MTS 336 – Instrumentation and Measurements

Department of Mechatronics Engineering

▪ Dr. Muhammad Mubasher Saleem

Week No. 2
 1 Sensing Element
▪ In contact with the process and gives output that depends
on the variable(s) to be measured.
▪ Thermocouple – voltage depends on temperature.
▪ Strain gauge – resistance depends on mechanical strain.
▪ Ultrasonic transducer – electrical output depends on mechanical forces
(vibrations) acting on the surface of the transducer.
▪ Some sensing elements (sensors) depend directly on the physical variable of
interest, while others have a more complex connection to the underlying
mechanisms.

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Sensing Element Signal Conditioning Signal Processing Data Presentation

Element Element Element

True Value of Variable Measured Value of Variable

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Input Output
 2 Signal conditioning element
Converts sensor outputs to more suitable forms!
▪ Deflection bridge – converts impedance changes to voltage changes.
▪ Amplifier – amplifies millivolts to volts, for example.
▪ Oscillator – converts impedance changes to variable frequency
voltage.
▪ Filters – noise removal

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Sensing Element Signal Conditioning Signal Processing Data Presentation

Element Element Element

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 3 Signal processing elements
▪ Analog-to-Digital converter (ADC) – samples a continuous voltage to a
digital signal for input to a computer, micro processor (μP), DSP, etc.
▪ Computer, μP, DSP – calculates the values of measured variables given
digital input.

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Sensing Element Signal Conditioning Signal Processing Data Presentation

Element Element Element

True Value of Variable Measured Value of Variable

Input Output
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4 Data Presentation Element
Pointer scale
Analog indicator

LEDs
Displays

CRTs
Digital
Data Presentation
elements LCDs
Chart
Recorder
Electro-
luminescence
Recorder/Printers
Paperless
recorder

Laser
Printer

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Example : Weight Measurement

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System/Sensor Characteristics
❑ The system characteristics are to be known, to choose an instrument that
most suited to a particular measurement application.
▪ The performance characteristics may be broadly divided into two groups,
namely ‘static’ and ‘dynamic’ characteristics.
▪ Static characteristics : the performance criteria for the measurement of
quantities that remain constant, or vary only quite slowly.
▪ Dynamic characteristics: the relationship between the system input and
output when the measured quantity (measurand) is varying rapidly.

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System/Sensor Characteristics
▪ Static characteristics Example
▪ The measurand (weight) is unchanging in time and the measurement system
instantaneously shows an equilibrium response to the measurand

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System/Sensor Characteristics
▪ Dynamic characteristics Example
▪ The measurand (water temperature) is changing in time and the
measurement system response is dependent on the rate of change of
temperature.

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System/Sensor Characteristics
▪ Dynamic characteristics Example

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Static Characteristics
Two types of static characteristics:

▪ Systematic characteristics – those that can be quantified by mathematical or

graphical means.

▪ Statistical characteristics – variations over time of the output of an element.

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 Static Characteristics (cont’d.)
▪ Systematic Characteristics
▪ Range – Input and output ranges are specified by the minimum and maximum
values of input and output variables, denoted IMIN, IMAX, OMIN and OMAX.

▪ Span – the maximum variation of inputs and outputs, i.e. IMAX − IMIN and OMAX −
OMIN

▪ Ideal straight line (Linearity) – The input-output relationship of the element can
be described by the straight-line equation, i.e. O(I) = K · I + a.

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 Static Characteristics (cont’d.)
▪ Systematic Characteristics
▪ Non-linearity – If the relationship between the input and output does not
obey the straight-line equation, the element is said to be non-linear.
▪ The maximum deviation from the linear characteristics as a percentage of
the full scale output.
▪ The non-linearity is defined as the deviation from straight line, i.e. N(I) =
O(I) − (K · I + a).

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 Static Characteristics (cont’d.)
▪ Systematic Characteristics
▪ Hysteresis – For a given value of I, the output O may differ depending on
whether I is increasing or decreasing. This is known as the hysteresis, H(I),
defined as H(I) = O(I)I↓ − O(I)I↑

Backlash in gears

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 Static Characteristics (cont’d.)
▪ Sensitivity – The change in output ΔO caused by a unit change ΔI in input
I. As ΔI → 0, this becomes dO/dI, that is, the derivative of the output
with respect to the input.

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 Static Characteristics (cont’d.)
▪ Environmental effects – Environmental inputs such as temperature,
humidity, pressure, supply voltage, etc. The input-output relation must
be adjusted to correct for these effects as
O = KI + a + N(I) + KMIMI + KIII

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Static Characteristics (cont’d.)

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 Static Characteristics (cont’d.)
▪ Resolution – Defined as the largest change in
I that can occur without any corresponding
change in O.
▪ Wear and ageing – Effects that cause the
element’s characteristics to change with
time.
▪ Error bands – The effects of non-linearity,
hysteresis, and resolution are often small,
and instead of modeling them individually,
the total performance of the element is
given by an error band.

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Static Characteristics (cont’d.)
Generalized model of a system element/sensor
▪ Neglecting hysteresis and resolution effects, the output can be
modeled with environmental and nonlinear effects as
O = KI + a + N(I) + KMIMI + KIII
▪ where IM and II are modifying and interfering inputs, respectively, to
compensate for environmental effects.

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 Static Characteristics (cont’d.)
▪ Statistical characteristics : Statistical characteristics can not be described
by an exact mathematical relationship, but have to be quantified in terms
of probabilities and probability density functions.
▪ Random variations in the output of an element affects:
▪ Accuracy – The difference between the true value and the measured
value.
▪ Repeatability – Variance of measured values, when repeated with same
method, observer and environment

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 Repeatability of Sensor/Sensing Elements

▪ Measuring the voltage 10000 times, we obtain

the following distribution;
▪ The mean value of the measured value is equal
to the true voltage.
▪ Conclusion: The sensing element is accurate.
▪ The variance around the mean value is very
high.
▪ Conclusion: The voltage meter suffers from a
large lack of repeatability.
▪ The most common cause of the variation in
output O is random fluctuations with time in the
environmental inputs IM and II .

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Accuracy of Measurement Systems
▪ Measurement error = measured value – true value

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Accuracy of Measurement Systems
▪ Measurement error = measured value – true value

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Accuracy of Measurement Systems
▪ Measurement error = measured value – true value

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Accuracy of Measurement Systems
▪ Measurement error = measured value – true value

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 Accuracy of Measurement Systems
▪ Measurement error = measured value – true value

 Sensitivity of thermocouple (K1) changes with input temperature.

 Reference junction temperature cause the thermocouple emf to change
 Output voltage of amplifier (K2) is sensitive to ambient temperature.
 Sensitivity of the indicator (K3) depends on the stiffness of the restoring
spring in the moving coil assembly.

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Transfer function for a first order sensor
Transfer function for a first order sensor