
unbalance.

4. Electromagnetic Sensing Element

Eg: - Velocity Sensor

Variable Reluctance Tacho generator for measurement of angular velocity

These sensors are based on Faraday’s laws for measurement of linear and angular velocity.

The induced emf in a conductor depends on the rate of change of flux linking with conductor.

dN
E N  Total flux
dt

Construction:

It consists of a toothed wheel of ferro-magnetic material and a coil wounded on a permanent
magnet extended by a soft iron pole piece.

When the tooth is close to the pole piece reluctance is minimum but the reluctance increment
with the tooth moves away from the pole piece.

37
Reluctance is maximum when the gap is adjustant to the pole piece and falls again as the
next tooth approaches to pole piece.

The total flux linked by a core of ‘n’ turn coil is

N ( )  a  b cos m

Where, a= mean flux

b= amplitude

m= no. of teeth

dN dN d
E  
dt d dt

d
 bm sin(m )
dt

 bm sin(m )r

E  bmr sin(mt ) [  t ]

 m
E  bmr f 
2

38
 5. Thermoelectric Sensing element (Thermocouple)

Seeback effect: - It states that when two different metal of different composition are joined
to form two junction and if the temperature of the junction is changed then potential difference
will be developed across the junction and this potential difference is called Seeback emf.

ETAB  a1T1  a2T22  a3T33  .....

Where, a1, a2, a3 Constants which depends on the type of metals

Thermocouple: - A thermo couple is constructed when two dissimilar metal of different

composition are joined to form a close circuit consisting of two junction J1 and J2 and the two
junctions are maintained at different temp. T1 and T2 respectively.

Hot Junction/ Measuring Junction: - This junction is inserted into the system for
measurement of the process temperature.

Cold Junction/ Reference Junction: -This Junction is usually kept at reference temperature
of 0 ºC for most industrial applications.

ETAB
1T2
 a1 (T1  T2 )  a 2 (T12  T22 )  a3 (T13  T23 )  .....

T1= Temperature of Measuring Junction.

T2= Temperature of Reference Junction.

Laws of Thermocouple: -

Law-I

It states that the emf of a given thermocouple depends only on the temperature of the junction
and independent of the wire connecting the junction.

39
 Law-II

This law states that if a 3rd metal is introduced into A (or B) and the two new junctions are
at same temperature T3, then emf of the thermocouple is unchanged.

Law-III

This law states that if a 3rd metal 'C’ is inserted between A and B at either junction. And the
new junction AC or BC at the same temperature (T1 or T2), then the emf is unchanged.

Law-IV

Law of intermediate metal

ETAB
T
1 2
 ET
AC
T
1 2
 ET
CB
1T2

Law-V

40
Law of intermediate Temperature

ETAB
T
1 2
 ET
AC
T
1 2
 ET
CB
1T2

Lead Compensation

The use of extra lead in a thermocouple for compensating the changing output voltage of the
thermocouple due to temperature variation is called lead compensation.

The extra leads used for lead compensation may be of same material of thermocouple or, of
different material having the same thermal conducting properties of the metal used.

Installation Problem

 Temperature indication too low with a very thin thermocouple.

 Varying temperature indication with proper operation.
 Temperature indication error increases with increasing temperature (low indication).
 Large deviations of the temperature indication from the default values.
 Temperature indication changes over the course of time.
 Temperature indicating instrument shows room temperature.
 Negative temperature indication.
 Temperature indication error in the range of 20-25 ºC
 Temperature indication even when thermocouple is disconnected.

Reference Junction Compensation of Thermocouple: -

41
 Case-I

T1=100, T2=0, a1=4

E=a1 (T1- T2) =4(100-0) =400mV

Case-II

T1=100, T2=1, a1=4

E=a1 (T1- T2) =4*99=396mV

So error = 4mV

Due to change in atmospheric temperature the reference junction temperature T2 will be

changed and there will be a corresponding change in output voltage of the thermocouple. To
compensate this change in output voltage with atmospheric temperature variation is to be
compensated by introducing a 2nd source of emf ET2,0 in series with the thermocouple output
voltage (ET1,T2).

ET1,0 = ET1,T2 + ET2,0

Metal resistance thermometer is incorporated to bridge circuit will sense the change in
temperature at the reference junction and giving an output voltage signal proportional to the
reference junction temperature. So output of bridge circuit should be equal to zero.

Output of bridge circuit incorporating thermometer or, RTD is given by:

R2
Vout  Vs T2
R3

Where, α= resistance temperature co-efficient of RTD

Peltier Effect

This is the reverse of see-back effect when the potential difference is applied across the two
junction of thermocouple, one junction of thermocouple will be heated and junction
temperature will be increased and other junction temperature will be decreased.

42
 General Construction: -

IC Temperature Sensor

Small size.

No compensation circuit is required i.e. it is already present inside it.

 These IC generate electrical output proportional to the temperature. The sensor works on
the principle that the forward voltage of a silicon diode depends on its temperature.

Voltage Temp. Characteristics:

KT I F
VF  ln
e IS

Where, T=Ambient temp in K

K=Boltzmann Constant =1.3867*10-23 J/k

E= Charge of electron

IF=Forward Current

IS=Saturation Current

Two diodes are used to avoid saturation current.

IC temperature sensors are available in both voltage and current output configuration.

The current output units are usually set for an output change 1μA per Kelvin while the
voltage output configuration generates 10mV per K.

43
LM 335

It operates as a two terminal Zener diode with an output voltage of 10mV/K.

Temperature Range is -55 ºC to 125 ºC.

It gives linear output.

Current range 400 μA< IZ < 5mA [IZZener diode].

Device Name Temp. range Use

LM 135 -55 ºC to 150 ºC Defence
LM 235 -45 ºC to 125 ºC Industrial
LM 335 -45 ºC to 100 ºC Commercial

LM 35
+VS
4V to 20V

LM 35

Temperature Range is -55 ºC to 150 ºC

Its output voltage of 10mV/ ºC

It gives a nearly linear output characteristics.

44
It behaves as a three terminal reference rather than a two terminal Zener powered by a 4V to
20V applied to 3rd terminal. But +ve and –ve supply with a pull down resistance are necessary
to operate in near or below 0 ºC.

AD 592

It is a 2-terminal device that acts like a constant current element passing a constant current in μA
equal to absolute temperature.

Temperature range -25 ºC to 105 ºC.

Output Current range 1 μA/K.

6. Elastic Sensing Element

It converts an input force into an output displacement.

It is commonly used for measuring torque, pressure, acceleration etc.

Burdon tube

It is used for pressure measurement.

These are of various types

 C-type
 Spiral type
 Helical type

The Burdon tubes are made out of an elliptically flattered tube beat in such a way as to
produce the different shape.

One end of the tube is sealed and other is open.

When the fluid whose pressure is to be measured enters the tube there tends to straighten out
an account of the pressure applied.

This causes a movement of free end and displacement of this end is amplified through a
mechanical linkage.

The amplified displacement of the free end may be used to move a pointer on scale calibrated
in terms of applied pressure.

Burdon tubes are made up of different materials which includes brass, alloy steel, stainless
steel, bronze, phosphorous bronze, beryllium copper, monel etc.

45
 Monel High pressure measurement

Phosphorous bronze is used in low pressure application where the atmosphere is non-
corrosive, while in application where corrosion and/or high pressure is a problem stainless steel
or, Monel are used.

Advantages: -

Low Cost, Simple Construction.

Wide variety of ranges, high accuracy especially in relation to cost.

Disadvantages: -

Low spring gradient.

Susceptible to vibration and hysteresis.

Susceptible to electric shock.

Bellows

Bellow Convert pressure to displacement.

Metallic bellows is a series of circular parts of metal welded together (Bronze or alloy)

The bellow are made up of an alloy which is ductile, has high strength and retains its
properties over long use that has very little hysteresis effect.

Relation between the applied pressure and displacement is given by:

0.453Pb n D 2 1  2
d
E t3

46
 Where, P=Pressure

b=Radius of each corrugation

n=no. of Semiconductor corrugation

t=thickness of wall

D=Mean diameter

E=Young’s Modulus of Electricity

 =Poisson’s ratio

Advantages

Cost is moderate, able to deliver high force.

It is adaptable for absolute and differential pressure.

It is good in low to moderate pressure range.

Disadvantages

It needs ambient temperature compensation

It is unsuitable for high Pressure.

Diaphragm

Diaphragm is pneumatic sensor which convert pressure to displacement.

Diaphragm is nothing but an elastic membrane on which pressure is applied and the
corresponding displacement is measured.

47
For this type of diaphragm, the relationship between the applied pressure and displacement
is given by:

256E t 3 d m
P N
3(1   ) D
2 4 m2

Where, E=Young’s Modulus

t=thickness of diaphragm

d=diameter of the diaphragm

R=Radius of the diaphragm

 =Poisson’s Ratio

dm=deflection at centre of diaphragm corrugated environment, we can also use

rubber.

Practical Elastic Sensor

1) Cantilever load cell

b(l  x) F
e
wt 2

Where, eTotal force induced on applying force

 The applied force causes the cantilever to bend so that top surface experiences a tensile
strain and the strain gauge one and there will experience an increase in resistance.

R1  R3  R0  R

Where, R0 =initial resistance at t (-0)

 Strain gauge 2 and 4 experience compressive strain and there will be decrease in

resistance R2  R4  R0  R

 R 
 R0 
G
e

R  GeR0

48
 R1  R3  R0  R0Ge

 R0 (1  Ge)

R2  R4  R0 (1  Ge)

Eth  VS Ge  Output voltage of bridge ckt.

2) Pillar Load cell

Stress F A
E 
Strain  eL

eL   F .
AE
F
eT   eL 
AE
R1R3 R 0 R
R2 R4 R0 R
R  GeR0
R1  R3  R0  R0GeT
 R0 (1  GeT )
R2  R4  R0  R0GeL
 R0 (1  GeL )
49
  GF 
R1  R3  R0 1  
 AE 

 GF 
R2  R4  R0 1  
 AE 

VS  GF 
Eth   1     Output of the bridge ckt
2  AE 

Torque Sensor

Torque Sensor is a 2nd order dynamic element.

T
Total e 
 S a3

Where, S= shear Modulus

T= Applied Torque

a=Radius of cylinder

R1  R3  R0 (1  Ge)

R2  R4  R0 (1  Ge)

Eth  VS Ge

50
Module-III
Signal Conditioning element measure and detect the output of resistive, capacitive and
inductive sensor.

Z 2 Z3 ZZ
Z th   1 4
Z 2  Z 3 Z1  Z 4

Taking the loop PABCQ

Vs  i1 Z 2  Z 3   0
Vs
 i1 
Z 2  Z 3 
Taking the loop PADCQ

Vs  i2 Z1  Z 4   0
Vs
 i2 
Z1  Z 4 
Eth  VB  VD

 VS  i1z2  Vs  i2 Z1 

51
  VS  i1z2  Vs  i2Z1

VS Z 2 V Z
  S 1
Z 2  Z 3 Z1  Z 4

 Z1 Z2 
 VS   
 Z1  Z 4 Z 2  Z 3 

RL
VL  Eth
RL  Z th

Q. If the RTD is working on temperature 100 ºC and R0 =100 ohm then find out Eth & Zth?
α=0.1

RT = R0 (1+αT)

=100. (1+10) = 1100 ohm

1100 125 
Eth = 10   = 4.718 V
1157 125  136 

125  136 1100  57

Zth =  =119.325 ohm [Note: ZL >> Zth]
125  136 1100  57

52
Notes
The null type Wheatstone bridge is accurate but the problem with this bridge is that the
balancing even if done automatically is not instantaneous. Therefore, this bridge is unsuitable
for dynamic application when the changes in resistance are applied.

For measurement of rapidly changing input signal the deflection type bridge is used.

Current Sensitivity Bridge:

If the output of the bridge is connected directly to a low impedance device like galvanometer
or, PMMC instrument a large current flows through the meter. In this case, the bridge is called
a current sensitivity bridge.

Voltage Sensitivity Bridge:

In most of the application of the deflection type bridge, the bridge output is fed to an
amplifier which has high input impedance and therefore the output current is zero that is
connected to a CRO or, an electronic voltmeter or digital voltmeter and this is called voltage
sensitive bridge.

Design of Resistive Deflection Bridge

 R1 R2 
Eth  VS   
 R1  R4 R2  R3 
Replacing R1 by temperature sensor RI

 RI R2 
Eth  VS   
 RI  R4 R2  R3 

53
  
 1 1 
Eth  VS   
1  R4 1  R3 
 
 RI R2 

To design a single element bridge we need to specify the 3 parameter i.e. VS, R4 and ratio of
R3 and R2

When minimum case

 
 
 1 1 
Vmax  VS 
 R4 R3 
 R  
R2 
1 1
 I max

For balancing a bridge put Vmin = 0

 
 
VS  1

1 
0
 R4 R3 
1  1 
 R I min R 2 


1 1
 
R4 R
1 1 3
R I min R2

R4 R
  3  Balanced Condition
RI min R2

An important consideration is needed to limit the electrical power I2R in the sensor to a level
which enables it to be dissipated as heat flow to the surroundings fluid otherwise the
temperature of the sensor rise above that of the surrounding fluid thereby affecting the sensor
resistance.

54
  R1 
W  V S2  
 R1  R4  
2

W  Power

Another requirement is the need to keep the non-linearity of the overall relationship between
Eth and current (I) with specified unit.

If Vmin = 0 and V and I makes a straight line

V
V
Videal – Vmin = I
max min
I  I min 
max  I min

 Videal =
Vmax
I  I min 
I max  I min

V max I V I
 Videal   max min
I max  I min I max  I min

N (I )  Eth Videal

 E  Videal
N ( I )  th  100
V max

 
 1 1 
Eth  VS   
1  R4 1  R3 
 R R2 
 I

Under Balanced condition

R4 R
 3
RI min R2

R3
 R4   R I min
R2

55
  
 
 1 1 
Eth  VS  
R  1  R3 
1  R3   I min  
 R2  RI 

R2 
 

 
 
 1 1 
Eth   
R3 
1  R3   I min 
R
 1 

 R2  RI 

R2 


1 1
V  
r 1 r
1
x

x 1
V  
x  r 1 r

Eth R RI
V , r 3 , x
VS R2 RImin

From the graph it is found that V is zero at x =1 corresponding to the bridge being balanced
at I = Imin.

56
Case-I

RI
x 1
R I min

V=0

Eth = 0

This is the required balanced condition of the bridge circuit.

A bridge is balanced when RI = RImin. If we consider the resistive sensor the deflection bridge
is a strain gauge then, RI  R

RI min  0

R
 Ge
R

Where, G= Gauge Factor

e = Strain

Maximum sensitivity of the bridge is achieved for x = 1

V
where r  1
x x 1

R3 R
 1 , R 4  3  R I min
R2 R2

R4  RImin , R4  R0  Constant resistance

Thus for a bridge with a single strain gauge we require R3, R4, R2, and all should be equal to
R0 i.e. the unstrained resistance.

x 1
V  , put r  1
x  r 1 r

x 1 2x  x 1
V   
xr 2 2( x  1)

57
 x 1
V 
2( x  1)

 RI 
  1
 RI 
RI  min 
put x  V 
R I min  R 
2  I  1
 RI 
 min 

R I  R I min  R
V  
 R  2.(2) R I min
2  I  1 . R I min
 RI 
 min 

R
 Ge
R I min

1
V  Ge
4

VsG e
Eth 
4

This is the output voltage equation of a bridge element in single strain gauge in one arm of
the bridge circuit.

Single element resistance thermo-meter in Deflection Bridge


RT  R0 1  T  T 2  .... 
RT  R0 1  T 

58
 RT  RTmin 1  T 

RT
  1  T
RTmin

RT R
x ,r 3
RTmin R2

Conclusion: -
If x is going to be increased then linearity is going to decrease.

If r  = Sensitivity 

As the RTD is a non-linear device when the RTD is incorporated in the deflection bridge its
non-linearity is compensated with the increase in its sensitivity.

Consideration
If x<<r

x 1 x 1
V  
r r r

 RT 
  1
E th  RT  RT  RTmin R2
  min  
VS R3 R3 RTmin
R2

Eth R2  RT 
   1
VS R3  RTmin 


RT
For balanced condition  1  T
RTmin

E th R 2
 1  T  1
VS R3

R2
 Eth  TVS
R3

59
 Two element resistance thermometer in Deflection Bridge

The output voltage of two element resistance Thermometer Bridge is proportional to the
temperature difference between the two RTD.

Eth (T1  T2 )

R1  R0 (1  T1)

R2  R0 (1  T2 )

In order to balance the bridge a temperature difference between the two resistance
thermometers must be zero.

R4 R3

R1 R2

R4 R3
  At balanced condition T1  T2
R0 (1  T1 ) R0 (1  T2 )

 R4  R3

 Balanced condition for two element RTD in deflection bridge

   
 1   
1   VS  1 1 
Eth  VS   
 R4 R   R4 R3 
1  R 1 3  1  R (1  T ) 1  R (1  T ) 
 1 R2   0 1 0 2 

 R0 (1  T1) R0 (1  T2 ) 
 Eth  VS   
 R0 (1  T1)  R4 R0 (1  T2 )  R3 

60
 R4
if  1
R0

 R0 (1  T1) R0 (1  T2 ) 
Eth  VS   
 R0  R0T1  R4 R0  R0T2  R3 

 R (1  T1) R0 (1  T2 ) 
 Eth  VS  0  
 R 4 R4 

 Eth 
VS R0
T1  T2   VS R0 (T1  T2 )
R4 R4

 Eth  (T1  T2 )

Bridge with 4-strain gauge mounted on elastic element

Cantilever Beam (4-Strain Gauges)

R1  R3  R0 (1  G e)

R2  R4  R0 (1  G e)

 
 1 1 
Eth  VS   
1  R4 1  R3 
 
 R1 R2 

 R1 R2 
 VS   
 R1  R4 R2  R3 

 R0 (1  G e) R0 (1  G e) 
 Eth  VS   
 R0 (1  G e)  R0 (1  G e) R0 (1  G e)  R0 (1  G e) 

1  Ge 1  Ge 
 Eth  VS  
 2 2 

 Eth  VS .Ge

Pillar Load Cell (4-Strain Gauges)

61
  GF 
R1  R3  R0 1  
 AE 

 G F 
R2  R4  R0 1  
 AE 

 
 1 1 
Eth  VS   
R R
1  4 R 1  3 R 
 1 2

 
 1 1 
 Eth  VS  
 AE  GF   AE  GF  
1   AE  GF  1
 AE  GF 

 AE  GF AE  GF 
 Eth  VS   
 2 AE  GF   1 2 AE  GF   1 

 GF   1 
 Eth  VS    by AE 
 2 AE  GF   1 

 GF 
 AE   1 
 Eth  VS  
 2  GF   1 
 AE 

GF
Put  1
AE

 Eth 
VS GF
   1
2 AE

62
Design of Capacitance Deflection Bridge

1
Z1 
j  C0

Z 2  R2

Z 3  R3

1
Z4 
j C h

 
 1 1 
Eth  VS   
1  Z 4 1  Z 3 
 Z1 Z 2 

For balanced condition take Ch = Minimum

 
 1 1 
Eth  VS   
1  C0 1  R3 
 C 
 R R2 

Balanced condition

R4 R
 3
RI min R2

C0 R
  3
Chmin R2

Eth  0

 
 
1 1 
 Eth  VS  
 R3 Chmin 1  R3 
1  R2 
 R2 Ch

To avoid Non  linearity

R3
Put  1
R2

63
  
 
 1 1 
 Eth  VS 
 R3 Chmin R3 
 
 R2 Ch R2 

VS R2  Ch 
 Eth    1
R3  Chmin 

Capacitive differential Push-Pull displacement sensor in a Bridge element

1
Z1 
j C1

Z 2  Z3  R

1
Z4 
j C 2

 
   C2
1 1 1
E th  V S     VS   
 C1 2   C 2  C1 2 
1  C 
 2 

 0 r A  0 r A
 C1  , C2 
dx dx

  0 r A 
 dx 1
 E th  V S   
  0 r A   0 r A 2 
 d  x dx 

 1 
 dx 1  d  x 1
 VS     VS   
 1  1 2  2d 2
 d  x d  x 

64
 VS x
 Eth 
2 d

Conclusion: - Thevenin voltage is proportional to the displacement and if we reverse Z1, Z2, Z3
and Z4 then it is going to become non-linear. This is used for increasing the sensitivity.

Inductive differential Push-Pull displacement sensor in a Bridge element

Z1  jL1

Z 2  Z3  R

Z4  jL2

 
 1 1 
Eth  VS   
1  Z 4 1  Z 3 
 Z 2 
 Z1

 
 1 1 
 VS   
 L2 2 
1  L 
 1 

L0
L1 
1   (a  x)

L0
L2 
1   (a  x)

 
 1 1
 E th  V S   
 1   (a  x) 2 
1  1   ( a  x ) 
 

65
  1   ( a  x) 1
 Eth  VS   
1   (a  x)  1   (a  x) 2 

1   ( a  x ) 1 
 VS   
 2(1   a) 2

1   (a  x)  1   a 
 VS  
 2(1   a) 

VS   x 
 Eth   
2 1   a 

AC Carrier System

Problem in conditioning low level DC signal from Sensor Output is:

External Noise Interference: -

a) It includes the Ac Power Circuit which produce the interference signal in the
measurement system

b) It may be due to external power distribution line and heavy-rotating machines like
generator and turbines.

c) DC power circuits.

d) Switching DC and AC power circuits when turbine and motor are taken off line or
brought back on line this causes sudden large changes in power which can produce
corresponding transient in measurement system.

e) Corona effect: -

 The air in the vicinity of high voltage power circuits become ionised and a corona
discharge results.

 The corona discharge from DC circuit results in random noise in measurement

circuit and the corona discharge from the AC circuit result in sinusoidal at power
frequency.

66
 f) Florescent Light:-

 The radio frequency transmitter, welding equipment and electrical discharge in the
industry can produce the radio frequency interference at frequency of several Mega
Hertz.

Block Diagram of AC carrier system:

O (t)

PSD Phase Sensitive Demodulator

Amplifier Increases the strength of signal to avoid amplifier drift.

Amplifier Drift

V1 - VO
AOL
V2 +
VOS
VO = (V2 –V1) AOL+ VOS. AOL

VOS Input offset voltage = It is changed with temperature of environment and

+ve, -ve power supply (+VCC and -VEE) so there is a drift in output voltage VO,
This is called Amplifier Drift.


e  e sin 2 fit

Taking example of 4 strain gauge Deflection Bridge

Eth  VS G e

The input signal to the AC carrier system is the AC power Supply and strain produced in the
Strain gauge.

In AC carrier system the supply voltage is S
V  VS sin 2f S t

67
The strain changed is due to force applied in cantilever will be result in a variation of strain
or, damped sine wave can be expressed as a sum of many sine wave.



e(t )  e sin 2 f i t
i 1

Waveform of Supply Voltage Frequency Spectrum of Supply

Voltage
m



Eth  G VS sin 2f S t . e sin 2 f i t
i 1

 S e sin 2 f S t .sin 2 f it

m 
 G V
i 1

 i sin 2 f S t .sin 2 f i t

m

 Eth  V
i 1


Where, Vi = Voltage of ith of component of strain if Eth=Vi

68
 
Vi  Vi sin 2 f S t .sin 2 f i  Output Equation of Multiplier

 
Vi  cos 2  f S  f i t  cos 2  f S  f i t
Vi Vi
2 2
 
LSB USB

Where, fS = Carrier Frequency

fi = input frequency

The amplitude modulated signal has only side band frequency and no carrier frequency. This
type of modulation is called double side band supressed carrier.

The drift voltage that coming in to existence at the output of the bridge element due to the
drift in supply voltage VS is multiplied by the use of AC amplifier and AC carrier system.

The AC amplifier in the AC carrier system amplifying the low level output signal of bridge
element.

69
PSD

PSD Amplifier with unit gain i.e. ±1

It is an amplifier with unity gain, the output which depends on the polarity of supply

Voltage VS when the force applied to the beam is downward the strain gauge 1 and 3 will
experience a tensile strain +e, so the input PSD is given by:

Eth  GeVS sin 2f S t

When the force is applied upward the input to the PSD is


Eth  GeVS sin 2f S t

 E th  GeV S sin 2f S t


 GeV S sin 2f S t  180  
The mid-band frequency range of AC amplifier should include the frequency of LSB and
USB of bridge output signal for better amplification.

70