IFRS in Practice 2018 IFRS15

IFRS IN PRACTICE 2018
IFRS 15 Revenue from Contracts with Customers

2 IFRS IN PRACTICE 2018 – IFRS 15 REVENUE FROM CONTRACTS WITH CUSTOMERS
IFRS IN PRACTICE 2018 – IFRS 15 REVENUE FROM CONTRACTS WITH CUSTOMERS 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction 5
2. Overview of IFRS 15’s Requirements 7
3. Scope 9
4. The ‘Five Step’ approach 13
4.1. Step One – Identify the contract 13
4.2. Step Two – Identify separate performance obligations in the contract 21
4.3. Step Three – Determine the transaction price of the contract 35
4.4. Step Four – Allocate the transaction price to the performance obligations 55
4.5. Step Five – Recognise revenue when each performance obligation is satisfied 60
5. Other issues 75
5.1. Contract costs 75
5.2. Changes in the transaction price after contract inception 78
5.3. Sale with a right of return 80
5.4. Warranties 83
5.5. Principal vs. agent 86
5.6. Customer options for additional goods or services 88
5.7. Renewal options 90
5.8. Breakage (unexercised rights) 93
5.9. Non-refundable upfront fees 96
5.10. Licensing 97
5.11. Sales-based or usage-based royalties 103
5.12. Repurchase agreements 110
5.13. Consignment arrangements 112
5.14. Bill-and-hold arrangements 112
5.15. Customer acceptance 113
5.16. Treatment of onerous contracts 114
6. Presentation 116
7. Disclosure 118
8. Effective Date and Transition 121
APPENDIX 1 – Illustrative Disclosure Example 124
APPENDIX 2 – Comparison of IFRS 15 and Topic 606 140
APPENDIX 3 – Comparison of IFRS 15 and current revenue standards 144
1. INTRODUCTION
Background
On 28 May 2014, the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) published IFRS 15 Revenue from Contracts with
Customers. IFRS 15 sets out a single and comprehensive framework for revenue recognition and, for many entities, the timing
and profile of revenue recognition will change. In some areas, the changes will be very significant and will require careful
planning.
Previous IFRS guidance is set out in two relatively old standards (IAS 18 Revenue and IAS 11 Construction Contracts) which
are accompanied by a number of Interpretations. In common with other more recently issued IFRSs, IFRS 15 includes
comprehensive application guidance and illustrative examples, together with a detailed section which sets out how the IASB
reached its decisions about the new requirements (the Basis for Conclusions).
The new standard also introduces an overall disclosure objective together with significantly enhanced disclosure
requirements for revenue recognition. These are accompanied by an explicit statement that immaterial information does not
need to be disclosed and that the disclosure requirements should not be used as a checklist. In practice, even if the timing
and profile of revenue recognition does not change, it is possible that new and/or modified processes will be needed in order
to obtain the necessary information.
In this publication, we update our previous guidance to discuss issues that companies have encountered in implementing
IFRS 15 and include a number of new examples to deomstrate how the standard should be applied.
Convergence with US GAAP

IFRS 15 was developed jointly with the US Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) and, to assist implementation, the
IASB and the FASB established a joint Transition Resource Group (TRG) as a public forum for preparers, auditors and users to
share implementation experience and discuss issues submitted to the TRG.
Output from this group resulted in the IASB amending IFRS 15 in April 2016 in the following areas:
–– Identification of performance obligations;
–– Principal vs. agent considerations;
–– Licensing agreements;
–– Transitional reliefs for completed and modified contracts.
When IFRS 15 and Topic 606 were originally issued in May 2014, the Boards achieved their goal of reaching the same
conclusions on all significant requirements for accounting for revenue from contracts with customers. Only minor differences
existed, in respect of:
–– Collectability threshold;
–– Interim disclosure requirements;
–– Early application and effective date;
–– Impairment loss reversal; and
–– Non-public entity requirements.
However, the subsequent changes made in April 2016 by the IASB to IFRS 15 were not the same as subsequent changes that
the FASB made to Topic 606. Therefore the two standards are no longer fully converged, although the differences are still
relatively minor. The differences, which are set out in more detail in Appendix 2, deal with the following areas:
–– Scope – Revenue recognition for contracts with customers that do not meet the Step 1 criteria;
–– Promised goods or services that are immaterial within the context of the contract;
–– Shipping and handling activities;
–– Presentation of sales taxes;
–– Non-cash consideration;
–– In-substance sales of intellectual property;
–– Licensing:
–– Determining the nature of the entity’s promise in granting a license of intellectual property;
–– Contractual restrictions in a license and the identification of performance obligations;
–– Renewals of licenses of intellectual property;
–– When to consider the nature of an entity’s promise in granting a license;
–– Completed contracts;
–– Date of application of the contract modifications practical expedient.
Effective Date
IFRS 15 was originally effective for annual reporting periods beginning on or after 1 January 2017 with earlier application
permitted. This was subsequently deferred to annual reporting periods beginning on or after 1 January 2018 following the
revisions made to IFRS 15 in April 2016.
2. OVERVIEW OF IFRS 15’S REQUIREMENTS
The IASB’s joint joint project with the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) to develop a new accounting standard
for revenue recognition was a long term project that took over a decade to complete. The international and the US standard
setters had noted inconsistencies and weaknesses in each of their respective accounting standards. In IFRS, there was
significant diversity in practice because existing standards contained limited guidance for a range of significant topics, such
as whether contracts with multiple elements should be accounted for as one overall obligation, or as a series of separate
(albeit related) obligations. Under US GAAP, concepts for revenue recognition had been supplemented with a broad range of
industry specific guidance, which had resulted in economically similar transactions being accounted for differently.
Both the IASB and the FASB also noted that existing disclosure requirements were unsatisfactory, as they often resulted in
information being disclosed that was not sufficient for users of financial statements to understand the sources of revenue,
and the key judgements and estimates that had been made in its recognition. The information disclosed was also often
‘boilerplate’ and uninformative in nature.
IFRS 15 Revenue from Contracts with Customers establishes a single and comprehensive framework which sets out how much
revenue is to be recognised, and when. The core principle is that a vendor should recognise revenue to depict the transfer
of promised goods or services to customers in an amount that reflects the consideration to which the vendor expects to be
entitled in exchange for those goods or services.
Revenue will now be recognised by a vendor when control over the goods or services is transferred to the customer. In
contrast, IAS 18 Revenue based revenue recognition around an analysis of the transfer of risks and rewards. An assessment
of risks and rewards now forms one of a number of criteria that are assessed in determining whether control has been
transferred.
The application of the core principle in IFRS 15 is carried out in five steps:
STEP ONE STEP TWO STEP THREE STEP FOUR STEP FIVE
Recognise revenue
Allocate
Identify separate as or when each
Identify the Determine the transaction price
performance performance
contract transaction price to performance
obligations obligation is
obligations
satisfied
Figure 1: Five-step approach
The first step is to identify the contract(s) with the customer for accounting purposes, which may not be the same as the
contract(s) for legal purposes. Whatever the form (written, oral or implied by an entity’s customary business practices), a
contract for IFRS 15 purposes must create enforceable rights and obligations between a vendor and its customer.
After identifying the contract(s) with the customer for accounting purposes, in Step 2 a vendor identifies its separate
‘performance obligations’. A performance obligation is a vendor’s promise to transfer a good or service that is ‘distinct’ from
other goods and services identified in the contract. Goods and services (either individually, or in combination with each
other) are distinct from one another if the customer can benefit from one or more goods or services on their own (or in
combination with resources readily available to the customer). Two or more promises (such as a promise to supply materials
(such as bricks and mortar) for the construction of an asset (such as a wall) and a promise to supply labour to construct the
asset are combined if they represent one overall performance obligation.
In Step 3 a vendor determines the transaction price of each contract identified for accounting purposes in Step 1, and then in
Step 4 allocates that transaction price to each of the performance obligations identified in Step 2.
In Step 5, a vendor assesses when it satisfies each performance obligation identified in Step 2, which is determined by
reference to when the customer obtains control of each good or service. This could be at a point in time or over time, with
the revenue allocated to each performance obligation in Step 4 recognised accordingly.
The five-step model is applied to individual contracts. However, as a practical expedient, IFRS 15 permits an entity to apply
the model to a portfolio of contracts (or performance obligations) with similar characteristics if the entity reasonably expects
that the effects would not differ materially from applying it to individual contracts. This practical expedient will often be
applied to situations involving measurement estimates where an entity may have many contracts which are affected by a
particular issue and an estimate is more appropriately made on the population of contracts rather than on each contract
individually. For example, in a retail sale which gives the customer a right of return, it may be more appropriate to estimate
the aggregate level of returns on all such retail transactions, rather than at the contract level (which is each individual retail
sale on which a right of return is granted).
3. SCOPE
IFRS 15 Revenue from Contracts with Customers applies to all contracts with customers, except for:
–– Lease contracts within the scope of IAS 17/IFRS 16 Leases;
–– Insurance contracts within the scope of IFRS 4 Insurance Contracts;
–– Financial instruments and other contractual rights and obligations within the scope of IFRS 9 Financial Instruments,
IFRS 10 Consolidated Financial Statements, IFRS 11 Joint Arrangements, IAS 27 Separate Financial Statements and
IAS 28 Investments in Associates and Joint Ventures.
–– Non-monetary exchanges between entities in the same line of business to facilitate sales to customers or potential
customers (such as a contract between two oil customers to exchange oil to fulfil demand from their customers in
different specified locations).
BDO comment
The example in the standard of two oil companies agreeing to exchange oil avoids revenue being accounted for twice in what
is essentially a single supply of oil. Each oil company has sold oil to its respective end customer (or potential end customer)
and therefore revenue is recognised on that ultimate sale of oil. The scope exclusion prevents both oil companies from also
recognising additional revenue (and equivalent cost) from the initial exchange of oil between them.
However, barter transactions are in the scope of IFRS 15 for situations in which the two entities concerned are not in the
same line of business, or when the exchange is not for the purposes of facilitating sales to customers or potential customers.
Therefore, an exchange of oil between a manufacturing company and an oil refiner would potentially be in scope as long as
the contract to exchange oil had commercial substance (see Section 4.1 below on identification of a contract). In contrast, a
contract between a rail freight company and a road freight company to exchange diesel fuel would not be within the scope of
IFRS 15, because those companies sell freight services to their customers, not diesel fuel.
IFRS 15 does not give any further guidance on what is meant by a ‘line of business’ when assessing exchange transactions, and
therefore judgement may be needed. For example:
–– Is an entity involved in oil exploration in the same line of business as an entity engaged in mining gold because they both
operate in the extractive industry, or are they in different lines of business because they mine very different raw materials?
–– Is an entity involved in mining rubies in the same line of business as an entity mining diamonds because they both operate
in the same industry sub-sector (i.e. mining of precious stones), or are they in different lines of business because they both
mine different gem stones?
–– Is an entity involved only in mining diamonds in the same industry as an entity engaged in both mining and cutting
diamonds?
In our view, the scope exception is quite tightly drawn. In each of the above situations, the entities are not in the same line of
business. However, it would be necessary to understand what the commercial substance of the transaction is for the exchange
in question before concluding that the exchanges give rise to revenue. Further, even if there is commercial substance to the
exchanges, each entity might be acting as an agent for the other in the ultimate sale to other entity’s the end customer,
meaning that they are providing agency services to each other. This would impact the measurement of revenue, which would
then be based on the provision of the agency services, not the gross value of the exchanged goods or services.
As noted above, under IFRS 15, revenue is derived from contracts entered into by a vendor for the sale of goods or services,
arising from its ordinary activities, to a customer. Its recognition is linked to changes in a vendor’s assets and liabilities. This
can be in the form of cash inflows or increases in receivable balances, or decreases in a liability that represents deferred
revenue. All changes in those assets and liabilities are recognised in profit or loss, other than those relating to transactions
with owners (for example, shareholders) of the vendor if the owners enter into transactions with the vendor in their capacity
as such.
The existing requirements of other IFRSs for the recognition of a gain or loss on the transfer of some non-financial assets
that are not an output of a vendor’s ordinary activities (such as property, plant and equipment, investment property and
intangible assets) have been amended so that they are consistent with the requirements in IFRS 15. Therefore, sales of such
assets should only be recognised by the seller when control has passed to the purchaser.
A contract may be partially within the scope of IFRS 15 and partially within the scope of other IFRSs. In this situation a
vendor takes the approach summarised in the following diagram:
Do other IFRSs specify how to separate and/or initially measure Apply the requirements of IFRS 15
No
one (or more) parts of the contract? to the entire contract.
Yes
Allocate the transaction price relating to parts of the contract dealt with by other IFRSs:
(i) Parts of the contract dealt with by other IFRSs: (ii) Parts of the contract not dealt with by other IFRSs:
Apply the requirements of other IFRSs to Apply the requirements of IFRS 15 to

the transaction price allocated the transaction price allocated
to these parts of the contract. to these parts of the contract.
Figure 2: Scope of IFRS 15
Therefore, if one or more other IFRSs specify how to separate and/or measure certain parts of a contract, those other IFRSs
are applied first. Those other IFRSs take precedence in accounting for the overall contract, with any residual amount of
consideration being allocated to those part(s) of the contract that fall within the scope of IFRS 15.
Example
A car manufacturer leases a fleet of cars to a customer for three years. As part of the contract it also deals with various
administrative matters for the customer such as arranging insurance, providing breakdown cover and annual servicing.
IFRS 16 Leases (periods beginning on or after 1 January 2019 unless adopted earlier) and IAS 17 Leases as interpreted by
IFRIC 4 Determining whether an Arrangement Contains a Lease (earlier periods in which IFRS 16 has not been adopted) require
contracts to be separated into their lease and non-lease components. A vendor applies IFRS 15 to the amounts received from
the customer that relate to the non-lease components of the contract.
A vendor is also required to assess whether, instead of a transaction being a sale, the counterparty to a contract shares
the risks and benefits that result from an activity or process (such as developing an asset). If so, the counterparty is not a
customer, and the transaction falls outside of the scope of IFRS 15. Judgement will be required, as the IASB decided that it
would not be feasible to develop application guidance that would apply to all circumstances. This is because the nature of the
relationship (supplier-customer or collaborative arrangement) will depend on the specific contractual terms and conditions.
Care may also be needed in assessing transactions with related parties, as their relationship with the vendor may be more
complex than those with third parties.
Example
Entity A and Entity B enter into an agreement whereby:
–– A newly formed special purpose entity, Company X, is owned 50:50 by entities A and B, which operate in the real estate
sector;
–– Entities A and B have joint control over Company X;
–– Entity A contributes land to Company X;
–– Entity B constructs an office block on the land;
–– The office block will be leased to tenants by Company X.
In this fact pattern, Entity A and Entity B might not treat Company X as their customer and, consequently, would not recognise
revenue or a receivable from X for their respective land contribution and construction work undertaken. Instead, depending on
precise facts and circumstances, appropriate accounting approaches might include the following:
–– If the contractual arrangements give entities A and B rights over Company X’s net assets, the arrangement would be
classified as a joint venture. Revenue would not be recognised, with entities A and B accounting for their interests in
Company X using the equity method;
–– If the contractual arrangements give Entity A and Entity B rights to the assets and obligations for the liabilities of
Company X, then the arrangement would be classified as a joint operation. Entity A and Entity B would recognise revenue as
Company X earns rental income based on their respective contractual share.
However, it would be necessary to consider whether any elements of the arrangement gave rise to a supplier-customer
relationship. The IASB also noted that in some collaborative arrangements, an entity might consider applying the principles of
IFRS 15 as an accounting policy developed in accordance with IAS 8 Accounting Policies, Changes in Accounting Estimates and
Errors.
TRG discussions
Credit card fees (Agenda Paper 36; July 2015)
The TRG discussed whether arrangements between financial institutions and credit cardholders are within the scope of the
new revenue standard. Although contracts within the scope of IFRS 9 Financial Instruments mean that some income streams,
such as interest charges on late payments, are not within the scope of IFRS 15, questions had been raised in respect of periodic
or annual fees which are not dependent on the amount of credit available or the level of use of a credit card. Ancillary services
such as access to airport lounges and rewards programmes are also often included. While US GAAP includes specific guidance
on credit card fees, IFRS does not have specific guidance on this topic.
The TRG members observed that IFRS 15 did not change the requirements for determining whether fees received by a card
issuing bank are within the scope of IFRS 9 Financial Instruments or IFRS 15. The card issuing bank would first determine
whether any fees (or part of the fees) are within the scope of IFRS 9. If the bank concludes that the fees are not within the scope
of IFRS 9 then they would be accounted for in accordance with IFRS 15. This could include cardholder reward programmes
because IFRS 15 does not explicitly exclude them from its scope.
Most of the TRG agreed with the IASB and FASB staff (hereinafter, the staff) view that under US GAAP these types of
arrangements are outside the scope of the new revenue standard to the extent that they fall within the scope of Topic 310
Receivables (for which there is no equivalent specific guidance under IFRS).
As there is no specific guidance under IFRS, some TRG members noted that preparers might come to a different conclusion
under US GAAP and IFRS.
4. THE ‘FIVE STEP’ APPROACH

4.1. Step One – Identify the contract
IFRS 15 Revenue from Contracts with Customers is applied to contracts with customers that meet all of the following five
criteria:
–– The contract has been approved in writing, orally, or in accordance with other customary business practices and the
parties are committed to perform their obligations in the contract;
–– Each party’s rights regarding the goods or services to be transferred can be identified;
–– The payment terms for the goods or services to be transferred can be identified;
–– The contract has commercial substance (i.e. the risk, timing or amount of the vendor’s future cash flows is expected to
change as a result of the contract);
–– It is probable that the consideration for the exchange of the goods or services that the vendor is entitled to will be
collected. For the purposes of this criterion, only the customer’s ability and intention to pay amounts when they become
due are considered.
The last point above introduces a collectability threshold for revenue recognition, which goes beyond the contractual terms
of an arrangement with a customer. This introduces a higher threshold than IAS 18 Revenue which required that in order
for a vendor to recognise revenue, it was necessary for it to be probable that the economic benefits associated with the
transaction would flow to the vendor. However, IAS 18 did not explicitly mention any of the other four criteria.
The focus will often be on the price included in the contract between a vendor and its customer. However, it is possible that
the amount of consideration that the vendor ultimately expects to be entitled to will be less, because it may offer a price
concession or discount. In these cases, the assessment of the customer’s ability and intention to pay is made against the
lower amount, which will be determined in accordance with the guidance in IFRS 15 for variable consideration.
In some cases, an entity may consider it probable that it will receive only some of the stated consideration in an otherwise
fixed price contract. In these cases, although it can be concluded the probability of collection condition is met, it is also
necessary to apply the guidance in IFRS 15 on variable consideration. The accounting for variable consideration is discussed in
more detail in Section 4.3 below.
Example
A vendor sells a product to a customer in return for a contractually agreed amount of CU 1 million. This is the vendor’s first sale
to a customer in the geographic region, and the region is experiencing significant economic difficulty. The vendor therefore
expects that it will not be able to collect the full amount of the contract price. Despite the fact that it may not collect the full
amount, the vendor believes that economic conditions in the region will improve in future. It also considers that establishing a
trading relationship with this customer could help it to open up a new market with other potential customers in the region.
This means that instead of the contract price being fixed at CU 1 million, the amount of promised consideration is variable. The
vendor assesses the customer’s intention and ability to pay and, based on the facts and circumstances and taking into account
the poor economic conditions, it is concluded that it is probable that it will be entitled to an estimated amount of CU 500,000
and that the customer will pay this amount.
Assuming that the other four criteria set out above are met, the vendor concludes that it has entered into a contract for the sale
of the product in return for variable consideration of CU 500,000.
TRG discussions
Collectability criteria (Agenda Paper 13; January 2015)
The TRG discussed several questions arising from the collectability criteria. It was agreed that if an entity considers
collectability of the transaction price to be probable for a portfolio of contracts, then the entity should recognise the
transaction price as revenue when (or as) each of the separate performance obligations are satisfied.
Example
An entity has a large volume of homogenous revenue generating customer contracts for which invoices are sent in arrears
on a monthly basis. Before accepting a customer, the entity performs procedures designed to ensure that it is probable that
the customer will pay the amounts owed. If these procedures result in the entity concluding that it is not probable that the
customer will pay the amounts owed, the entity does not accept them as a customer. Because these procedures are only
designed to determine whether collection is probable (and thus not a certainty), the entity anticipates that it will have
some customers that will not pay all amounts. While the entity collects the entire amount due from the vast majority of its
customers, on average, the entity’s historical evidence (which is representative of its expectations for the future) indicates
that the entity will only collect 98% of the amounts billed.
The issue could be viewed as being whether a contract exists for 100% of the amounts invoiced, or for 98%. Based on the
TRG discussions, 100% would be recorded as revenue, as the criterion is that it is ‘probable’ that the entity will collect the
consideration for each of the sales on an individual contract basis (which is the unit of account for the purposes of IFRS 15).
This is because the entity concluded that, as a result of its customer acceptance procedures, it is probable that each
customer will pay the amount owed. The fact that only 98% of amounts invoiced are expected to be collected will instead
be relevant to the expected credit loss (bad debt) provision recognised for the purposes of IFRS 9 Financial Instruments.
In addition to determining whether collectability of the transaction price is probable at contract inception, collectability also
needs to be reassessed when there is an indication of a significant change in facts and circumstances. Therefore, if a contract
is initially assessed as meeting the probability of collection criterion and the customer’s ability to pay the consideration
subsequently deteriorates, there might no longer be a contract for accounting purposes. For this to happen, the change
in the customer’s financial condition would need to be so significant that it indicates that the contract is no longer valid.
Changes of a more minor nature that might reasonably occur (particularly during a long term contract) would not result in
that conclusion.
If it is concluded that a contract is no longer valid, although any revenue recognised to date would not be reversed (instead
the receivable or contract asset would be subject to the impairment provisions of IFRS 9), no further revenue is recognised
until the vendor could once again conclude that the probability of receipt criterion is met, or when one of the following
applies:
–– The vendor has no remaining contractual obligations to transfer goods or services and all, or substantially all, of the
consideration has been received and is non-refundable; or
–– The contract has been terminated and the consideration received is non-refundable.
The above two bullet points would also apply if an entity receives payment before all of the five criteria set out above are
met.
Example (continued)
A linked point is that the criteria above mean that when collectability for a contract as a whole is not probable, recognising
revenue on the basis of cash collected is prohibited by IFRS 15. This is the case even if some non-refundable consideration
has been received from the customer, with any such non-refundable consideration instead giving rise to a liability. This may
result in a significant chance in practice for some entities.
Some members of the TRG considered that the accounting might not reflect the economics in some circumstances because
the vendor may be unable to terminate a contract and be required to continue to provide goods or services. It was also
considered possible that, for a contract such as a three year contract with a customer with a poor credit rating, under which
services are carried out monthly and non-refundable cash is collected monthly, IFRS 15 could be interpreted to require full
deferral of revenue until either the contract is terminated (the end of three years, or earlier depending on the termination
provisions), or until collection of the entire transaction price becomes probable. Some TRG members felt that a prohibition
on the recognition of revenue when a distinct good or service has been provided and payment has been received would not
reflect economic substance. However, Board members at the TRG meeting noted that the inclusion of the collectability
criterion in Step 1 was deliberate, because revenue recognition of prohibited when a valid contract does not exist.
Combination of contracts
Two or more contracts that are entered into at (or near) the same time, and with the same customer or related parties of the
customer, are accounted for as if they were a single contract for accounting purposes, if one of the following criteria are met:
–– The contracts are negotiated as a package with a single commercial objective;
–– The amount of consideration in one contract depends on the price or performance of the other contract(s); or
–– The goods or services that are promised in the contracts (or some of the goods or services) represent a single
performance obligation (see discussion on Step 2 in Section 4.2 below).
BDO comment
The requirement to consider contracts which are entered into with two or more separate parties that are related to each other
has been included because there may be interdependencies between or among those contracts. The term ‘related parties’
has the same meaning as the definition in IAS 24 Related Party Disclosures, which encompasses a wide range of entities and
individuals, and careful analysis may be required to ensure that all of these are considered.
Contract modifications
A contract modification is a change in the scope and/or price of a contract that is approved by the parties to that contract.
This might be referred to as change order, variation, and/or an amendment. Consistent with the provisions of IFRS 15,
adjustments are only made for a contract modification when either new enforceable rights and obligations are created, or
existing ones are changed.
A vendor accounts for a contract modification as a separate contract to the original one, such that the accounting for the
original contract remains unchanged, only if:
–– The scope of the contract changes due to the addition of promised goods or services that are distinct for the purposes of
Step 2 of the five-step model (see Section 4.2 below); and
–– The price of the contract increases by an amount of consideration that reflects the vendor’s stand-alone selling price of
the additional promised goods or services and any appropriate adjustments to that price to reflect the circumstances of
the particular contract (e.g. a discount to reflect that the vendor did not incur the same costs as it would do for a new
customer).
If both of these criteria are met, then the contract modification is, for accounting purposes, a separate contract which is
subject to the same five-step model as any other contract.
When a contract modification is not accounted for as a separate contract (i.e. neither of the above two criteria are met),
the vendor identifies the total goods or services that have not yet been transferred. This will be comprised of the remaining
goods or services from the original contract, and any new goods or services arising from the contract modification. The
approach which is then followed is illustrated by the following diagram:
Mixture
Are the remaining goods and
services to be transferred under (iii) Mixed
Is there only a Approach
the original contract distinct? No No
single performance obligation? will be a
mixture of
Yes Yes (i) and (ii)
(i) Termination (ii) Continuation

Replace the original contract Treat modification as part of
with a new contract. the original contract. (Consider
the effects on
(No adjustment to revenue recognised (There will be an adjustment to revenue any unsatisfied
to date. Consider treatment of recognised to date) performance
any remaining performance obligations) obligations)
Figure 3: Accounting for contract modifications

If the modification results in the original contract being accounted for as if it were terminated, then no adjustment is made
on modification date to the cumulative revenue previously recognised on the original contract. Instead, the remaining goods
and services and the remaining contractual consideration (i.e. the total consideration as modified less revenue recognised
prior to modification) form the new contract for accounting purposes.
If, in contrast, the modification results in the original contract continuing, then the amount of revenue recognised prior to
the modification will need to be adjusted to reflect the extent to which the performance obligation affected in the modified
contract has been completed. This might apply to a construction contract for a building where revenue is being recognised
over time, and there is a change to the building specification which increases the scope of work and affects the stage of
completion. In some cases, the remaining goods and services to be delivered under the modified contract are not distinct
from those that have already been delivered, and may be comprised of more than one performance obligation. In those
cases, the entity will need to apply judgement to determine which elements of the original contract are being terminated
and which elements are being continued.
Example – sale of a product

A vendor enters into a contract with a customer to sell 200 units of a product for CU 16,000 (CU 80 per unit). These are to
be supplied evenly to the customer over a four month period (50 units per month) and control over each unit passes to the
customer on delivery.
After 150 units have been delivered, the contract is modified to require the delivery of an additional 50 units (i.e. at the point
of contract modification, the vendor is now required to supply at total of 100 units, being the 50 units not delivered under the
original contract plus a further 50 units). At the point at which the contract is modified, the stand-alone selling price of one
unit of the product has declined to CU 75.
Assuming the additional units to be delivered are distinct (considered under Step 2 in Section 4.2 below), the accounting for
the contract modification will depend on whether the sales price for the additional units reflects the stand-alone selling price
at the date of contract modification (CU 75).
Scenario A – the price of each of the additional units is CU 75

The selling price of the additional units is the stand-alone price at the date of contract modification. Consequently, the
additional units are accounted for as being sold under a new and separate contract from the units to be delivered under the
terms of the original contract.
The vendor recognises revenue of CU 80 per unit for the remaining 50 units specified in the original contract, and
CU 75 per unit for the 50 units that are added as a result of the contract modification.
BDO comment
In our view, if the units are fungible, revenue should be recognised on a FIFO basis. That is, the first 50 units delivered to the
customer after the modification satisfy the remainder of the original promise to deliver 200 units in the original contract,
and which will result in revenue of CU 80 being recognised as each of the first 50 units of the remaining 100 units are
delivered. The second tranche of 50 units delivered relate to the contract modification (which, for accounting purposes, is
a separate contract) on which revenue of CU 75 is recognised as each unit is delivered. To permit a different approach could
result in structuring of the amount of revenue to be recognised, by ‘specifying’ whether deliveries of the remaining 100 units
following the contract modification relate to the original contract or the contract modification.
The FIFO approach is consistent with the approach which is implied in IFRS 15, Example 5A, with the obligations in the
original contract being satisfied first, before the additional items arising from the contract modification.
Scenario B – the price of each of the additional units is CU 65, reflecting a CU 10 discount as compensation for past
poor service
When the contract modification for the additional 50 units was being negotiated, the vendor agreed to a price reduction of
CU 10 for each of the additional units, to compensate the customer for poor service. Some of the first 50 units that had been
delivered were faulty and the vendor had been slow in rectifying the position.
At the point of contract modification, the vendor recognises the CU 10 per unit discount as an immediate reduction in revenue
of CU 500. This is because the discount relates to units that have already been delivered to the customer; the allocation of the
discount to the price charged for units that are to be sold in future does not mean that the discount is attributed to them.
The selling price of the additional units is therefore the stand-alone selling price (CU 75) at the date of contract modification.
Consequently, the additional units are accounted for as being sold under a new and separate contract from the units to be
delivered under the terms of the original contract.
This means that, as in scenario A, the vendor recognises revenue of CU 80 per unit for the remaining 50 units specified in the
original contract, and then CU 75 per unit for the 50 units that are delivered as a result of the contract modification.
Scenario C – the price of each of the additional units is CU 60, solely reflecting a special discount given to the customer
The selling price of the additional units is not the stand-alone price at the date of contract modification. The 100 units still to be
delivered after the contract modification are distinct from the 150 already delivered. Consequently, for accounting purposes,
the original contract is considered to be terminated at the point of contract modification. The remaining units to be sold that
were covered by the original contract, together with the additional units from the contract modification, are accounted for
together as being sold under a new contract.
The amount of revenue recognised for each of the units is a weighted average price of CU 70 . This is calculated as
((50* CU 80) + (50* CU 60)) / 100.
BDO comment
Care will be needed when determining the appropriate accounting approach in circumstances in which a contract is modified,
and the selling price of remaining performance obligations reflects both compensation for poor past performance, and a
revised price that does not represent the stand-alone selling price at the date of contract modification. This is to ensure that the
adjustment to revenue previously recognised on contract modification (reflecting compensation payable to the customer for
poor past performance) and the revenue to be reflected for the remaining goods to be delivered is appropriate.
Contract enforceability and termination clauses

Under IFRS 15, a contract does not exist if each party to the contract has the unilateral enforceable right to terminate a
wholly unperformed contract without compensating the other party (or parties). A contract is ‘wholly unperformed’ if:
–– The entity has not yet transferred any promised goods or services to the customer; and
–– The entity has not yet received, and is not yet entitled to receive, any consideration in exchange for promised goods or
services.
An entity only applies IFRS 15 to the term of the contract in which the parties to the contract have enforceable rights and
obligations.
TRG discussions
Contract enforceability and termination clauses (Agenda Paper 10; October 2014)
Although IFRS 15 contains guidance on when a contract exists, questions were raised about how to assess whether a contract
exists for accounting purposes (and, if so, the contract duration) if the contract between a vendor and its customer contains
termination clauses. The TRG considered the following examples in deliberating how such clauses should be taken into account
by a vendor and generally agreed with the staffs’ conclusions:
Example 1
An entity enters into a service contract with a customer under which the entity continues to provide services until the
contract is terminated. Each party can terminate the contract without compensating the other party for the termination
(that is, there is no termination penalty).
The duration of the contract does not extend beyond the services already provided.
Example 2
An entity enters into a contract with a customer to supply services for two years. Each party can terminate the contract at
any time after fifteen months from the start of the contract without compensating the other party for the termination.
The duration of the contract is fifteen months.
Example 3
An entity enters into a contract with a customer to provide services for two years. Either party can terminate the contract by
compensating the other party.
The duration of the contract is the specified contractual period of two years.
Example 4
An entity enters into a contract to provide services for 24 months. Either party can terminate the contract by compensating
the other party. The entity has a past practice of allowing customers to terminate the contract at the end of 12 months
without enforcing collection of the termination penalty.
In this case, whether the contractual period is 24 months or 12 months depends on whether the past practice is considered
by law (which may vary by jurisdiction) to restrict the parties’ enforceable rights and obligations. The entity’s past practice
of allowing customers to terminate the contract at the end of month 12 without enforcing collection of the termination
penalty affects the contract term only if that practice changes the parties’ legally enforceable rights and obligations. If that
past practice does not change the parties’ legally enforceable rights and obligations, then the contract term is the stated
period of 24 months.
4.2. Step Two – Identify separate performance obligations in the contract

Having identified the contract for accounting purposes in Step one, a vendor is then required to identify the performance
obligations(s) contained in that contract. A performance obligation is a promise to a customer to transfer:
–– A good or service (or a bundle of goods or services) that is distinct; or
–– A series of distinct goods or services that are substantially the same and that have the same pattern of transfer to the
customer.
A single contract can have more than one performance obligation. For example, the purchase of a mobile handset and
connection to a mobile network for two years, in return for 24 monthly fixed payments, is likely to be set out in a single
contract. However, the contract will typically be analysed as containing two performance obligations for accounting
purposes – the sale of the mobile handset on credit, and the provision of network services for two years.
Further, although two contracts between a vendor and its customer may be identified as a single contract for accounting
purposes in Step 1 (because, for example, they were negotiated at or near the same time, with interdependency in the
amount of consideration allocated to each), the good(s) or service(s) specified in each of the two legal contracts could be
separate performance obligations for accounting purposes. As a result, an entity is not able to obtain a particular accounting
result by structuring obligations in different contracts with its customer. Continuing the example of a mobile handset and
provision of network services above, a vendor might structure this as a contract for the purchase of a mobile phone and a
separate contract for the connection of that phone to a mobile network rather than as a single contract. However, the two
contracts would still have the same two performance obligations for accounting purposes as the more typical situation of
both deliverables being set out in a single legal contract.
This has important consequences for the consistency of revenue recognition for similar arrangements that are structured
differently. If the two separate contracts were priced on the basis of the relative fair values of the mobile handset and the
network services, there would be no difference in the accounting compared to a single contract for both performance
obligations. However, if the vendor structured the arrangement as being a contract (at overvalue) for the mobile handset and
a contract (at undervalue) for the network services, the two contracts would be combined into one contract for accounting
purposes in Step 1, with the total consideration allocated to each performance obligation (the mobile handset and the
network services) on the basis of their relative fair values.
BDO comment
The identification of each of the distinct goods or services in contracts may require a detailed analysis of contractual
terms, and linkage to IFRS 15’s requirements on whether a promise in a contract is a distinct good or service (and hence
constitutes a performance obligation), or needs to be combined (’bundled’) with other promises in the contract to create
a single performance obligation. Subtle differences in contractual terms and conditions, as well as individual and facts and
circumstances, can impact the analysis.
The importance of appropriately identifying the performance obligations in a contract cannot be underestimated as they each
form a separate ‘unit of account’ for the purposes of determining how much revenue should be recognised and when revenue
should be recognised. The conclusions reached in Step 2 could also bring substantial changes to the amount and timing of
revenue recognition in comparison with current standards.
The following diagram illustrates the approach to determine whether a promise to in a contract (i.e. a contract for accounting
purposes determined in Step 1) is a distinct good or service, and hence a performance obligation:
Can the customer benefit from the good or service, either on its own,
or with other readily available resources, i.e. it is capable of being distinct?
No
(‘Readily available resources’ are those that the customer possesses or The good
is able to obtain from the entity or another third party)
or service
is not
‘distinct’
Yes
Is the promise to transfer a good or service separate from the other

promised goods or services in the contract, i.e. it is distinct within the context of the
contract? Indicators a promise is NOT distinct include: (These are
then grouped
The entity provides a into ‘bundles’ of
significant service of
The good or service The good or service is highly No goods and services
significantly modifies or dependent or interrelated that together are
integrating
customises the with one or more of the ‘distinct’)
the good or service with
other goods or services other goods or services
other goods or services
promised in the contract promised in the contract
promised in the contract
Yes
The good or service is ‘distinct’
Figure 4: Distinct goods or services

The two criteria that need to be met in order for a good or service to be distinct are set out in more detail below:
CRITERION 1
The customer can benefit from the good or service either on its own or together with other resources that are readily available
to the customer (i.e. the good or service is capable of being distinct).
A customer can benefit from a good or service if the good or service can be used, consumed, or sold (other than for scrap
value), or it can be held in a way that generates economic benefits. A customer may benefit from some goods or services
on their own, while for others a customer may only be able to obtain benefits from them in conjunction with other readily
available resources.
A readily available resource is either a good or service that is sold separately (either by the vendor or another vendor), or a
resource that the customer has already obtained from the vendor (this includes goods or services that the vendor has already
transferred to the customer under the contract) or from other transactions or events.
If the vendor regularly sells a good or service separately, this indicates that a customer can benefit from it (either on its own,
or in conjunction with other resources).
CRITERION 2
The entity’s promise to transfer the good or service to the customer is separately identifiable from other promises in the
contract (i.e. the good or service is distinct within the context of the contract).
To assist in making this assessment, Paragraph 29 of IFRS 15 includes indicators that a vendor’s promise to transfer two or
more goods or services to the customer are not distinct within the context of the contract. The guidance is explicit that these
are not the only circumstances in which two or more promised goods or services are not distinct:
–– The vendor provides a significant service of integrating one good or service with other goods or services promised in the
contract into a bundle, which represents a combined output for which the customer has contracted (i.e. the vendor is
using one good or service as an input to produce the combined output specified by the customer);
–– One good or service significantly modifies or customises other goods or services promised in the contract;
–– One good or service is highly dependent on (or highly interrelated with) other promised goods or services. That is, if the
customer decides not to purchase the good or service it would not significantly affect any of the other promised goods or
services in the contract.
To determine whether the vendor’s promise to transfer a good or service is separately identifiable from other promised goods
or services in the contract (i.e. distinct within the context of the contract) requires judgement in light of all relevant facts
and circumstances. This is evident from the Basis for Conclusions to IFRS 15, which explains that the notion of two or more
promises being ‘separately identifiable’ (i.e. distinct within the context of the contract) is in turn based on the notion that the
risks assumed in one promise are separable from the risks assumed in another. The three factors included in Paragraph 29 are
therefore intended to assist entities in making that judgement. Further, the three factors are not mutually exclusive, because
they are based on the same underlying principle of inseparable risks.
In the Basis for Conclusions to IFRS 15 the Board also makes it clear that an important consideration is whether one promise
in a contract has a transformative effect on another promise. The principle is whether two or more goods or services that
might be capable of being distinct are used as inputs that are used to produce one single item. In contrast, if a vendor’s
promise to its customer contains two or more goods or services that depend on each other, such as equipment and related
consumables that are needed to operate the equipment, these would be distinct in the context of the contract because the
supply of the consumables does not change the machine.
Example 1 – telecoms
A telecoms company enters into a contract for the sale of a mobile device and connection to its mobile network. The contract,
which lasts for two years, gives the customer:
–– X minutes of calls per month;
–– Y gigabytes of data per month; and
–– Z texts per month.
The telecoms company frequently sells mobile devices without connecting them to the network. Although different
combinations of minute, data and texts are available, it is not possible to buy only minutes, only data or only texts.
The telecoms company concludes that although the customer can benefit from the minutes, data and texts independently
from one another (i.e. they are capable of being distinct), they are interrelated with each other because the risks associated
with the promise to transfer of minutes, texts and data are not separable as part of the network connection. Therefore,
two performance obligations are identified:
–– The sale of a mobile phone; and
–– Network services.
Example 2 – construction of a wall

A building company contracts with a customer to build a wall. It identifies two activities that are necessary to complete the
wall:
–– Arrange for raw materials (such as bricks) for the purposes of building a wall to be available at the customer’s premises; and
–– Provide construction services to build a wall with the raw materials.
The sale of raw materials and the provision of services for the construction of a wall are capable of being distinct. Although
the failure to purchase construction services would not significantly affect the delivery of bricks (which, by itself, might result
in a vendor identifying two distinct performance obligations), the nature of the overall promise is to build the customer a wall.
Consequently, the risks associated with each activity are not separable, and hence they are not distinct within the context of
the overall contract. This is for the following reasons:
–– The raw materials and construction services are both inputs that result in the creation of an output (the wall) that is very
different to the two inputs;
–– The provision of construction services significantly modifies the nature of the raw materials (i.e. it transforms the raw
materials into something that performs a very different function to the raw materials on their own).
The analysis would be the same even if the arrangement was structured as two contracts negotiated at or around the same
time (i.e. a legal contract for the sale of bricks and a separate legal contract for construction services) because for accounting
purposes there would be a single contract. Although there are two activities that are capable of being distinct, in the context
of the single accounting contract, the assessment of whether they would be distinct within the context of that accounting
contract remains the same.
Example 3 – construction of a building

A building contractor (the vendor) enters into a contract to build a new office block for a customer. The vendor is responsible
for the entire project, including procuring the construction materials, project management and associated services. The project
involves site clearance, foundations, construction, piping and wiring, equipment installation and finishing.
Although the goods or services to be supplied are capable of being distinct (because the customer could, for example, benefit
from them on their own by using, consuming or selling the goods or services, and could purchase them from other suppliers),
they are not distinct in the context of the vendor’s contract with its customer. This is because the vendor provides a significant
service of integrating all of the inputs into the combined output (the new office block) which it has contracted to deliver to its
customer.
Example 4 – software
Scenario A
A vendor enters into a contract with a customer to supply a license for a standard ‘off the shelf’ software package, install the
software, and to provide unspecified software updates and technical support for a period of two years. The vendor sells the
license and technical support separately, and the installation service is routinely provided by a number of other unrelated
vendors. The software will remain functional without the software updates and technical support.
The software is delivered separately from the other goods or services, can be installed by a different third party vendor,
and remains functional without the software updates and technical support. Therefore, it is concluded that the customer
can benefit from each of the goods or services either on their own or together with other goods or services that are readily
available. In addition, each of the promises to transfer goods or services is separately identifiable; because the installation
services does not significantly modify or customise the software, the installation and software are separate outputs promised
by the vendor, and not one overall combined output.
The following distinct goods or services are identified:
–– Software license;
–– Installation service;
–– Software updates;
–– Technical support.
Scenario B
The vendor’s contract with its customer is the same as in scenario A, except that as part of the installation service the software
is to be substantially customised in order to add significant new functionality to enable the software to interface with other
software already being used by the customer. The customised installation service can be provided by a number of unrelated
vendors.
In this case, although the installation service could be provided by other entities, the analysis required by IFRS 15 indicates
that within the context of its contract with the customer, the promise to transfer the license is not separately identifiable from
the customised installation service. In contrast, and as before, the software updates and technical updates are separately
identifiable.
The following distinct goods or services are identified:
–– Software license and customised installation service;
–– Software updates;
–– Technical support.
Scenario C
The vendor’s contract with its customer is the same as in scenario B, except that:
–– The vendor is the only supplier that is capable of carrying out the customised installation service;
–– The software updates and technical support are essential to ensure that the software continues to operate satisfactorily,
and the customer’s employees continue to be able to operate the related IT systems. No other entity is capable of providing
the software updates or the technical support.
In this case, the analysis indicates that in the context of its contract with the customer, the promise is to transfer a combined
service. This combined service is identified as the single performance obligation.
Example 5 – equipment and consumables

A vendor enters into a contract to supply a customer with an item of equipment and consumables that are required to operate
the equipment. The contract also requires the vendor to provide replacement consumables on specified dates over the
next three years. The consumables are specific to the equipment and only produced by the vendor, although they are sold
separately to customers who have bought the equipment second hand.
The item of equipment and the consumables are both capable of being distinct, because each of them are regularly sold
separately by the vendor. The customer can benefit from the consumables that will be delivered under the contract together
with the item of equipment.
The item of equipment and the consumables are also distinct in the context of the contract. This conclusion is based on the
following:
–– There is no service being provided that integrates and transforms the equipment and consumables into a single combined
output;
–– Neither the equipment nor the consumables are significantly customised or modified by the other;
–– The equipment and consumables are not highly inter-related because they do not significantly affect each other.
Consequently, although there is a functional relationship between the equipment and the consumables because the
consumables are needed in order to make the equipment work, the absence of any transformation (or integration) of the
two components means that they represent separate performance obligations. The vendor would be able to fulfil each of its
promises in the contract independently of each other; it could transfer the equipment to the customer even if the customer did
not purchase any consumables, and could transfer consumables to the customer separately if the customer had acquired the
equipment from another third party.
The scenarios in the following example demonstrates how two transactions which are substantively very similar but have
different legal contract structures are accounted for in the same way (illustrating how the accounting is not affected by the
legal form of the arrangements and instead focusses on the promises made by a vendor to its customer), and how subtle
changes in the facts and circumstances can affect the assessment of whether two promises in a contract are separately
identifiable (i.e. distinct within the context of the contract).
Example
Entity PD, a property development company, contracts with Entity PI a property investment company to:
(i) Sell a piece of land currently owned by PD; and
(ii) Construct a property on the land.
Scenario A
Both (i) and (ii) are contained in separate legal contracts, with the first contract specifying the land is sold at a price of
CU 1 million and the second contract specifying the construction services are sold at a price of CU 2 million.
The transfer of a piece of land results in local taxes being levied on the purchase price. It is not legally possible to transfer legal
ownership of a building independently of the land on which it sits, and so the tax payable would be greater when a transaction
involves the sale of both land and buildings. The tax authority does not permit structuring of a transaction to avoid tax on the
building element by artificially breaking the contract into two elements, or by negotiating a price for the land that is clearly
below market value, with this reduction being offset by the selling price for construction services being above market rate.
However, tax on the price of buildings can be avoided if the contracts are not linked. Therefore the transaction is structured as
follows:
–– The sale of land is completed (i.e. the customer pays PD in full for the land, and has legal ownership and physical possession)
four weeks before a contract for construction services is signed;
–– Although PI and PD may have previously discussed a project for construction services for CU 2 million on the land, and PI
has the intention to engage PD to provide those construction services, both are ‘on risk’ following the sale of land. PD is on
risk that, subsequent to purchasing the land, PI may decide to engage another entity to provide construction services, or
could change its mind about undertaking construction (i.e. it decides instead to hold the undeveloped land as investment
property). PI is on risk that PD may change its mind about wanting to undertake the construction services or, for whatever
reason, it might not be capable of providing the intended construction services. Experience with previous transactions
indicates that in almost all cases the property construction does proceed, but in a small number of cases only the land is
sold;
–– The contract for the sale of land is priced at fair value in order to comply with tax legislation, and to protect the position of
both PI and PD because of the risk that the property will not be constructed;
–– The construction contact between PI and PD is signed four weeks after the sale of land was completed, as was the non-
binding intention. If PD fails to construct the building in accordance with the terms of the contract PI will only have recourse
against PD for its failure to perform that contract. It would have no recourse in relation to the contract for the sale of the
land.
In this example, because of the separation of the contract for the sale of land and the contract for construction services,
including the lack of any contractual obligation for either PI or PD to enter into the second contract for the construction of
the building, PD concludes that the risks associated with the transfer of land are separable from those associated with the
construction services. Consequently, there are two performance obligations:
–– The sale of land; and
–– The construction of the building.
Example (continued)
Scenario B
A single contract priced at a total of CU 3 million is entered into for both the sale of land and subsequent construction services.
Unlike scenario A there is no potential to save tax by having two separate legal contracts. On the day the contract is signed the
land title passes irrevocably to PI, and PI is unconditionally required to pay the market value of the land to PD. The contractual
and /or legal environment means that title to the land cannot be transferred back to PD, and PI would have recourse to PD only
in respect of any future underperformance by PD in relation to construction services.
PD concludes that the sale of land and the construction of a building are both capable of being distinct, and so then considers
the factors in Paragraph 29 of IFRS 15 to assess whether they are distinct within the context of the contract. PD notes the
following, which might indicate they are not distinct within the context of the contract:
–– The land is integrated with the buildings in the sense that foundations need to be laid which will ensure the building will not
collapse;
–– The construction of the building modifies the land in the sense that once constructed, the land can only be used to ’host’ the
building that has been constructed. The building would need to be demolished for the land to be available for other uses;
and;
–– There is a high degree of interdependence between the land and building in the sense that the land is unique. Although it is
possible for an equivalent building to be constructed on a different piece of land, that would not be what PI wants (which is
a building on the specific piece of land).
However, PD notes the analysis is not limited to the above three factors specified in Paragraph 29 of IFRS 15. PD also considers
IFRS 15’s Basis for Conclusions which notes that an important consideration is whether one promise in a contract (in this case
the construction services) has a transformative effect on another promise (the land). Although the construction of a building
on the land will modify the land (to the extent that foundations are required and its use will be limited), it does not result in the
land being turned into something else. Consequently, although there is a relationship between the land and the building, this
is a functional relationship, i.e. the building cannot exist without the land. However, instead of the land and the building being
transformed into one overall item, the building is installed onto the land. In addition, PD notes that it would be able to fulfil
its promise to transfer the land to PI even if PI engaged another developer for the construction services, and PD could fulfil its
promise to construct the building even if the customer had purchased the land from another party.
PD concludes that there are two performance obligations:
–– The sale of land;
–– The construction of the building.
Scenario C
In this scenario, the fact pattern is the same as for Scenario B, except that the contract contains an additional clause which
states that if PD fails to perform as contractually required in respect of the building construction, PI will have the right to
transfer title of the land back to PD for a full refund and also have recourse for damages.
PD concludes that in this case, the contract is for the supply of a single product – a building on the specified piece of land, and
therefore there is a single performance obligation. The risks PD is assuming by transferring land are not separable from the risks
assumed in constructing the building. This would also be the case even if the arrangement had been structured as two separate
legal contracts as in Scenario A.
TRG discussions
Distinct within the context of the contract (Agenda Paper 9; October 2014)
It was generally agreed that various factors will often influence the analysis of whether a promise is distinct within the context
of the contract, such as a learning curve, a customer’s motivation or contractual restrictions, with none in isolation being
determinative. While TRG members expressed varying levels of support for each, they said that all facts and circumstances
would need to be considered.
The IASB and the FASB subsequently made amendments to IFRS 15, including the Illustrative Examples, to clarify the
application of the concept of ‘distinct’.
Identifying promised goods or services (Agenda Paper 12; January 2015)

The TRG discussed an implementation question about whether an entity should identify items or activities as promised goods or
services that are not identified as deliverables or components under previous revenue standards. A specific concern was raised
about the decision not to exempt an entity from accounting for performance obligations that the entity might regard as being
‘perfunctory or inconsequential’. Some stakeholders held a view that IFRS 15 might require an entity to identify significantly
more performance obligations than would be the case under previous revenue standards.
As a consequence of this, the FASB amended Topic 606 to permit an entity not to identify promised goods or services that
are immaterial in the context of the contract. This was to ensure consistency with guidance that was previously included in
US GAAP, which was deleted when Topic 606 was issued. However, the IASB decided not to propose incorporating similar
guidance into IFRS 15 as its view is that this issue relates to the application of the materiality concept more generally, rather
than the application of the requirements in IFRS 15. In addition, unlike under US GAAP, this issue was not previously addressed
in IFRS.
Combining a good or service with other promised goods or services

If a good or service is not distinct, the vendor is required to combine that good or service with other promised goods or ser-
vices until a bundle of goods or services that is distinct can be identified. This may result, in some cases, in a vendor account-
ing for all the goods or services promised in a contract as a single performance obligation.
Example
A mobile application (app) is a computer program designed to run on mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets.
Typically, such devices are sold with several apps bundled as preinstalled software. Apps that are not preinstalled are usually
available through distribution platforms known as app stores. Mobile app providers are usually the owners of a license to
distribute, using their own channels, specific online applications.
It is common for software providers to make mobile applications available to users on mobile devices for free. For games, users
can often then purchase virtual goods (non-physical objects) to enhance their experience of using the app (game).
The typical rights and obligations between the entity and user are:
–– Users can log on to the entity’s server and use the application for free on the entity’s server after agreeing to the terms and
conditions of the underlying license arrangement with the entity;
–– Users can make ‘in-app’ purchases of virtual goods/services. Some of these are consumable and will be used immediately or
at some point after purchase and others are durable and will be used for period of time after purchase;
–– The entity is responsible for operating the application, but it can terminate its operation of the application at any time at its
discretion without any penalty;
–– The costs of operating the application are recovered by revenue from these ‘in-app’ purchases,
–– Upgrades/future developments of the application are neither anticipated nor included in the terms and conditions of the
hosted underlying license agreement.
Assuming the entity is the principal in the arrangement with users, given it is responsible for maintaining and operating the
application on its server, the issue is whether the ‘in-app’ purchases of virtual items are separate performance obligations or
whether should they be combined into a single performance obligation along with the provision of access to the application.
Access to the application and the virtual goods should be accounted for as separate performance obligations. The virtual goods
will be recognised either at a point in time or over time depending on the nature of the virtual good.
The virtual goods meet the criteria to be distinct in IFRS 15.27 for the following reasons:
–– Users can use the application without purchasing anything further and in many cases that is what users will do. The
underlying application is therefore ‘capable of being distinct’ because it is used by customers on a stand-alone basis;
–– Users can decide not to purchase the virtual items without affecting the utility of the application. Therefore the virtual
items are not highly dependent on or highly interrelated with the application;
–– Once the users have access to the application, the virtual items are also capable of being distinct because the customer can
benefit from the virtual goods together with other resources that are readily available (i.e. the underlying application);
–– No significant integration or modification service is provided by the entity, regardless of whether or not gamers choose to
use the application with the additional virtual items.
TRG discussions
Identifying performance obligations (Agenda Paper 22; January 2015)
The TRG considered issues relating to when a promised good or service is separately identifiable (i.e. distinct within the context
of a contract) and the three supporting factors in Paragraph 29. As a consequence of the discussions and the feedback received,
the IASB clarified that it is important to determine whether the contract is to transfer:
–– Multiple distinct goods or services; or
–– A combined item (or items) that each comprise a distinct bundle of goods or services.
To do this, an entity should consider the level of integration, interrelation or interdependence among promises to transfer
goods or services in order to assess whether the promise to transfer a good or service is distinct within the context of the
contract from other promises in the contract.
The TRG’s discussions also highlighted that some stakeholders may be applying the three factors in Paragraph 29 of IFRS 15
that indicate when a promise to deliver goods or services are distinct within the context of the contract as a series of criteria
(i.e. all of the factors need to be met to conclude that a promise is separately identifiable). However, as a result of the TRG
discussions and as noted above, the IASB and FASB clarified in the Basis for Conclusions that they did not intend the guidance to
be read in this way.
Questions were also raised about the effect of contractual restrictions on the identification of performance obligations. The
IASB therefore added an example to illustrate that a contract for the sale of specialised equipment and the installation of
the equipment could be distinct within the context of the overall contract even if the vendor requires the customer to buy
installation services when it buys equipment. Other relevant factors might be the extent to which the equipment could operate
without the installation, whether other vendors would have been able to undertake the installation absent of the contractual
restriction, and the extent to which the installation services significantly modify or customise the equipment being installed.
It may also be relevant to consider whether the customer could benefit economically from the machine if it did not receive the
installation services.
Series Provision
Under IFRS 15 a series of distinct goods or services that are substantially the same and have the same pattern of transfer to
the customer are accounted for as a single performance obligation. This is known as the ‘series provision’.
A series of distinct goods or services has the same pattern of transfer to the customer if both of the following criteria are
met:
–– Each distinct good or service in the series that the entity promises to transfer to the customer would meet the criteria to
be a performance obligation satisfied over time (see Section 4.5 below); and
–– The same method would be used to measure the entity’s progress towards complete satisfaction of the performance
obligation to transfer each distinct good or service in the series to the customer.
There are three primary areas in which the accounting treatment may vary for a performance obligation if it is determined
that a promise is a single performance obligation comprised of a series of distinct goods rather than a single performance
obligation comprised of goods or services that are not distinct from each other:
–– Contract modifications (see Section 4.1 above) because if the remaining undelivered goods or services are distinct (even if
part of a single performance obligation under the series provision), the entity will account for the modified contract on a
prospective basis, whereas if the remaining goods or services are not distinct from those already provided, there will be a
cumulative effect adjustment resulting from the modification;
–– Changes in transaction price (see Section 4.3 below) because IFRS 15’s requirements are applied differently, in some
cases, to a single performance obligation comprised of non-distinct goods or services than to a single performance
obligation resulting from the series provision; and
–– Allocation of variable consideration (see Section 4.4 below) because the amount of the variable consideration that is
recognised at each reporting date could be affected.
The need to consider whether the series provision should apply will be relevant to many service contracts and also contracts
involving the delivery of a quantity of similar items where those items are not all delivered at the same time, but over the
contractual period.
BDO comment
Although the series provision does simplify application of the standard in many situations, it is mandatory if the conditions for
its application are met. It is not a practical expedient which entities have a choice of applying.
TRG discussions
Series of distinct goods or services (Agenda Paper 27; March 2015)
The TRG discussed two issues. Firstly, whether goods must be delivered, or services performed, consecutively for the series
provision to apply, specifically whether it applies when there is a gap or an overlap in the entity’s delivery of goods or
performance of services. For example, if a vendor is required to deliver 24,000 units over a two year period, the series provision
would apply if there was a requirement to deliver 1,000 units per month, but would it also apply if a different quantity was
delivered each month, but in aggregate 24,000 were delivered? Although IFRS 15 does not use the word ‘consecutively’, it is
used in the Basis for Conclusions, which led some stakeholders to question whether the series provision would apply in certain
circumstances.
The TRG generally agreed with the staffs’ conclusion that it is not necessary for goods and services to be transferred
consecutively for the series provision to apply. Therefore, in the above example, the series provision would apply even though
the same number of units are not delivered each month.
The second issue addressed by the TRG is whether, in order for the series provision to apply, it is necessary for the accounting
result to be substantially the same as if the underlying distinct goods and services were each accounted for as separate
performance obligations? For example, in a contract for the delivery of 10 identical products for CU 5,000 over a two year
period (with each product having the same standalone selling price of CU 500), the manufacturing cost of each product might
reduce as a result of a learning curve. Were the series provision to apply, then the amount of revenue for each product delivered
would similarly reduce if the percentage of completion of the contract was determined by reference to cumulative costs
incurred for all products delivered to date. However, this would not be the case if the delivery of each product was identified as
its own separate performance obligation.
The TRG generally agreed with the staffs’ conclusion that it is not necessary for the accounting result to be substantially the
same for the series provision to apply as it is not identified as one of the conditions in the standard. Further, it is noted that the
series provision was introduced to simplify the application of IFRS 15, but the inclusion of a requirement for the accounting to
be substantially the same would make it much more difficult for entities to be able to make use of it.
Implicit promises in a contract

Goods or services that are to be transferred to a customer are normally specified in a contract. However, a contract may also
include promises that are implied by a vendor’s customary business practices, published policies, or specific statements if
those promises create a valid customer expectation that the vendor will transfer a good or service to it. This links to IFRS 15
extending the definition of a contract to include those which are written, oral, or implied by a vendor’s customary business
practices (provided in all cases that the arrangements are enforceable). Consequently, the performance obligations identified
in a contract with a customer may not be limited to the goods or services that are explicitly promised in that contract.
Performance obligations do not include activities that a vendor must perform in order to fulfil a contract, unless the vendor
transfers a good or service to the customer as those activities occur. For example, a service provider may need to perform
various administrative tasks to set up a contract. The performance of those tasks does not transfer a service to the customer
as the tasks are performed and are therefore not performance obligations.
4.3. Step Three – Determine the transaction price of the contract

The transaction price is the amount of consideration that a vendor expects to be entitled to in exchange for the goods
or services. This will often be the amount specified in the contract. However, the vendor is also required to consider its
customary business practices and, if these indicate that a lower amount will be accepted, then this would be the transaction
price.
Although a number of estimates about the future may need to be made when determining the transaction price, these are
based on the goods and services to be transferred in accordance with the existing contract. They do not take into account
expectations about whether the contract will be cancelled, renewed or modified.
The vendor must also consider the effects of the following:
–– Variable consideration;
–– Constraining estimates of variable consideration;
–– The existence of a significant financing component;
–– Non-cash consideration;
–– Consideration payable to a customer.
Variable consideration
Instead of the amount of consideration specified in a contract being fixed, the amount receivable by a vendor may be
variable. In other cases, the consideration may be a combination of fixed and variable amounts.
Variable consideration can arise for a wide range of reasons including discounts, rebates, refunds, credits, price concessions,
incentives, performance bonuses, penalties or other similar items. If there is any potential variation in the amount that a
vendor will receive in return for its performance, then the provisions in IFRS 15 dealing with variable consideration apply.
However, the transaction price is not adjusted for the effects of a customer’s credit risk. In some cases, such as when a
discount is offered between the date of supply of goods or services and the payment date, it may be difficult to determine
whether a vendor has offered a price concession (which will result in a reversal of revenue recognised for performance
to date), or has chosen to accept that the customer has defaulted on the contractually agreed amount of consideration
(which will result in the recognition of a bad debt expense rather than the reversal of revenue previously recognised). In the
development of IFRS 15, it was noted that this judgment already exists in application of current IFRSs and it was decided not
to include detailed requirements in IFRS 15 for making the distinction between a price concession and impairment losses.
As with the identification of contractual terms themselves, it is necessary to look more widely than the contract between
a vendor and its customer. Variability in the amount of consideration receivable may arise if the customer has a valid
expectation arising from a vendor’s customary business practices, published policies or specific statements that the
vendor will accept an amount of consideration that is less than the price stated in the contract. In addition, it is necessary
to consider whether there are any other facts and circumstances that suggest the vendor has the intention of offering a
price concession to its customer. For example, a manufacturer of retail goods might expect to offer a retailer a discount (or
additional discount) from that specified in a contract in order to enable the retailer to sell the goods to its own customers at
a discount and therefore to increase sales volumes.
When the consideration promised in a contract with a customer includes a variable amount, a vendor estimates the amount
of consideration to which it expects to be entitled in exchange for the transfer of the promised goods or services. There are
two possible methods which can be used, and which are required to be applied consistently throughout the term of each
contract:
–– Expected value method
The sum of probability weighted amounts in a range of possible outcomes. This may be an appropriate approach if the
vendor has a large number of contracts which have similar characteristics.
–– Most likely amount
The most likely outcome from the contract. This may be an appropriate approach if a contract has two possible
outcomes, such as a performance bonus which either will or will not be received.
The approach chosen is not intended to be a free choice, and instead the approach chosen for each contract should be the
one which is expected to provide a better prediction of the amount of consideration to which a vendor expects to be entitled.
Examples
Variable consideration – expected value method
On 1 January 20X4, a vendor enters into a contract with a customer to build an item of specialised equipment, for delivery on
31 March 20X4. The amount of consideration specified in the contract is CU 2 million, but that amount will be increased or
decreased by CU 10,000 for each day that the actual delivery date is either before or after 31 March 20X4.
In determining the transaction price, the vendor considers the approach that will better predict the amount of consideration
that it will ultimately be entitled to, and determines that the expected value method is the appropriate approach. This is
because there is a range of possible outcomes.
Variable consideration – most likely amount

A vendor enters into a contract with a customer to construct a building for CU 1 million. The terms of the contract include a
penalty of CU 100,000 if the building has not been completed by a specified date.
In determining the transaction price, the vendor considers the approach that will better predict the amount of consideration
that it will ultimately be entitled to. It concludes that the most likely amount method is the appropriate approach. This is
because there are only two possible outcomes: either the penalty will be applied (such that the entity will receive CU 900,000)
or it will not (such that the entity will receive CU 1 million).
The estimated amount of variable consideration is updated at each reporting date to reflect the position at that date, and
any changes in circumstances since the last reporting date.
Constraining estimates of variable consideration

Estimating the amount of variable consideration introduces uncertainty to the measurement of revenue. In order to reduce
the possibility that variable consideration recognised in one period is reversed in a subsequent period, IFRS 15 only permits it
to be recognised if it is highly probable that there will not be a subsequent significant reversal. This is known as the ‘variable
consideration constraint’. The estimated amount of variable consideration may change at each reporting date as more
information becomes available and there is greater certainty about the expected amount of consideration.
The use of judgment and consideration of all facts and circumstances is required when assessing the potential for such a
reversal. Factors that indicate potential for a significant revenue reversal include:
–– The consideration is highly susceptible to factors outside the vendor’s influence, including:
–– Volatility in a market;
–– The judgement or actions of third parties (e.g. when the amount of variable consideration varies based on the
customer’s subsequent sales);
–– Weather conditions;
–– A high risk of obsolescence of the promised good or service.
–– Where uncertainty regarding the amount of variable consideration is not expected to be resolved for a long period of
time;
–– The vendor’s experience (or other evidence) with similar types of contracts is limited or it has limited predictive value;
–– The vendor has a practice of either offering a broad range of price concessions or changing the payment terms and
conditions of similar contracts in similar circumstances;
–– The contract has a large number and broad range of possible variable consideration amounts.
The requirement to assess variable consideration in this way might lead to a change in the timing of revenue recognition for
some transactions.
Example
The example and two scenarios set out below illustrate the interaction between variable consideration and constraining
estimates.
On 1 January 20X4, a vendor sells 1,000 identical goods to a distributor, which sells them to its own customers. The vendor’s
selling price is CU 100 per unit, and payment is due from the distributor when the distributor sells each of the goods to its own
customers. Typically, those onward sales take place 90 days after the goods have been obtained by the distributor. Control of
the goods transfers to the distributor on 1 January 20X4.
The vendor expects that it will subsequently grant a price concession (a discount) so that the distributor can in turn offer its
own customers a discount and increase sales volumes. Consequently, the consideration in the contract is variable.
Scenario 1 – the vendor’s estimate of variable consideration is not constrained

The vendor has substantial past experience of selling the goods and, historically, has granted a subsequent price concession
of approximately 20% of the original sales price. Current market conditions indicate that a similar reduction in price will be
applied to the contract entered into on 1 January 20X4.
The vendor considers the approach which will better predict the amount of consideration to which it will be entitled, and
concludes that the expected value method should be used. Under this method, the estimated transaction price is CU 80,000
(CU 80 x 1,000 units).
In addition, the vendor considers the requirements for constraining the estimate of variable consideration to determine
whether the transaction price can be the estimated amount of CU 80,000. In this scenario, the vendor determines that it
has significant previous experience with the particular good and that current market information supports the estimate. In
addition, despite there being some uncertainty (because the vendor will only receive payment when the distributor sells the
goods to its own customers), this will be resolved in a relatively short time period.
Consequently, the vendor recognises revenue of CU 80,000 on 1 January 20X4, the date on which control of the goods passes
to the distributor.
Scenario 2 – the vendor’s estimate of variable consideration is constrained

Although the vendor has experience of selling similar goods, these goods (including the goods being sold in this transaction)
have a high risk of obsolescence and the ultimate pricing is very volatile. Historically, the vendor has offered subsequent price
concessions of 20-60% from the sales price for similar goods, and current market information indicates that a range of 15-50%
might apply to the current transaction.
The vendor considers the approach which will better predict the amount of consideration to which it will be entitled, and
concludes that the expected value method should be used. Under this method, it is estimated that a 40% price concession will
apply, meaning that the estimated transaction price is CU 60,000 (CU 60 x 1,000 units).
In addition, the vendor considers the requirements for constraining the estimate of variable consideration. This is in order to
determine whether the transaction price can be the estimated amount of CU 60,000. In this scenario, the vendor determines
that the ultimate amount of consideration is highly variable and susceptible to factors outside its control, and that there is a
wide range of possible price concessions that will need to be offered to the distributor. Consequently, the vendor cannot use its
estimate of CU 60,000 because it is unable to conclude that it is highly probable that there will not be a significant subsequent
reversal in the cumulative amount of revenue that has been recognised.
Although historic information shows that price concessions of 20-60% have been given in the past, current market information
indicates that a price concession of 15-50% will be needed for the current transaction. The vendor has carried out an analysis
of past prices and can demonstrate that they were consistent with the current market information that was available at that
time. Consequently, it is concluded that it is highly probable that a significant reversal in the cumulative amount of revenue
recognised will not occur if a transaction price of CU 50,000 is used.
Consequently, the vendor recognises revenue of CU 50,000 on 1 January 20X4, and reassesses its estimates of the transaction
price at each subsequent reporting date until the uncertainty has been resolved.
BDO comment
In Scenario 2 above, although the uncertainties resulted in a restriction over the amount of revenue that was recognised when
the goods were supplied to the distributor, there was still sufficient evidence to support the immediate recognition of a portion
of the estimated transaction price. For those entities in the early stages of their operations, in particular those operating in
relatively new sectors, it is possible that the constraint over estimates of variable consideration will result in no revenue being
recognised on the date on which control over goods passes to a customer, with recognition being postponed until a later date.
However, in these circumstances the inventory sold would be derecognised with an associated cost of sale (and gross loss) at
the point at which control passes to the customer. The estimate of variable consideration and appropriate constraint would
then be reassessed at each reporting date, with a corresponding amount of revenue being recognised as appropriate.
Interaction between IFRS 15 and IAS 2

IFRS 15 requires contract costs within the scope of other standards to be accounted for in accordance with those standards
(IAS 2 Inventories, IAS 16 Property, Plant and Equipment and IAS 38 Intangible Assets). The derecognition guidance in IAS 16
and IAS 38 is consistent with the principles in IFRS 15 for the transfer of control and measurement of the transaction price.
However, there were no amendments made to IAS 2 when IFRS 15 was issued, and IAS 2.34 requires that the carrying
amount of inventories are expensed in the period in which the related revenue is recognised.
This might be interpreted as requiring the recognition of an expense for goods sold to be deferred until the point at which
(constrained) revenue for its sale is recognised. However, there is a difference between recognition and measurement. IFRS 15
requires an entity to recognise revenue when or as it satisfies a performance obligation by transferring control of a good or
service. Although revenue would be recognised when control is transferred, the measurement of the transaction price (and
hence revenue) may be constrained when there is variable consideration. Consequently, the carrying amount of inventory
will be recognised in full as an expense when control passes to the customer, even if the amount of revenue to be recognised
as a result of constraining that variable consideration is very low, or even zero.
Example
Entity A sells a product to Customer B and control of the product transfers to Customer B upon shipment. However, the
transaction price is dependent on certain targets being met and as a result the price can vary from nil to CU 100. Entity A
has concluded that no revenue can be recognised upon control transfer due to the application of the variable consideration
constraint in IFRS 15.56.
When should costs associated with inventories be recognised?

Entity A should recognise the costs of the product sold as an expense when control transfers. Upon shipment, Entity A no
longer controls the asset nor is the asset held for sale. Therefore, it does not meet the definition of an asset in the Framework
or the description of inventory in Paragraph 8 of IAS 2. This conclusion also reflects the fact that the variable consideration
constraint is focused on measurement. In this example, the entity is recognising revenue when it satisfies a performance
obligation by transferring control of a good to a customer, but the application of the variable consideration constraint results in
that revenue being initially measured at nil.
Sales- and usage-based royalties

Note that there are specific requirements for revenue relating to sales- or usage-based royalties that are receivable in return
for a license of intellectual property. In those cases, revenue is recognised when (or as) the later of the following events takes
place:
–– The subsequent sale or usage occurs;
–– The performance obligation to which some or all of the sale- or usage-based royalty has been allocated has been satisfied
(in whole or in part).
This is discussed in more detail in Section 5.10 below.
TRG discussions
Variable consideration and constraining estimate – constraint at contract or at performance obligation level?
(Agenda Paper 14; January 2015)
In some contracts where more than one performance obligation has been identified, there may be both fixed and variable
elements to the consideration stated in the contract. The TRG considered whether IFRS 15’s requirement to constrain the
recognition of any variable consideration element should apply at the contract or performance obligation level when the
variable consideration has not been allocated proportionately to all performance obligations in a contract (the allocation of
consideration to performance obligations is discussed in detail in Section 4.4 below).
TRG members generally agreed with the staffs’ view that the constraint on variable consideration should be applied at the
contract level and not the performance obligation level. This is because the unit of account for determining the transaction
price in Step 3 is the contract.
Portfolio practical expedient and application of variable consideration constraint (Agenda Paper 38; July 2015)
The TRG discussed the application of the optional practical expedient referred to in Section 2 above that allows entities to
apply the guidance to a portfolio of contracts with similar characteristics instead of to individual contracts. TRG members
agreed with the staffs’ view that estimating the transaction price using the evidence obtained from other similar contracts
(‘portfolio of data’) is not the same as applying the portfolio practical expedient. The practical effect of this could be where
an entity is developing an estimate of variable consideration for a single contract using the expected value method. The TRG
conclusion means that although the entity might consider historic data for other, similar, contracts that have been carried out
in the past does not mean that it is applying the portfolio practical expedient. Consequently, there is no need to comply with
the restriction on the use of the portfolio practical expedient, which is to conclude that there is a reasonable expectation that
the effects on the financial statements from applying the guidance to a portfolio of contracts would not differ materially from
applying the guidance to individual contracts within the portfolio.
The TRG also discussed the application of the variable consideration constraint, which limits revenue recognition to the amount
for which is highly probable that there will not be a significant reversal of revenue previously recognised when the uncertainty
over the amount of revenue is resolved. TRG members discussed whether the new revenue standard requires applying the
constraint to a portfolio of contracts when a ‘portfolio of data’ was used to estimate variable consideration or whether the
constraint can be applied at an individual contract level. It was considered that the approach to be followed is linked to whether
the entity concludes that it should use the expected value approach or the most likely amount method when it estimates the
transaction price. If it is the expected value approach, then it would be consistent and appropriate to use the ‘portfolio of data’
to estimate variable consideration. If the most likely amount method was to be followed, then a portfolio approach should not
be used.
The existence of a significant financing component in the contract

The timing of payments specified in a contract may be different from the timing of recognition of the related revenue (and,
consequently, the timing of transfer of control of the related goods or services to the customer). If the timing of payments
specified in the contract provides the customer or the vendor with a significant benefit of financing the transfer of goods or
services, the transaction price is adjusted to reflect this financing component of the contract.
Again, it is necessary to look more widely than the documented contractual terms. A significant financing component may
exist regardless of whether a financing component is explicitly stated in the contract or implied by the payment terms agreed
to by the parties to the contract.
As a practical expedient, adjustments for the effects of a significant financing component are not required if, at contract
inception, the vendor expects that the period between when revenue is recognised for the transfer of the goods or services
and the date of payment from the customer will be one year or less.
BDO comment
This new requirement may bring a significant change in practice for some entities. Under existing guidance entities have
typically not considered whether a schedule of payments in advance from a customer gives rise to a financing arrangement.
In addition, for those arrangements where customers pay in arrears, there may be a change in practice. For example, in high
interest rate environments when the financing component is material but relates to a period of less than one year, some
vendors currently account for the financing effect; this will no longer be required under IFRS 15.
The objective of including adjustments for significant financing components is to require revenue to be recognised at the
amount that would have been paid if the customer had paid for the goods or services at the point at which they are supplied
(that is, when control transfers to the customer). This is because the result of excluding the effects of (say) a substantial
payment in advance from a customer could result in two economically similar transactions giving rise to substantially
different amounts of revenue.
For example, a vendor may require a customer to pay in advance for a long-term construction contract because the vendor
requires funds in order to obtain materials to carry out the contract. In the absence of the advance payment, the vendor
would typically need to borrow the funds. The vendor would need to pay finance charges on those borrowings and would
therefore be likely to recharge those borrowing costs to the customer by way of a higher transaction price. However, the fair
value of goods and services transferred to the customer would be the same. It is only the party providing the financing to the
vendor that changes. Consequently, the amount of the vendor‘s revenue should not vary depending on whether the vendor
receives financing from the customer or from a third party.
Factors to consider in assessing whether a contract contains a significant financing component include:
–– The difference, if any, between the amount of consideration and the cash selling price of the goods or services;
–– The combined effect of:
–– The expected length of time between the point at which the vendor transfers the goods or services to the customer,
and the point at which the customer pays for those goods or services; and
–– The prevailing interest rates in the relevant market.
When the existence of a significant financing component is identified, the applicable interest rate will not always be the
rate which is implied by the contractual terms for the sales transaction. This is because IFRS 15 requires the borrowing rate
to be the rate that would have been charged by an unrelated third party to the entity (vendor or customer) which receives
the benefit of the financing. Consequently, in addition to considering any difference between the amount of consideration
and the cash selling price of the goods or services, the interest rate that would apply to a particular borrowing arrangement
needs to be considered.
Example
A vendor enters into a contract with a customer to build and supply a new machine. Control over the completed machine will
pass to the customer in two years’ time (the vendor’s performance obligation will be satisfied at a point in time). The contract
contains two payment options. Either the customer can pay CU 5 million in two years’ time when it obtains control of the
machine, or the customer can pay CU 4 million on inception of the contract.
The customer decides to pay CU 4 million on inception.
The vendor concludes that because of the significant period of time between the date of payment by the customer and the
transfer of the machine to the customer, together with the effect of prevailing market rates of interest, that there is a financing
component which is significant to the contract.
The interest rate implicit in the transaction is 11.8%. However, because the vendor is effectively borrowing from its customer,
the vendor is also required to consider its own incremental borrowing rate which is determined to be 6%.
The accounting entries required are as follows:

Contract inception:
CU ‘000 CU ‘000
Cash 4,000
Contract liability 4,000
Recognition of a contract liability for the payment in advance
Over the two year construction period:

Interest expense 494
Contract liability 494
Accretion of the contract liability at a rate of 6%
At the date of transfer of the machine to the customer:

Contract liability 4,494
Revenue 4,494
BDO comment
For the purposes of identifying whether there is a significant financing component, the comparison made is between the
timing of payment and the timing of transfer of control of the related goods or services. For those entities that provide goods
or services where revenue is recognised at a point in time (such as in the above example) an adjustment for financing may be
required even if the services are being carried out over a period of time. Section 4.5 below discusses in more detail whether
revenue should be recognised at a point in time or over time.
The discount rate used needs to reflect the credit characteristics of the party receiving financing, as well as any collateral or
security provided by that party (which might include assets transferred in the contract). The discount rate may be capable
of being determined by identifying the rate that discounts the nominal amount of consideration to the cash selling price of
the good or service. However, the discount rate will not necessarily be the same as the implied rate that would be derived by
using the timing of the amount(s) payable by the customer and the timing of the transfer of the related goods or services to
the customer. For example, a lower than market interest rate might be granted as a sales incentive which would not reflect
the creditworthiness of the customer.
After contract inception, the discount rate is not updated (e.g. for changes in interest rates or the customer’s credit risk).
The effects of a financing component are presented separately from revenue in the statement of comprehensive income.
The following circumstances do not give rise to a significant financing component, even though there is a difference between
when goods or services are transferred and when payment is received:
–– A customer has paid in advance, and is able to call off the related goods or services at any point (such as a prepaid phone
card);
–– A substantial amount of consideration payable by the customer is variable, and the amount or timing of that
consideration will be determined by future events that are not substantially within the control of either the vendor or the
customer (such as a sales-based royalty);
–– The timing of payment in comparison with the timing of supply of goods or services is for a reason other than financing
such as to provide the customer with protection that the vendor has or will adequately complete its obligations, e.g. to
ensure any necessary remedial works on a newly constructed or refurbished building are completed subsequent to
ownership transferring to the customer.
TRG discussions
Financing component (Agenda Papers 20 and 30; January and March 2015)
The TRG discussed a number of questions related to whether a contract includes a significant financing component.
Members agreed that there is no presumption in the standard that a significant financing component exists when there is a
difference in timing between when goods and services are transferred and when the promised consideration is paid. An entity
will need to apply judgment to determine whether the payment terms are providing financing or are for another reason. Many
members noted that it will require significant judgment in some circumstances to determine whether a transaction does, or
does not, include a significant financing component.
It was agreed that the difference, if any, between the amount of promised consideration and the cash selling price is only one
indicator, not a presumption, in determining whether a significant financing component exists. Entities would compare the
cash selling price and the promised consideration as part of the evaluation based on the overall facts and circumstances of the
arrangement.
TRG members agreed that the standard does not preclude accounting for financing components that are not significant in the
context of the contract.
It was also noted that it may not always be clear if cash collected relates to a specific performance obligation. Therefore
judgment will need to be applied to determine if the practical expedient can be applied in scenarios in which there is a single
payment stream for multiple performance obligations.
It was acknowledged that calculating the adjustment of revenue in arrangements that contain a significant financing
component and determining how to apply the significant financing component guidance when there are multiple performance
obligations may be complex in some scenarios. However, it was agreed that the standard provides a framework to deal with
those issues. In calculating the impact of a significant financing component, the new revenue standard includes guidance on
selecting a discount rate and other US GAAP and IFRS standards provide guidance on subsequent accounting.
It was also agreed that it may be appropriate in some circumstances to attribute a significant financing component to one
or more, but not all, of the performance obligations in the contract. It was noted that, practically, this might be in a manner
analogous to the guidance on allocating variable consideration or allocating a discount.
Non-cash consideration
In some cases, a vendor might enter into a contract with a customer where the payment is in the form of non-cash assets.
For example, a vendor might accept shares as payment (in particular from a customer listed on a public market).
When determining the transaction price, the vendor should measure the non-cash consideration at its fair value. If it is not
possible to measure the fair value of the non-cash consideration, then the vendor is required to estimate this by using the
stand-alone selling prices of the goods or services subject to the contract.
A customer might contribute goods or services to a vendor (for example, a customer for a construction contract might supply
materials, equipment or labour which the vendor is to use in performing the construction services). In those circumstances,
the vendor is required to assess whether it obtains control of the contributed goods or services. If so, they are accounted for
as non-cash consideration and the contractual transaction price will be greater. If the vendor does not obtain control of the
contributed goods or services, then their value should not be included as part of the contractual transaction price.
Care should also be taken to ensure that contracts involving the exchange of non-cash consideration are within the scope of
IFRS 15. For example, IFRS 15 would not apply to:
–– Barter transactions in which two entities exchanges a non-monetary items in the same line of business to facilitate sales
to customers (see Section 3 above); and
–– Transactions in which a vendor accepts a non-cash item (such as shares in a customer) in settlement of a debt owed to
the vendor, to which IFRIC 19 Extinguishing Financial Liabilities with Equity Instruments should be applied.
TRG discussions
Measurement of non-cash consideration (Agenda Paper 15; January 2015)
Rather than being fixed, the fair value of non-cash consideration can be variable and might change due to the form of the
non-cash consideration or other reasons. For example, this would be the case for a contract in which the customer pays by
transferring a fixed number of its own shares to the vendor at the end of a contract for goods or services supplied over a period
of time. The question which follows is when the non-cash consideration should be measured.
A number of TRG members thought that non-cash consideration should be measured at the earlier of:
(1) When the non-cash consideration is received (or is receivable); or
(2) When the related performance obligation is satisfied.
However, for contracts in which revenue is recognised over time it was accepted that this approach would often be difficult to
apply. Other TRG members suggested support for measuring the consideration at contract inception, and others though that it
should be measured when the consideration is received (or receivable).
TRG members also discussed how the constraint on variable consideration should apply to transactions in which the fair
value of non-cash consideration might vary due to both the form of the consideration (e.g. where the vendor is to receive
a fixed number of shares, the value of the consideration is subject to variability) and for reasons other than the form of the
consideration (e.g. where the vendor will receive between 1,000 and 2,000 shares in the customer depending on whether
performance targets are met). Two views were discussed:
1. The constraint applies to variability resulting from both the form of the consideration (e.g. shares) and for reasons other
than the form (e.g. the number of shares);
2. The constraint applies only to variability resulting from reasons other than the form of consideration.
Several TRG members noted that the bifurcation of the effects of variability required by View 2 might be challenging in some
circumstances. In contrast, some members noted that the bifurcation of non-cash consideration under View 2 might be the
more conceptual approach and therefore avoid some unintended consequences.
The FASB decided to amend Topic 606 to require non-cash consideration to be measured at its fair value at contract inception.
It has also specified that the constraint on variable consideration applies only to variability in the fair value of the non-cash
consideration that arises for reasons other than the form of the consideration. The IASB decided not to make any amendments
to IFRS 15 and acknowledges that it is therefore possible that diversity between IFRS and US GAAP could arise in practice.
Consideration payable to a customer

A contract between a vendor and its customer might require the vendor to pay consideration to the customer (or to other
parties that purchase the vendor’s goods or services from the customer). Such consideration could include cash, credits or
other items (such as coupons or vouchers) that can be applied against amounts owed to the vendor.
Consideration might be payable from the vendor to the customer if, for example, the customer is selling goods or services
to the vendor at the same time as the vendor provides goods or services to the customer. If the payment by the vendor
is for distinct goods or services provided by the customer to the vendor, then the vendor accounts for this as a purchase
transaction, i.e. separate from the sales transaction (on which revenue is recognised) for the provision of goods and services
to the customer. If the amount of consideration payable to the customer exceeds the fair value of a distinct good or service
that the entity receives in exchange, the difference is accounted for as a reduction in the vendor’s sales transaction price.
If, in contrast, the payment to the customer is not in exchange for distinct goods and services provided by the customer, then
the vendor accounts for the full amount of that payment as a reduction of the transaction price (and hence, a reduction of
revenue).
Example
Entity V, a vendor, sells goods to Entity C, its customer, for CU 100. As part of the contract Entity V is required to pay Entity C
CU 25.
Scenario A
Entity C is not providing any distinct goods and services to Entity V. Therefore the transaction price (and hence total revenue)
recognised by Entity V on the sale of goods to Entity C is CU 75.
Scenario B
As part of the contract, Entity C is also providing a service to entity V with a fair value of CU 25. Therefore the transaction price
(and hence total revenue) recognised by Entity V on the sale of goods to Entity C is CU 100. Entity V separately recognises the
services purchased from Entity C for CU 25.
Scenario C
As part of the contract, Entity C is also providing goods to entity V with a fair value of CU 15. Therefore the transaction price
(and hence total revenue) recognised by Entity V on the sale of goods to Entity C is CU 90. Entity V separately recognises the
goods purchased from Entity C for CU 15.
If a vendor cannot reasonably estimate the fair value of a good or service received from the customer, then the full amount
of the consideration payable to the customer is deducted from the vendor’s own transaction price (and hence reduces
revenue).
When any of the consideration payable to a customer is treated as a reduction of the transaction price, it is accounted for
when (or as) the later of either of the following occurs:
–– The vendor recognises revenue for the transfer of the related goods or services to the customer;
–– The vendor pays, or promises to pay, the consideration, even if the payment is conditional on a future event. Such a
promise may be implied by the vendor’s customary business practices.
A key point is that any amount paid by a vendor to its customer will be accounted for as a reduction in revenue, unless that
payment is in return for a distinct good or service.
Example
A vendor enters into a contract to sell goods to a customer (a large supermarket group) for a period of one year. The customer is
required to purchase at least CU 20 million of goods during the year.
The contract requires the customer to make changes to the shelving and display cabinets at the stores from which the
retail goods will be sold. On the date on which the contract is entered into, the vendor makes a non-refundable payment of
CU 2 million to the customer to compensate for the related costs.
The payment by the vendor to its customer does not result in it obtaining any distinct good or service. This is because, although
the shelving and display cabinets will be used by the customer to sell the retail goods, the vendor does not obtain control of any
rights to those shelves or display cabinets.
Consequently, the CU 2 million payment is accounted for as a reduction in the transaction price when the vendor recognises
revenue for the transfer of retail goods. To achieve this, the CU 2 million payment is recorded as an asset and is amortised
to the revenue line in the income statement as the related sales of retails goods are recorded, resulting in total revenue of
CU 18 million being recognised by the vendor.
Consideration is often paid by a manufacturer to a retailer to obtain a prominent positioning of its goods in the retailer’s
shops. These are sometimes referred to as slotting fees. Whether the retailer provides a distinct good or service can depend
on the precise facts and circumstances, specifically whether the manufacturer obtains control of any good or service
provided by the retailer. Careful analysis will be required, as control is not the same as obtaining the risks and rewards of the
shelf or other space.
BDO comment
The requirement to focus on whether a vendor receives any distinct goods or services in return for a payment to a customer
represents a subtle, but potentially significant, change. In some cases, vendors may currently account for these types of
payments as marketing costs, rather than a reduction in revenue.
Although IFRS 15 addresses how a vendor accounts for consideration payable to a customer, it does not address directly
how an entity should account for amounts received from a supplier. In our view, the above example should result in the
supermarket reflecting a reduction in the cost of inventory purchased (and hence ultimately a reduction in cost of sales) and
not either revenue or a contribution to be offset against the costs of changing shelving and display cabinets. To the extent
the receipt from the supplier relates to future purchases from the manufacturer, which is the contractual minimum purchase
of CU 20 million, the supermarket should recognise a liability, which is offset against the cost of inventory when the future
products to which the payment relates are purchased.
The manufacturer is not the retailer’s customer in this situation , i.e. the adaption of shelving space and cabinets are not an
output of the supermarket’s ordinary activities and do not represent a good or service that is distinct from its purchases from
the manufacturer. This results in consistency in the accounting because, if the manufacturer is not receiving a distinct good or
service for the consideration paid to the retailer, then the supermarket is similarly not providing a distinct good or service to the
manufacturer.
However, in other circumstances, a retailer can receive consideration from manufacturers that do constitute revenue. This is
illustrated by the following three scenarios:
Scenario A – Discount granted based on purchases not related to manufacturers’ products
A manufacturer agrees with a retailer a promotion under which:
–– The retailer’s customers receive coupons based on their total purchases in the retailer’s store;
–– The retailer’s customers use the coupons in order to the acquire the manufacturers’ products at a discounted price in the
retailer’s stores; and
–– The difference between the sales price and the discounted price granted to the customer is borne by the manufacturer.
Suppose, a customer receives coupons of CU 10 for each CU 100 of purchases in the retailer’s store. The manufacturer’s product
has a selling price of CU 60. The customer purchases the product for three coupons (with a value of CU 30) and cash of CU 30.
The manufacturer reimburses cash of CU 30 to the retailer, being the face value of the coupons. The retailer will record revenue
of CU 60, being the cash received from the customer (CU 30) and the cash reimbursement from the manufacturer (CU 30).
Scenario B – Promotional discount granted to the customer
A manufacturer and a retailer agree the annual commercial strategy, which includes promotional activities. For instance, the
retailer normally purchases the manufacturer’s product for a price of CU 85. The retail selling price of the product is CU 102.
During the promotional period, the retailer sells the product for CU 97 to its customers, with the discount of CU 5 to the regular
retail price of CU 102 being reimbursed by the manufacturer.
The retailer will record revenue of CU 102, bring the price paid by its customer (CU 97) plus the amount reimbursed by the
manufacturer (CU 5).
BDO comment (continued)

Scenario C – Discount granted to the end-customer based on coupons issued by the manufacturer
A manufacturer initiates a promotional campaign under which end customers receive coupons issued by the manufacturer
when they purchase the manufacturer’s products. When customers use the coupons, the difference between the normal retail
price and the discounted price is borne by the manufacturer. For example, a customer receives coupons of CU 10 for each
CU 100 of purchases of the manufacturer’s products. Manufacturer’s Product A has a selling price of CU 60. The customer
purchases Product A for three coupons (with a value of CU 30) and cash of CU 30. The retailer receives CU 30 from the
manufacturer.
Although the payments received by the retailer in all three scenarios are from the manufacturer (i.e. its supplier), the
payments are received on behalf of the retailer’s end customer and, as a result, the retailer recognises the amounts due from
the manufacturer as revenue. As long as the manufacturer reimburses the retailer at an amount that exactly matches the
discount that the end-customer receives, the coupon has in effect been issued by the manufacturer (not the retailer) to the
end-customer and therefore is recognised as revenue by the retailer. Therefore, it is not a payment to a customer from the
perspective of the retailer (the end customer has not paid the retailer anything), and is therefore not a rebate for the cost of
inventory sold.
However, from the manufacturer’s perspective it is a payment to its customer (i.e. the retailer), and so should result in a
reduction to the amount of revenue recognised by the manufacturer.
TRG discussions
Variable Consideration and Consideration Payable to a Customer (Agenda Paper 14; January 2015 and
Agenda Paper 28, March 2015)
The TRG discussed how consideration payable to a customer should be accounted for when that promise to pay is made only
after revenue has already been recognised (because goods and services have been already been transferred to the customer).
The example considered by the TRG was:
An entity that manufactures consumer goods enters into a contract to sell a new product to a customer (a retail
store chain) on 15 December. Before delivering any of the new products to the retail store chain, the entity’s
marketing department assesses whether the entity should offer CU 1-off coupons in newspapers to encourage
customers to buy the new product. The entity will reimburse the retail store chain for any coupons that are
redeemed. The entity has not historically entered into similar coupon offerings in the past.
The entity delivers the new consumer goods (1,000 units at CU 10 per unit) to the retail store chain on
28 December. Assume for this example, that the customer has no right to return the products. On 31 December,
the entity decides to make the coupon offering. On 2 January, the entity communicates to its customers that it will
reimburse the retail store chain on 30 March for any coupons redeemed by the retail store’s customers. Assume the
entity prepares its financial statements based on a calendar year end.
TRG discussions (continued)

Agenda Paper 28, March 2015) (continued)
TRG members generally agreed with the staffs’ view that the reversal of revenue from consideration payable to a customer
should be made at the earlier of the date that there is a change in the transaction price in (as specified in Paragraph 70 of
IFRS 15) or the date at which the consideration payable to a customer is promised (as specified in Paragraph 72 of IFRS 15).
Although the standard’s variable consideration guidance would arguably apply to consideration payable to a customer if such
consideration is variable, some stakeholders believe that a requirement to include variable consideration payable to a customer
in the transaction price may be inconsistent with the requirement to delay the recognition of consideration payable to a
customer until the entity pays or promises to pay. Further, the staffs noted that there are different interpretations regarding:
(1) Which entities meet the definition of a customer; and
(2) What payments to a customer could result in a reduction of revenue.
During the TRG discussions the staff highlighted that a vendor must first identify its customer in order to determine whether
payments represent consideration payable to a customer.
The staffs subsequently carried out further analysis and presented the following issues at the TRG’s March 2015 meeting:
Question 1 – Which payments to a customer are within the scope of the guidance on consideration payable to a
customer?
The staffs identified three dominant views:
–– Entities should assess all consideration payable to a customer (‘View A’);
–– Entities should assess only consideration payable to a customer under a contract (or combination of contracts) with the
customer (‘View B’); and
–– Entities should assess only consideration payable to a customer under a contract (or combination of contracts) and
consideration payable to customers in the customer’s distribution chain (‘View C’).
The staffs concluded that View A is the only supportable interpretation because the boards acknowledge in Paragraph BC257
of the Basis for Conclusions that the receipt of consideration from a customer and the payment of consideration to a customer
can be linked even if they are separate events. In all cases, it would be necessary to assess whether consideration paid to a
customer was in return for distinct goods or services at a price that is not more than fair value. This assessment would be
eliminated in some circumstances under Interpretations B and C, which are therefore not supported by the requirements of the
standard.
Some members agreed with the staffs view and others favoured Interpretation B. TRG members generally agreed that an entity
should evaluate a payment to a customer (or to a customer’s customer) – particularly when no goods or services have been
transferred – to determine the commercial substance of the payment and whether the payment is linked to a revenue contract
with the customer. No TRG members supported View C.
TRG discussions (continued)

Agenda Paper 28, March 2015) (continued)
Question 2 – Does the guidance on consideration payable to a customer apply only to customers in the distribution
chain or more broadly to any customer of an entity’s customer?
The staffs’ view is that the guidance on consideration payable to a customer should be applied broadly. The staffs noted that
‘those in the distribution chain are the customer’s customers’ and that ‘the phrase customer’s customer is a plain English way to
describe the concept.’
The TRG did not agree with the staffs. Most TRG members thought that an entity must identify its customer in each revenue
transaction and entities within the distribution chain. In addition, an entity that is acting as an agent (that is, arranging for
another party to provide goods or services), might identify multiple customers depending on the facts and circumstances of the
arrangement.
Question 3 – What is the appropriate timing for recognising consideration payable to a customer?
The staffs view is that if the consideration payable to a customer is variable, the guidance on variable consideration should be
applied. Conversely, they determined that if such consideration is not variable, the guidance on consideration payable to a
customer is applicable.
The TRG did not agree with the staffs on this issue either. The guidance on consideration payable to a customer states that such
amounts should be recognised as a reduction of revenue at the later of:
(i) When the related revenue is recognised; or
(ii) The entity pays or promises to pay such consideration.
Some TRG members highlighted that if an entity intends to provide its customer with a price concession when entering into
the contract (regardless of the form of the price concession, for example, cash payment, rebate, account credit, or coupon),
then the contract includes variable consideration and it should consider that price concession when estimating variable
consideration. If the contract includes variable consideration because of an expected price concession, then the entity would
not wait until it has communicated the price concession to the customer to recognise a reduction in revenue under the above
‘later of’ requirement. Instead, the it should re-estimate the expected price concession at each reporting date.
4.4. Step Four – Allocate the transaction price to the performance obligations

Having determined the transaction price of the contract in Step 3, it is then necessary to allocate that transaction price
to each of the performance obligations identified in Step 2. The objective is to allocate an amount to each performance
obligation that reflects the consideration to which a vendor expects to be entitled in exchange for transferring the distinct
goods or services (comprising each identified performance obligation in Step 2) to the customer. The starting point for the
allocation is to determine the stand-alone selling prices of each of those performance obligations.
IFRS 15 brings a substantial change in approach because existing IFRSs contain very little guidance for allocating a transaction
price to components (commonly referred to as the ‘unbundling’ of contracts). Therefore, some entities followed the detailed
guidance in US GAAP, in particular those in the software and technology sectors. Regardless of whether an entity is moving
from an accounting policy that it developed using the limited guidance in IAS 18, or previously looked to the guidance in
US GAAP, there are likely to be changes in approach under IFRS 15.
Allocating the transaction price based on the stand-alone selling price

At contract inception a vendor is required to determine the stand-alone selling price of the good or service underlying each
performance obligation and then allocate the transaction price proportionately based on these stand-alone selling prices.
The ‘stand-alone selling price’ is the price at which a vendor would sell a good or service separately to a customer. The best
evidence of a stand-alone selling price is the observable price charged for that good or service sold in similar circumstances
and to similar customers in a single transaction. Although a contractually stated price or a list price for a good or service may
represent the stand-alone selling price, this will not always be the case. For example, a vendor might typically grant discounts
from its list prices, or it might not sell the distinct good or service separately from others.
When a stand-alone selling price is not directly observable, it is estimated. The objective is to determine the amount of
consideration that the vendor expects to be entitled in return for the good or service. This is achieved by using all available
information including market conditions, vendor-specific factors and information about the customer or class of customers.
In all cases, the use of observable inputs is required to be maximised to the extent possible.
Approaches that might be used include:
–– Adjusted market assessment
Estimating the price that a customer in the particular market would be prepared to pay, which might include referring to
prices charged by the vendor’s competitors for similar goods or services, and adjusting those prices as necessary to reflect
the vendor’s costs and margins.
–– Expected cost plus margin
Estimating the expected costs of satisfying a performance obligation and adding an appropriate margin.
–– Residual
Deducting observable stand-alone selling prices that are available for other goods or services to be supplied from the
total contract price. However, the use of this approach is restricted to those goods or services for which there is a wide
range of selling prices (meaning that these cannot be observed from past transactions or other observable evidence), or
in circumstances in which the selling price is uncertain because no selling price has been set for the good or service and it
has not previously been sold on a stand-alone basis.
BDO comment
In some situations a distinct good or service is never sold separately by the vendor. Instead it is sold as part of a bundle and
the bundle may be sold for a broad range of amounts. This is common in the software industry where software licenses are
often bundled with maintenance for an initial period. Software maintenance (or PCS – Post Contract Support) can typically be
renewed after the initial period on a stand-alone basis. However, the license and the PCS could represent separate performance
obligations despite the fact that the vendor might never sell one without the other (See Section 4.2 above which discusses
factors to take into account in determining whether two deliverables are distinct within the context of the contract).
In certain circumstances, an entity may have strong pricing policies for PCS where the entity charges customers a fixed amount
for maintenance renewals and the price does not vary from customer to customer. This could also be the case if PCS renewals
are stated as a percentage of a license’s list price (that is, the list price prior to any customer specific discounts or adjustments)
provided that the list price was not subject to significant regular, artificial adjustments.
The question that arises is whether it would be acceptable for an entity to apply the residual approach to establish the
standalone selling price for a license that is never sold separately.
In our view, a residual approach to calculating the stand-alone selling price of the software license is appropriate if an entity
is able to identify that the pricing variability that exists in the software license and PCS bundle is attributable to the software
license and that the standalone selling price of the PCS is not highly variable. Although the entity does not sell the software
license on its own for a broad range of amounts, the entity does sell a bundle that contains both software and PCS for a broad
range of amounts. However, there is observable evidence that PCS renewals are always sold for either a fixed amount or a fixed
percentage of the list price of the software being sold. The entity can identify that it is the license component of the bundle that
is sold to different customers for a broad range of amounts, and not the PCS, because there is an observable stand-alone selling
price for the PCS. This means that the use of the residual approach is appropriate to calculate the stand-alone selling price of
the license.
Allocating discounts
A discount exists if the sum of the stand-alone selling prices of the goods or services in a contract exceeds the consideration
payable by the customer. A discount is allocated proportionately to all performance obligations in the contract based
on their stand-alone selling prices, unless there is observable evidence that the discount is attributable to only some
performance obligations in a contract. This might be the case if a contract is for the supply of three goods, but only two of
these are frequently sold together at a discount from the total of the two stand-alone selling prices.
Example
A vendor sells three products (A, B and C) to a customer for CU 100. Each product will be transferred to the customer at a
different time. Product A is regularly sold separately for CU 50; products B and C are not sold separately. The estimated stand-
alone selling prices of products B and C are CU 25 and CU 75 respectively.
There is no evidence that suggests the discount of CU 50 relates entirely to one, or a group of two, of the products being sold.
Consequently the discount is allocated proportionately to the three products and revenue is recognised as follows:
A (100 x (50/150)) CU 33
B (100 x (25/150)) CU 17
C (100 x (75/150)) CU 50
If a discount is allocated to only some of the performance obligations in the contract, the discount is allocated before
considering whether it is appropriate to use the residual approach to estimate the stand-alone selling price of a remaining
performance obligation.
Example
Assume the same fact pattern as above, except that products B and C are regularly sold together for consideration of CU 50,
the total amount payable by the customer is 90 and product A is regularly sold for amounts between CU 35 and CU 50.
Because the vendor has evidence that a discount of CU 50 is regularly applied to products B and C, the selling price attributed
to those products is determined first with a residual amount being attributed to product A.
Consequently, revenue will be attributed to each product as follows:
A CU 40
B (50 x (25/100)) CU 12.5
C (50 x (75/100)) CU 37.5
It should be noted that the residual approach results in an amount being attributed to product A that is within the range of
prices at which it is regularly sold. If, for example, product A was never sold for less than CU 50, then the residual approach
illustrated above would not be appropriate. Instead, the stand-alone selling prices for each separate product would be
estimated and the discount allocated on a relative stand-alone selling price basis to all three products.
BDO comment
It is common for vendors in the retail sector to ‘bundle’ a number of different goods together and sell them at a discount.
Although the approach set out in IFRS 15 appears straightforward, care will be required to ensure that discounts are allocated
on an appropriate basis. Historically, when using a residual approach, some entities may not previously have considered the
range of prices at which each good within a bundle has historically been sold separately.
Allocation of variable consideration

Variable consideration may be attributable either to the entire contract, or to specific part(s) of the contract, such as:
–– One or more, but not all, performance obligations. For example, a bonus may be contingent on the vendor transferring a
good or service within a specified period of time;
–– One or more, but not all, distinct goods or services promised in a series of distinct goods or services that forms part of a
single performance obligation. This would apply if, for example, the consideration promised for the second year of a two-
year maintenance service contract will increase based on movements in a consumer price index.
A variable amount of consideration (and subsequent changes to that amount) is allocated entirely to a single performance
obligation (or a distinct good or service that forms part of a single performance obligation to transfer a series of distinct
goods or services that are substantially the same) if both:
–– The terms of a variable payment relate specifically to the vendor’s efforts to satisfy the performance obligation or
transfer the distinct good or service (or to a specific outcome from satisfying the performance obligation or transferring
the distinct good or service); and
–– The allocation of the variable amount in its entirety to a performance obligation or distinct good or service is consistent
with the objective that the selling price is allocated to each performance obligation in order to reflect the consideration to
which the vendor expects to be entitled in exchange for the good or service.
Example
A vendor enters into a contract with a customer for two licenses of intellectual property (Licenses A and B). Assume each
license represents a separate performance obligation, which is satisfied at a point in time (the transfer of each license to the
customer). The stand-alone selling prices of Licenses A and B are CU 1,200 and CU 1,500 respectively.
Scenario A
The prices specified in the contract are as follows:
–– License A: a fixed amount of CU 1,200;
–– License B: a royalty payment of 5% of the selling price of the customer’s future sales of products that use the intellectual
property to which License B relates.
The vendor estimates that the amount of sales-based royalties that it will be entitled to in respect of License B will be
approximately CU 1,500.
The vendor then determines the allocation of the transaction price to each of the two licenses. It is concluded that the
allocation should be as follows:
–– License A: CU 1,200;
–– License B: the variable royalty payment.
This allocation is made because both of the following conditions apply:
–– The variable payment relates solely to the transfer of License B (the subsequent royalty payments); and
–– The fixed amount of License A, and the estimated amount of sales-based royalties for License B, are equivalent to their
stand-alone selling prices.
Although revenue will be recognised for License A on its transfer to the customer, no revenue will be recognised when License B
is transferred to the customer. Instead, revenue attributable to License B will be recognised when the subsequent sales of the
customer’s products that use License B take place (see Section 5.11 below).
In contrast, the allocation of variable consideration is different if the prices included in a contract do not reflect stand-alone
selling prices.
Scenario B
Assume the same example as above, except that the prices included in the contract are:
–– License A: a fixed amount of CU 450;
–– License B: a royalty payment of 7.5% of the selling price of the customer’s future sales of products that use License B.
The vendor estimates that the amount of sales-based royalties that it will be entitled to in respect of License B will be
approximately CU 2,250.
In this case, although the variable payments relate solely to the transfer of License B (the subsequent royalty payments),
allocating the variable consideration only to License B would be inappropriate. This is because allocating CU 450 to License A
and CU 2,250 to License B would not reflect a reasonable allocation based on the stand-alone selling prices of those
two licenses.
Instead, the fixed amount receivable in respect of License A is allocated to the two licenses on the basis of their stand-alone
selling prices. This allocation is calculated as:
–– License A: (1,200 / 2,700) x CU 450 CU 200
–– License B: (1,500 / 2,700) x CU 450 CU 250
As the sales by the customer of products that use License B occur, the royalty income will be allocated to Licenses A and B on a
relative stand-alone selling price basis. Recognition of the royalty income allocated to each of the two licenses will be deferred
to future periods because IFRS 15 requires that royalty income is only recognised when the related product sales take place (see
Section 5.11 below). Although the royalty income relates solely to the transfer of License B, the allocation of the fixed selling
price of License A and the estimate of sales-based royalties to be generated by License B is disproportionate in comparison with
the stand-alone selling prices of the two licenses, i.e. there was pricing interdependency. This means that, some of the royalty
income to be generated by License B in fact relates to the sale of License A, and some of the license fee specified in the legal
contract as relating solely to License A relates in part to the sale of License B.
TRG discussions
Allocation of discounts and variable consideration (Agenda Paper 31; March 2015)
The guidance in IFRS 15 on allocating discounts to only one or some (but not all) performance obligations in a contract is
different from the guidance on allocating variable consideration to only one or some (but not all) performance obligations.
TRG members discussed a question about how an arrangement which includes both variable consideration and a discount
should be dealt with.
TRG members agreed with the staffs’ view that IFRS 15 establishes a hierarchy for allocating variable consideration, including
variable discounts. When a contract includes variable consideration, an entity first applies the guidance on allocating variable
consideration before considering the guidance on allocating discounts.
TRG members also noted that not all discounts are variable and that if a discount is fixed, that discount does not give rise to
variable consideration. In those cases, an entity would apply the guidance for the allocation of discounts and not the guidance
for the allocation of variable consideration.
4.5. Step Five – Recognise revenue when each performance obligation is satisfied

Having allocated in Step 4 the transaction price (as determined in Step 2) to the performance obligations (identified in
Step 3) it is then necessary to determine when the revenue allocated to each performance obligation should be recognised.
A vendor recognises revenue when (or as) goods or services are transferred to a customer. A vendor satisfies a performance
obligations (that is, it fulfils each promise to the customer) by transferring control of the promised good(s) or service(s)
underlying that performance obligation to the customer.
Existing requirements for revenue recognition are based on an assessment of whether the risks and rewards of ownership of
a good or service have been transferred to a customer. The application of the control criterion to all types of transactions for
providing goods or services is one of the main changes in IFRS 15 compared with current practice. Under the control model,
an analysis of risks and rewards is only one of a number of factors to be considered and this may lead to a change in the
timing and profile of revenue recognition in certain industries.
Control in the context of IFRS 15 is the ability to direct the use of, and obtain substantially all of the remaining benefits from,
an asset. It includes the ability to prevent other entities from directing the use of, and obtaining the benefits from, an asset.
Indicators that control has passed include that the customer has:
–– A present obligation to pay;
–– Physical possession of the asset(s);
–– Legal title;
–– Risks and rewards of ownership;
–– Accepted the asset(s).
The benefits of an asset are the potential cash flows (inflows or savings in outflows) that can be obtained directly or
indirectly, such as by:
–– Using the asset to produce goods or provide services (including public services);
–– Using the asset to enhance the value of other assets;
–– Using the asset to settle liabilities or reduce expenses;
–– Selling or exchanging the asset;
–– Pledging the asset to secure a debt liability;
–– Holding the asset.
When evaluating whether a customer obtains control of an asset, a vendor considers any agreement to repurchase the asset
transferred to the customer, or a component of that asset.
For each performance obligation, a vendor determines at contract inception whether control is transferred over time or
at a point in time. If it is determined that a vendor does not satisfy a performance obligation over time, the performance
obligation is deemed to be satisfied at a point in time.
BDO comment
In some cases, entities which recognise revenue over time could find that revenue must be recognised at a point in time on
application of IFRS 15. It is also possible, although perhaps less common, that entities recognising revenue at a point in time
under IAS 18 will instead need to recognise revenue over time. Further, even if (say) an entity recognises revenue at a point in
time under IAS 18 and concludes it should also recognise revenue at a point in time under IFRS 15, the move from a risks and
rewards model to a control model might mean the entity needs to recognise revenue at a different point in time.
Performance obligations satisfied over time

A vendor satisfies a performance obligation and recognises revenue over time when one of the following three criteria is met:
(i) The customer simultaneously receives and consumes the economic benefits provided by the vendor’s performance;
(ii) The vendor creates or enhances an asset controlled by the customer;
(iii) The vendor’s performance does not create an asset for which the vendor: (1) has an alternative use; and (2) the vendor
has an enforceable right to payment for performance completed to date.
(i) The customer simultaneously receives and consumes the economic benefits provided by the vendor’s performance
This criterion applies to certain contracts for services, and in some cases it will be straightforward to identify that it has
been met. For routine or recurring services (such as certain cleaning contracts) it will be clear that there is simultaneous
receipt by the customer of the vendor’s performance. The concept of control of an asset applies, because services are
viewed as being an asset (if only momentarily) when they are received and used. However, even in cleaning contracts
care is needed. For example, take a 3-year cleaning contract of an office block in which the windows are cleaned once
every six months (taking five days to complete), carpets deep cleaned once a month (taking place over a weekend), bins
are emptied daily, with vacuuming and dusting undertaken on a continuous basis outside normal office working hours.
Each cleaning activity is likely to constitute a separate performance condition and so it would be necessary to allocate
the total contractual price to each of those performance obligations. The contractual price allocated to window cleaning
and the deep cleaning of carpets would be recognised as those activities take place, and not spread evenly over the
three year contractual period.
For other performance obligations, it may be less straightforward to identify whether there is simultaneous receipt and
consumption of the benefits from the vendor’s performance. In these cases, a key test is whether, in order to complete
the remaining performance obligations, another vendor would need substantially to re-perform the work the vendor
has completed to date. If another vendor would not need to re-perform the work, then the customer is simultaneously
receiving and consuming the economic benefits arising from the vendor’s performance.
In determining whether another entity would need substantially to re-perform the work completed to date, the vendor
is required to:
–– Disregard any contractual or practical barriers to the transfer of the remaining performance obligations to another
entity; and
–– Presume that any replacement vendor would not have the benefit of any asset that the entity currently controls, and
would continue to control (such as a partially completed service or item of property, plant and equipment), were the
remainder of the contract to be fulfilled by the entity.
Example – Shipping Company

Entity S, a shipping company enters into a contract to transport goods from New York to Rotterdam. When Entity S enters into
the contract, the ship to be used to transport the goods is docked in Miami. On Entity S’s reporting date, the goods have been
collected from New York and is half-way across the Atlantic Ocean.
Entity S concludes that it can recognise revenue for its performance to date (being the transport of goods from New York to
appoint half-way across the Atlantic Ocean) because another entity would not need to re-perform the transportation services
provided to date. In reaching this conclusion Entity F disregards the practical limitation associated with a hypothetical transfer
of the goods from its ship to another shipping company’s ship mid-Atlantic. Entity S therefore recognises revenue over time to
reflect its partial performance to date.
BDO comment
Careful analysis of shipping contracts is needed because, in some circumstances, shipping contracts may contain a lease of the
ship used to transport goods because control of the ship is transferred to the customer. In such cases, IFRS 16 Leases (effective
for periods beginning on or after 1 January 2019) would apply to the contract rather than IFRS 15. Lease income would be
recognised from the date control of the ship passes to the customer, which could result in lease income being recognised as the
ship sails from Miami to New York.
If the contract is not, or does not contain, a lease of the ship then a shipping company would apply IFRS 15 for the shipping
services provided to its customer. As noted above, if IFRS 15 applies, revenue is not recognised to reflect the journey from Miami
to New York because Entity S does not provide any service to the customer during this part of the ship’s overall journey. Instead
it recognises revenue at the reporting date to reflect the extent to which the goods have been transported from New York to
Rotterdam.
TRG discussions
Transfer of control – commodities (Agenda Paper 43; July 2015)
The TRG discussed whether the control of a commodity (such as gas, electricity or heating oil) is transferred at a point in time or
over time.
The TRG members generally agreed that all known facts and circumstances should be considered when determining whether a
customer simultaneously receives and consumes the benefits of a commodity. These facts and circumstances might include, for
example, the following:
–– Contract terms;
–– Customer infrastructure;
–– Whether the commodity can be stored or not.
In consequence, revenue related to the sale of a commodity may or may not be recognised over time.
(ii) The vendor creates or enhances an asset controlled by the customer

This criterion is most likely to be relevant when an asset is being constructed on the customer’s premises. The asset
being sold by the vendor could be tangible or intangible (for example, a building that is being constructed on land owned
by the customer, or customised software that is being written into a customer’s existing IT infrastructure).
(iii) The vendor’s performance does not create an asset for which the vendor: (1) has an alternative use; and (2) the
vendor has an enforceable right to payment for performance completed to date
This criterion may be relevant to entities in the construction and real estate sector, and also applies when a specialised
asset is to be constructed that can only be used by the customer. It may also apply when an asset is to be constructed
to a customer’s specification. As can be seen, this criterion comprises two sub-conditions – alternative use and an
enforceable right to payment – both of which are discussed in more detail below.
Alternative use
A vendor does not have an alternative use for an asset if the vendor is unable, either contractually or practically, to readily
direct the asset (which may be an asset to be constructed in future, or a partially completed asset) for another use during
the creation or enhancement of that asset. The assessment is made at contract inception, and takes into account the
characteristics of the asset that will ultimately be transferred. It is not updated unless there is a modification to the contract
that results in a substantive change to the vendor’s performance obligation(s).
The contractual ‘alternative use’ restriction applies if the vendor would expect the customer to enforce its rights to the
promised asset if the vendor (hypothetically) sought to direct the asset for another use. However, a contractual restriction
is not substantive if, for example, an asset is largely interchangeable with other assets that the vendor could transfer
to the customer without breaching the contract and without incurring significant costs that otherwise would not have
been incurred in relation to that contract. This might apply when the asset being sold is mass produced, and it would be
straightforward for a particular item subject to an existing contract with a customer to be substituted for another, with the
original item being sold to another customer. This would apply even if each of the items produced (for example, a car) could
be specified individually by each customer from a range of optional extras, because it is straightforward for another car to be
produced with the same options and therefore still to meet the requirements of the original contract.
A vendor does not have a practical alternative use for an asset if the vendor would incur significant economic losses to direct
the asset for another use, for example:
–– Incurring significant costs to rework the asset; or
–– Only being able to sell the asset at a significant loss.
This may occur in some manufacturing contracts where the customisation of the asset being produced under one contract
is substantial, and therefore it would not be possible to redirect it to another (hypothetical) customer during production.
This is because it would either require significant rework or result in entity not being able to transfer the asset to the original
customer in accordance with the contractual timescales.
A vendor does not consider the possibility of a contract termination in assessing whether the vendor is able to redirect the
asset to another customer.
Enforceable right to payment for performance completed to date

The second condition that needs to be satisfied is that the entity has to have an enforceable right to payment for
performance completed to date throughout the contract (except in circumstances in which the contract is terminated due to
the vendor’s failure to carry out its obligations). In assessing that enforceability a vendor considers the terms of the contract
as well as any laws or regulations that relate to the contract.
If a customer were to terminate (or take steps to terminate) a contract without having the right to do so, or if the customer
fails to perform its obligations as promised, the contract (or other laws) might entitle the vendor to continue to carry out
its obligations set out in the contract and require the customer to pay the contractual consideration. In this circumstance
the vendor does have a right to payment for performance completed to date because the vendor has a right to continue to
perform its obligations in accordance with the contract and to require the customer to perform its obligations which include
paying the promised consideration.
If, as is commonly the case, a contract (or other laws) does not grant the vendor these rights when the customer seeks to
terminate the contract without the vendor having defaulted on its obligations, the amount which the vendor could force the
customer to pay must at least compensate the vendor for performance completed to date (i.e. it must be an amount that
approximates the selling price of the goods or services transferred to date), whether or not the customer has a contractual
right of termination. This means a vendor must be able to demonstrate that at all times throughout the contract it would be
entitled to compensation for recovery of costs incurred to date plus either of the following amounts:
–– A proportion of the expected profit margin under the contract, reasonably reflecting the extent of the vendor’s
performance under the contract before termination by the customer or another third party; or
–– A reasonable return on the vendor’s cost of capital for similar contracts (that is, the vendor’s typical operating margin in
similar contracts or transactions) if the contract specific margin is higher than the return the vendor usually generates
from similar contracts.
A vendor’s right to payment for performance completed to date does not need to be a present unconditional right to
payment. In many cases, a vendor will have that right only at an agreed-upon milestone or upon complete satisfaction of the
performance obligation, and not throughout the contract term. However, in the event of contract termination, the vendor
must always be entitled to payment for performance completed to date.
In assessing the existence and enforceability of a right to payment, a vendor considers whether:
–– Legislation, legal precedent or administrative practice gives the vendor a right to payment for performance to date even
though that right is not specified in the contract;
–– A court (or other relevant legal precedent) has previously decided that similar rights to payment for performance to date
in similar contracts have no binding legal effect;
–– Its own customary business practices of choosing not to enforce a right to payment have caused that right to be
unenforceable in that legal environment. If the vendor concludes that the right would still be enforceable, the vendor
would have a right to payment for performance to date notwithstanding that the vendor has previously chosen, and may
in the case being analysed choose, to waive that right.
Entities operating in the real estate industry, in particular those that sell residential units in multi-unit apartment blocks and
that currently analyse contracts in accordance with IFRIC 15 Agreements for the Construction of Real Estate, will need to give
careful consideration to whether their existing accounting approach will change. Properties being sold in real estate contracts
typically cannot be readily redirected to another customer (that is, the vendor‘s performance does not create an asset for
which the vendor has an alternative use because it is unable to sell the unit specified in the contract to any other party). The
focus is therefore on whether the contract requires the customer to pay for performance to date in all circumstances other
than vendor default. If that right exists then revenue will be recognised over time. However, many real estate contracts do
not require the customer to pay for performance to date, with the customer instead either forfeiting a deposit or having to
pay a penalty for the vendor’s loss of profit. In those cases, a vendor recognises the sale on completion of the contract (at a
point in time) and not over time as construction progresses.
Example 1
Entity R, a residential development company, is developing a block of apartments and enters into binding contracts with
customers to sell units before construction is complete. Entity R assesses whether it should revenue over time (i.e. from the
period it enters a contract for a unit until the residential unit is completed) or whether it should recognise revenue at a point in
time (i.e. on the date the completed unit is transferred to the customer).
Entity R observes that the first two situations in which revenue is recognised over time are clearly not met
(IFRS 15.35(a) and (b)):
(i) Customers do not simultaneously receives and consume the economic benefits provided by the vendor’s performance
(i.e. a customer does not consume the economic benefits of a unit as the units are constructed, only after it has been
constructed); and
(ii) Control of residential unit does not pass to customers until each one is complete, and therefore Entity R does not create or
enhance an asset controlled by the customer.
Entity R therefore looks to the third situation in which revenue must be recognised over time, i.e. that its performance does
not create an asset for which the vendor has an alternative use and for which it has an enforceable right to payment for
performance completed to date.
Entity R concludes that the first of these sub-criteria is met, because its performance does not create an asset for which it
has alternative use. The contract with each customer specifies exactly which unit in the apartment block each customer will
buy. Therefore, as construction progresses, it is not possible for Entity R to direct a pre-sold unit to another customer whilst
at the same time being able to meet its contractual obligations. However, Entity R concludes that it cannot demonstrate an
enforceable right to payment throughout the contract. This is because if a customer cancels the contract before completion
(even though it has no contractual right to do so):
–– Legal precedent would not entitle Entity R to sue the customer for the full contractual price even if Entity R completes the
development;
–– Irrespective of any contractual right granted to Entity R to complete the unit for full payment, legal precedent requires
the entity to mitigate any loss. Developers are required to make reasonable efforts to find a replacement customer and
the courts would only award compensation equal to the difference between the stated contractual price with the original
customer and the price obtained from a replacement customer (i.e. loss of profit). In almost all circumstances this would be
less than Entity R’s cost of developing the unit plus a reasonable profit margin. Consequently Entity R cannot demonstrate
it would have an enforceable right to payment from its customer for performance completed to date throughout the period
of the contract.
Therefore, Entity R concludes it cannot recognise revenue over time as it progresses development of units sold. Instead it must
recognise revenue at a point in time when the pre-sold units are completed and provided to customers.
Example 2
Entity A entered into an agreement with Entity B to produce a highly specialised product. It has no alternative use to Entity A
because it is prohibited from selling the product to another customer. Entity B commits to purchase certain volumes of the product
over the contract term because it needs a continuous supply of the product to avoid interruptions to its production process.
The contract also contains the following features:
–– Entity B is required to compensate Entity A if it terminates the contract without cause for an amount equal to all costs
incurred by Entity A to date plus an agreed upon margin;
–– Payment is due upon delivery of the product;
–– Products are shipped under FOB Destination Terms* to Entity B’s international premises and Entity A insures shipment
against potential losses and damages that might affect the product. Therefore, Entity B will not pay for the products before
they are delivered;
–– Shipment term is around 30 days (from Entity A’s warehouse to Entity B’s international premises).
The contract does not meet the over time recognition criteria in IFRS 15.35(a) because Entity B does not consume the economic
benefits of any product whilst they are being produced by Entity A. The contract also does not meet the over time recognition
criteria in IFRS 15:35(b) because Entity B does not control the products whilst they are in production because, inter alia, they
are being produced on Entity A’s premises.
Regarding the third situation in which revenue must be recognised over time (i.e. no alternative use and enforceable right to
payment for performance completed to date), the following issues arise:
–– Does a termination clause imply that ‘an enforceable right to payment for performance completed to date’ does not exist?
If a customer has a contractual right to terminate a contract, then whether the vendor has an enforceable right to payment
for performance to date depends on the facts and circumstances. In the facts above, Entity A has a contractual right to
recover all costs plus an appropriate margin and therefore the condition is met. In some contracts, however, the vendor
receives stage payments and on cancellation of the contract by the customer, there may be no contractual right to receive
stage payments otherwise due after the cancellation date. In those cases, careful analysis would be needed on inception of
the contract to ensure that on any potential customer cancellation date the total amounts received by the vendor would
equal costs incurred up to that date plus an appropriate margin. Unless this can be demonstrated, the vendor would not
have an enforceable right to payment for performance completed to date and would be required to recognise revenue at a
point in time rather than over time.
–– If the customer has no obligation to pay in the event that products are lost or damaged during the shipping period can
Entity A still demonstrate a right to performance completed to date?
A failure by the vendor to complete its contractual obligations because the products are lost or damaged during the
shipping period does not mean Entity A would not have an enforceable right for performance completed to date. The
possibility that a vendor might not perform its contractual obligations is not something that is relevant to the analysis
of over time or point in time. Further, an entity might conclude in its Step 2 analysis of the contract, that an obligation
to deliver manufactured products constitutes a separate performance obligation, i.e. separate from the obligation to
manufacture the products, with the transaction price determined in Step 3 then allocated to the two performance
obligations in Step 4. The vendor would then need to conclude separately for each of those performance obligations
whether the criteria for recognising revenue over time are met. If there were a significant risk that a vendor might not
be able to perform its contractual obligations such that it would not be entitled to payment, then it might not be able to
conclude it is probable it will receive consideration, and hence for accounting purposes a contract would not exist (see
Section 4.1 above).
FOB stands for ‘Free on Board’. FOB destination terms mean that the buyer takes delivery of goods being shipped to it by a
*
supplier once the goods arrive at the buyer’s receiving dock.

Example 3
Entities often create original parts for sale to Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) in the development of new products.
Initially, these parts will not typically have an alternative use (i.e. they can only be sold to the OEM) and the entity will often
have a present right to payment for any production completed to date. Therefore the contract would meet one of the criteria in
IFRS 15.35(c) to recognise revenue over time.
Once an aftermarket emerges, the parts which were originally sold only to the OEM and for which there was no alternative
use can now be sold to the other customers, as further parts are manufactured under subsequent contracts entered into with
either the OEM or other customers in the aftermarket. The existence of several customers for the parts means that as more
parts are manufactured under a new contract with one customer, those parts could typically be sold to other customers,
with subsequent production of additional units being used to satisfy the original contract. This in turn means that, once an
aftermarket emerges, the manufacturer will typically have an alternative use for products being manufactured under any
particular contract with a customer. Therefore, the conditions for recognising revenue over time would no longer be met.
Measuring progress toward complete satisfaction of a performance obligation

For each performance obligation that is satisfied over time, revenue is recognised by measuring progress towards completion
of that performance obligation based on either:
(i) Output methods
These include appraisals of results, milestones reached, units produced and units delivered; or
(ii) Input methods
These include resources consumed, labour hours expended, costs incurred, time lapsed or machine hours used.
Only those goods or services for which the vendor has transferred control of are included in the assessment of progress to
date.
For each separate performance obligation, the same input or output method of assessing progress to date is required to
be used. The same method is also required to be applied consistently to similar performance obligations and in similar
circumstances.
Output methods result in revenue being recognised based on the measurement of the value of goods or services transferred
to date in comparison with the remaining goods or services to be provided under the contract. When evaluating whether
to apply an output method, consideration is given to whether the output selected would reflect the vendor’s performance
toward complete satisfaction of its performance obligation(s). An output method would not reflect the vendor’s performance
if the output selected fails to measure a material amount of goods or services (for example, work in progress or finished
goods) which are controlled by the customer.
BDO comment
For performance obligations that meet the conditions for over time recognition of revenue, an entity would not recognise
any work-in-progress under IAS 2 Inventories. This is because the fundamental principle underlying over time recognition is
that control of the good or service is transferred to the customer continuously as the vendor fulfils its contractual obligations.
Therefore, such costs would be expensed as incurred. If an output method is used to measure performance to date then
entities will often find that profit margins will vary over the contractual period. In some cases, losses may be experienced in
some periods, particularly in the early stages of the contract, even though the contract is anticipated to be profitable overall.
This is because the measurement of cumulative (or periodic) outputs driving the amount of revenue to recognise may not be
commensurate with the cumulative (or periodic) costs incurred.
In most cases, the measurement of revenue (when recognised over time) will not be the same as amounts invoiced to a
customer. In these circumstances an entity recognises either a contract asset or a contract liability for the difference between
cumulative revenue recognised on a contract and cumulative amounts invoiced to the customer. However, as a practical
expedient, if the amount of a vendor’s right to consideration from a customer corresponds directly with the value to the
customer of the vendor’s performance completed to date (e.g. a service contract in which a vendor bills a fixed amount for
each hour of service provided), the vendor recognises revenue at the amount to which the vendor has the right to invoice.
TRG discussions
Upfront payments and measurement of progress (Agenda Paper 40; July 2015)
Questions were raised about whether the existence of an upfront payment in an arrangement (or a back-end rebate) would
preclude an entity from applying the practical expedient to recognise revenue at the amount to which the vendor has the right
to invoice. FASB members noted that the mere existence of an upfront payment would not automatically preclude application
of the expedient. Nevertheless, the nature of the payment and its size as a percentage of the total arrangement has to be
considered.
The TRG also discussed how to measure progress when multiple goods or services are included in a single performance
obligation. It was noted that although a performance obligation may contain multiple goods or services, the standard requires
entities to apply a single method to measure progress toward the satisfaction of each performance obligation. It cannot apply
one method to one part of a performance obligation and a different method to another part of that performance obligation.
TRG members noted that in some circumstances it may be difficult to identify a single attribution method that reflects the
entity’s performance appropriately and therefore judgement may be required. However, it was also observed that if applying a
particular method seems to result in the recognition of an inappropriate amount of revenue, this may indicate that the separate
performance obligations have not been identified properly.
When the information that is required to apply an output method is not observable, or is not available without undue cost, it
may be necessary to use an input measurement method.
Input methods result in revenue being recognised based on the vendor’s efforts or inputs towards the satisfaction of a
performance obligation. When the vendor’s efforts or inputs are expended evenly throughout the performance period, it
may be appropriate for a vendor to recognise revenue on a straight-line basis.
A drawback of input methods is that there may not be a direct relationship between the vendor’s inputs and the transfer
of goods or services to a customer. Therefore, when using a cost-based input method, an adjustment to the measure of
progress may be required if certain costs incurred do not contribute to the vendor’s progress in satisfying its performance
obligation(s). This would be the case when costs incurred are attributable to significant inefficiencies in the vendor’s
performance which were not reflected in the price of the contract. In addition, certain costs may not be proportionate to
the vendor’s progress in satisfying a performance obligation, in which case IFRS 15 requires an adjustment to be made to the
amount of profit recognised to date.
Example
As part of a contract to refurbish a building, Entity X needs to install new elevators. Entity X has analysed the contract in
accordance with the requirements of IFRS 15 and made the following judgements:
–– The refurbishment constitutes a single performance, i.e. the supply and installation of the elevators is not distinct from the
overall obligation to refurbish the building;
–– Revenue should be recognised over time because the customer control the output of the refurbishment as the work takes
place (because the customer owns the property);
–– An input method should be used to measure progress to date, specifically cumulative costs incurred as a proportion of total
expected contracts costs.
Shortly after signing the contract, and by its reporting date, Entity X has purchased the elevators and arranged for them to be
delivered to the premises being refurbished. However, although it is assessed that control of the elevators has been transferred
to the customer at Entity X’s reporting date, the elevators have not been installed and limited other refurbishment work has
been carried out. The cost of the elevators represent 50% of the overall costs to be incurred on the contract.
Entity X must expense the cost of the elevators. It would be inappropriate to recognise them as an asset because control of
the elevators has passed to the customer. However, Entity X also concludes that it would be inappropriate to recognise 50%
of total contract revenue and related profit because it has made limited progress in refurbishing the building. Consequently,
it restricts the amount of revenue recognised to the cost of procuring the elevators. As a result, although Entity X recognises
revenue equal to the cost of the elevators, it recognises no profit from their transfer to the customer because its performance
obligation is to refurbish the building.
In some cases, a vendor may not be able to reasonably measure the outcome of a performance obligation, but may
expect to recover the costs incurred in satisfying that performance obligation (e.g. in the early stages of a contract). In
these circumstances, the vendor recognises revenue only to the extent of the costs incurred to date, until such time that
it can reasonably measure the outcome of the performance obligation. This guidance is similar to the current practice in
IAS 11 Construction Contracts when a vendor cannot estimate the costs in a long term contract and applies the zero margin
method.
BDO comment
Accounting for partial satisfaction of performance obligations prior to identifying the contract
For some arrangements, an entity may start to provide goods and services before the criteria for the recognition of a contract
are met. Other than the absence of a contract (which is required for Step 1 of the five-step approach in IFRS 15), revenue
would be recognised over time. This might be the case where an entity starts to manufacture a highly customised good or
provide a service in advance of obtaining an expected contract from a customer. It could also apply to an entity that constructs
apartments in circumstances when the entity is able to demonstrate the criteria for overtime revenue recognition are met on
inception of the contract.
When the entity subsequently determines that the criteria for identification of a contract have been met, it would begin to
apply the remaining four steps of the five-step model. If the terms of the arrangement are such that revenue for the related
good or service is required to be recognised over time, the question that arises is whether revenue is recognised prospectively
from inception of the contract or if there is a cumulative catch-up adjustment for the work done to date.
In our view, revenue should be recognised on a cumulative catch-up basis because IFRS 15 requires an entity to recognise
revenue when, or as, an entity satisfies performance obligations by transferring promised goods or services to a customer.
This occurs when (or as) the customer obtains control of the good or service. If, at the point at which the criteria for the
identification of a contract have been met, the entity satisfies part or all of certain performance obligations by transferring fully
or partially completed goods or services to its customer, it is required to recognise the related amount of consideration to which
it expects to be entitled.
Recognising revenue on a prospective basis only from the point at which the contract criteria have been met would be
inconsistent with the control model underlying revenue recognition in accordance with IFRS 15, as control of certain goods or
services is transferred to the customer on inception of the contract.
This is consistent with views expressed at the March 2015 TRG meeting, at which a similar issue was discussed.
TRG discussions
Stand-ready obligations (Agenda Paper 16; January 2015)
A ‘stand-ready’ performance obligation is one in which the entity provides a service of ‘standing ready’ to provide goods or
services. The customer consumes and receives benefit from a ‘stand-ready’ obligation from the assurance that a resource is
available to it when-and-if needed or called-upon.
Examples of different types of stand ready obligations included in the agenda paper were:
–– Obligations in which the delivery of the good(s), service(s) or intellectual property underlying the obligation is within
the control of the entity, but for which the entity must still further develop its good(s), service(s) or intellectual property.
For example, a software vendor might promise to transfer unspecified software upgrades at the vendor’s discretion or
a pharmaceutical company might promise to provide when-and-if-available updates to previously licensed intellectual
property based on advances in research and development;
–– Obligations in which the delivery of the underlying good(s) or service(s) is outside the control of the entity and the
customer. For example, an entity promises to remove snow from an airport’s runways in exchange for a fixed fee each year;
–– Obligations in which the delivery of the underlying good(s) or service(s) is within the control of the customer. For example,
an entity might agree to provide periodic maintenance, when-and-if needed, on a customer’s equipment after a pre-
established amount of usage by the customer; and
–– Making a good or service available to the customer continuously, such as membership of a gym or health club.
The TRG discussed the nature of an entity’s promise in ‘stand-ready’ obligations and how an entity should measure progress
towards completion of a ‘stand-ready’ obligation that is satisfied over time.
It was generally agreed that, in some cases, the nature of the entity’s promise in a contract is to ‘stand-ready’ for a period of
time, rather than to provide the goods or services underlying the obligation. Several members emphasised that judgment
must be exercised when determining whether the nature of the entity’s promise is that of a ‘stand-ready’ obligation, with
the judgement reached affecting how to measure progress towards completion. It was also noted that whether the entity’s
obligation is to provide defined goods or services or, instead, to provide an unknown type or quantity of goods or services,
might be a strong indicator as to the nature of the entity’s promise.
TRG members also agreed that judgment should be exercised in determining the appropriate method to measure progress
towards satisfaction of a ‘stand-ready’ obligation over time, and the substance of the ‘stand-ready’ obligation must be
considered to align the measurement of progress towards complete satisfaction of the performance obligation with the nature
of the entity’s promise. It was also observed that a straight-line measure of progress might not always be conceptually pure, but
it was also acknowledged that a straight-line measure might be the most reasonable estimate an entity can make for a ‘stand-
ready’ obligation.
Revenue recognition at a point in time

If a performance obligation is not satisfied over time, a vendor satisfies the performance obligation at a point in time. A
vendor considers indicators of the transfer of control, which include the following:
(i) The vendor has a present right to payment for the asset. If the customer is obliged to pay for the asset, this indicates
that the customer may have the ability to obtain substantially all of the remaining benefits from the asset;
(ii) The customer has legal title to the asset. Legal title may indicate that the customer has the ability to direct the use of
and obtain substantially all of the remaining benefits from an asset or to restrict the access of other entities to those
benefits. If a vendor retains legal title over an asset solely as protection against the customer’s failure to pay, this is a
protective right and does not preclude a customer from obtaining control of that asset;
(iii) The customer has physical possession of an asset. This may indicate that the customer has the ability to direct the use
of and obtain substantially all of the remaining benefits from the asset or to restrict the access of other entities to those
benefits. However, physical possession may not coincide with control of an asset; for example, consignment stock or bill
and hold arrangements may result in physical possession but not control;
(iv) Significant risks and rewards of ownership. When evaluating whether the customer has the risks and rewards of
ownership of an asset, a vendor considers any risks that may give rise to a performance obligation in addition to the
performance obligation to transfer the asset. For example, a vendor may have transferred control of an asset to a
customer but not yet satisfied an additional performance obligation to provide maintenance services related to the
transferred asset;
(v) Acceptance of the asset. The customer’s acceptance of an asset may indicate that it has obtained the ability to direct the
use of and obtain substantially all of the remaining benefits from the asset.
The existing requirements of other IFRSs for the recognition of a gain or loss on the transfer of some non-financial assets that
are not an output of a vendor’s ordinary activities have also been amended so that they are consistent with the requirements
in IFRS 15. Therefore, profit and losses on the disposal of assets such as property, plant and equipment within the scope of
IAS 16, intangible assets within the scope of IAS 38 and investment property within the scope of IAS 40 are only recognised
by the vendor when control has passed to the purchaser.
Example
Entity P, a property development company, enters into contracts to sell properties (for example, stand-alone residential
or commercial properties, or individual units in apartment blocks) to its customers. The arrangements have the following
features:
–– On date X, customers enter into a binding contract for the property and pay a deposit of 10% of the contractually agreed
purchase price;
–– If the property is incomplete at date X (for example, it may have been sold ‘off plan’ or some, but not all, construction
activities may have been completed), Entity P completes the construction of the property;
–– From the point construction of a property, which is subject to a sales contract with a customer, is complete (date Y, which
could be the same as date X) the customer assumes certain ownership risks, including risks associated with damage to the
property caused by an event (such as severe weather) or by unrelated third parties;
–– On date Z, which is typically a few weeks after date Y (the point at which Entity P has completed its construction activities),
customers pay the balance of consideration and take ownership, with legal title passing from Entity P to its customer.
From date X, because the customer has entered into a binding sales contract, the customer is exposed to subsequent changes
in the market value of the property.
However, even though the construction activities are completed on date Y, up to date Z the customer is not permitted to
occupy or sublet the property, and may have either limited or no rights to access the property. The customer also has no right
to make any changes to the property or to pledge it as security in transactions such as a lending arrangement.
If a customer does not fulfil its contractual obligation to pay the balance of consideration on date Z, Entity P will retain the
10% deposit that was paid on date X. The contract also requires the customer to pay compensation to Entity P for any loss of
profit. This means that if Entity P sells the property to another customer, but is unable to obtain a price of at least 90% of the
original contractually agreed price with the original customer, the original customer is required to pay the shortfall to Entity P.
There is substantial past history in Entity P’s jurisdiction that the courts will enforce this compensation clause.
Prior to the adoption of IFRS 15, Entity P recognised revenue from the sale of properties on the date on which all construction
activities were complete (date Y). This was because Entity P considered that, at that point, substantially all of the risks and
rewards of property ownership had passed to its customer.
On adoption of IFRS 15, Entity P first considers whether it meets any of the criteria to recognise revenue over time. It concludes
that it does not, meaning that revenue will be recognised at a point in time.
Entity P then considers whether the contractual terms and the legal environment mean that the transfer of control of the
properties (the point at which revenue is recognised in accordance with IFRS 15) is different from the point at which revenue has
previously been recognised (which is the point at which it had been considered that substantially all of the risks and rewards of
ownership had passed to the customer). Although the customer assumes certain risks associated with the property at dates X
and Y, Entity P concludes that the restrictions over the customer’s physical and other use of the property up to date Z mean
that control does not pass until that date.
Consequently, following the adoption of IFRS 15, Entity P will recognise revenue from the sale of properties on date Z and not
the earlier date Y.
BDO comment
In determining when to recognise revenue, it is very important to understand the legal environment as well as the precise
contractual terms and conditions. This is particularly true for transactions involving real estate as subtle differences in property
law and the way it is applied to the a contract for the sale of real estate could affect the assessment of whether control passes
at a point in time or over time and, if at a point in time, the specific date on which control passes.
5. OTHER ISSUES
5.1. Contract costs
Contract costs are initially recognised as an asset and expensed on a systematic basis that is consistent with the transfer to
the customer of the good or service to which those costs relate. Contract costs comprise both incremental costs of obtaining
a contract and costs to fulfil a contract.
Incremental costs of obtaining a contract

Incremental costs incurred in obtaining a contract are those that would not have been incurred had that individual contract
not been obtained. This is restrictive and includes only costs such as a sales commission that is paid only if the contract is
obtained, unless the costs can be explicitly recharged to a customer.
As a practical expedient, incremental costs of obtaining a contract can be recognised as an immediate expense rather than
capitalised if the period over which they would otherwise be expensed (or amortised) is one year or less.
All other ongoing costs of running the business, including costs that are incurred with the intention of obtaining a contract
with a customer, are not incremental and will be expensed unless they fall within the scope of another accounting standard
(such as IAS 16 Property, Plant and Equipment) and are required to be accounted for as an asset.
BDO comment
Under current guidance, some entities account for the incremental costs of obtaining a contract in accordance with IAS 38
Intangible Assets. For those entities, IFRS 15 will bring a change in approach because those costs are now explicitly within
the scope of IFRS 15. In particular, although the recognition threshold of ‘expected’ recovery of those costs is similar, IFRS 15
is more restrictive in permitting only those costs that are incremental to obtaining a contract to be considered. This is a high
threshold, and goes well beyond the ‘directly attributable’ threshold that some entities may have used in the past. In practice,
costs eligible to be capitalised may be restricted to the example given in IFRS 15 of a sales commission, with any other costs that
would have been incurred regardless of whether the contract had been obtained being expensed as incurred.
Costs to fulfil a contract

In contrast with the incremental costs of obtaining a contract, which fall wholly within its scope, the requirements of IFRS 15
apply only to costs to fulfil a contract which do not fall within the scope of another IFRS (for example, IAS 2 Inventories,
IAS 16 Property, Plant and Equipment and IAS 38 Intangible Assets). For those costs which do fall within the scope of IFRS 15,
the threshold for identifying costs to fulfil a contract is lower than the ‘incremental’ threshold for costs in obtaining a
contract. However, there are still restrictions and all of the following criteria need to be met:
–– The fulfilment costs relate directly to a contract or to an anticipated contract that can specifically be identified;
–– The costs generate or enhance resources of the vendor that will be used to satisfy performance obligations in future; and
–– The costs are expected to be recovered.
BDO comment
The requirement to capitalise fulfilment costs that relate to an anticipated contract are similar to the guidance in
IAS 11 Construction Contracts, under which costs incurred before a contract has been obtained are capitalised if it is
‘probable that the contract will be obtained’.
Examples
Scenario 1
A sales employee is paid a commission for each contract obtained with a customer. CU 100 is paid for a new customer contract.
CU 60 is paid each time that same customer renews the contract. Assume the CU 60 renewal commission is not considered
commensurate with the CU 100 commission paid on the initial contract.
The CU 100 paid for the new customer contract must be capitalised at contract inception.
The CU 60 for each renewal must be capitalised upon renewal because it is considered an incremental cost that would not have
been incurred if the renewal contract was not obtained.
For the CU 100 capitalised when the new customer contract is obtained, alternative amortisation approaches include:
a) Amortising the initial CU 100 over the contract period that includes the specific anticipated renewals (that is, over the
expected customer relationship) and amortise each capitalised renewal amount over the respective renewal period; or
b) Separate the initial CU 100 commission into two components: CU 60 to be amortised over the original contract term and
CU 40 to be amortised over the period of the initial contract and the specific anticipated renewals. Upon renewal capitalise
the CU 60 renewal commission and amortise it over the renewal period.
If the renewal contract was not a specifically anticipated future contract and the renewal commission is considered
commensurate with the initial commission, an entity would amortise the CU100 paid for the new customer contract over the
original contract term and then amortise each capitalised renewal amount over the respective renewal period.
Scenario 2 (looking at subsequent commission)

An employee receives an initial sales commission based on the contract price when a contract is obtained. This commission
is considered incremental, so it is capitalised under IFRS 15. Subsequently, the customer modifies the contract to purchase
additional goods, and the modification does not result in the company accounting for the modification as a separate contract.
The employee is paid an additional commission based on the increase in the contract price arising from the modification.
Even though the contract modification is not accounted for as a separate contract, the increase in the contract price results in
additional commission that is incremental to obtaining the modified contract. Therefore, the additional commission paid is an
incremental cost of obtaining a contract and should be capitalised and amortised (along with any unamortised amount relating
to the initial commission) on a systematic basis that is consistent with the transfer to the customer of the remaining goods or
services to be provided over the remaining contractual period.
TRG discussions
Impairment testing of capitalised contract acquisition costs (Agenda Papers 4; July 2014)
The TRG considered whether, when testing capitalised contract assets for impairment, entities should factor in cash flows that
are expected to arise in any period covered by customer options to extend or renew the contract. TRG members considered
that extension and renewal periods should be taken into account if:
–– It is expected that the customer will extend or renew the contract; and
–– The contract costs capitalised relate to goods or services that would be transferred to the customer during such extension or
renewal periods.
BDO comment
In our view, as a matter of accounting policy choice, an entity could choose to present costs incurred to obtain a contract as
either:
–– A separate class of intangible asset in the statement of financial position, with amortisation in the same line item as
amortisation of intangible assets within the scope of IAS 38. Under this approach the amortisation would be classified as
amortisation expense ’by nature’ and would be presented outside of cost of goods sold ’by function’ as it is not considered a
cost of conversion.
–– A class of asset separate from intangible assets in the statement of financial position. Under this approach amortisation
would be considered part of cost of goods sold ’by function’ and as a change in contract costs ’by nature’.
However, in our view, an accounting policy choice does not exist for fulfilment costs as these are part of the costs of conversion
and are therefore similar to inventory. Therefore it is not appropriate to present fulfilment costs as a separate class of intangible
assets. The second approach noted above should be followed for fulfilment costs.
5.2. Changes in the transaction price after contract inception

The transaction price can change subsequent to contract inception either because the contract contains variable
consideration or because the contract is renegotiated with the customer.
Any change to the transaction price arising from re-estimating the amount of variable consideration receivable (or the
amount of variable consideration being confirmed due to the resolution of uncertain events) is allocated to the performance
conditions on the same basis as at contract inception. Therefore, no reallocation of the transaction price to performance
obligations is made to reflect changes in stand-alone selling prices since contract inception. Amounts allocated to
performance obligation(s) which have already been satisfied are recognised as revenue (or as a reduction of revenue if
necessary) in the period in which the variable consideration is re-estimated.
A change in the transaction price arising from re-estimating variable consideration is allocated entirely to one or more
distinct goods or services only if the criteria for allocation of variable consideration to performance obligations are met.
These are that:
–– The terms of a variable payment relate specifically to the satisfaction of a performance obligation or to distinct goods or
services;
–– The allocation meets the objective that the amount allocated to each performance obligation or distinct good or service
reflects the amount to which the vendor expects to be entitled in exchange for transferring the goods or services to the
customer.
Changes in stand-alone selling prices after contract inception are not reflected in the basis of determining the reallocation of
the transaction price.
The guidance on contract modifications applies to changes in the transaction price that occurs as a result of a contract
modification (see Section 4.1 above). However, careful consideration needs to be given when identifying the performance
obligations to which any change in the revised contract price should be allocated, particularly when the modification involves
the addition of new performance obligations, the transaction price contains variable consideration, and estimates of that
variable consideration change subsequent to contract modifications. For changes in the transaction price that occur after a
contract modification, a vendor allocates the change in the transaction price in whichever of the following ways is applicable:
–– The change in the transaction price is allocated to the performance obligations identified in the contract before the
modification if, and to the extent that, the change in the transaction price is attributable to an amount of variable
consideration promised before the modification and the modification is accounted for as termination of the original
contract and the establishment of a new contract;
–– In all other cases, being those in which the modification is not accounted for as a separate contract, the change in the
transaction price is allocated to the performance obligations in the modified contract (i.e. the performance obligations
that were unsatisfied or partially unsatisfied immediately after the modification).
Example
Background
Entity X enters a contract involving the delivery of Products A and B (which are two distinct performance obligations with the
same stand-alone selling price) for a fixed amount of CU 5,000 plus variable consideration. The variable consideration cannot
be allocated specifically to one of the two products. Entity X includes variable consideration of CU 1,000 in the transactions
price (i.e. a total of CU 6,000) because it concludes that it is highly probable there will not be a significant reversal of this
amount. Entity X therefore allocates CU 3,000 to each of Products A and B.
Change in price arising from contract modification

After delivering product A (and recognising revenue of CU 3,000), the contract is modified, with a new performance obligation
being added to the contract (delivery of Product C) for an additional CU 1,500, but which has a standalone selling price of
CU 2,000. The remaining total contract consideration is therefore CU 4,500 (i.e. original price of CU 6,000 plus modification
of CU 1,500 less CU 3,000 of revenue recognised on delivery of product A). In accordance with the guidance on contract
modifications, this is accounted as a termination of the original contract because the remaining deliverables (Products B and C)
are distinct from those that have already been delivered. The future consideration to be received of CU 4,500 is therefore
allocated to products B and C in proportion to their relative standalone selling prices, i.e. CU 2,700 to Product B and CU 1,800
to Product C. The estimate of variable consideration not yet recognised as revenue of CU 500 (and previously included within
the CU 3,000 allocated to Product B) is included in the price allocation to both Products B and C because the conditions in
Paragraph 85 of IFRS 15 for allocating it only to Products A and B are not met, i.e.it is also linked to performance associated
with providing Product C.
Change in contract price arising from re-estimation of variable consideration

Prior to delivering either Product B or Product C, Entity X revises its estimate of variable consideration from CU 1,000 to
CU 1,600. Because the increase of CU 600 to the transaction price is attributable to variable consideration promised before
the modification and the modification was accounted for as a termination of the original contract, it is necessary allocate
some of this to Product A. The amount to allocate is based on the same proportion of variable consideration that was originally
attributed to Product A (i.e. 50%), which means Entity X immediately recognises additional revenue of CU 300 as Product A
has already been delivered. The remaining CU 300 is then allocated to each of Products B and C at the date of contract
modification based on their relative standalone selling prices, i.e. CU 180 to Product B and CU 120 to Product C.
5.3. Sale with a right of return

A right to return enables a customer to receive:
–– A full or partial refund of any consideration paid;
–– A credit that can be applied against amounts owed or that will be owed to the vendor;
–– Another product in exchange;
–– Any combination of the above.
A right to return may be given for various reasons such as customer dissatisfaction with the product or simply given if the
customer changes their mind.
Although a right of return falls within the variable consideration guidance in IFRS 15, the price per item sold (i.e. the
contractual price) does not vary. Unlike other situations in which there is variable consideration the entity will receive
back the goods sold when a right or return is exercised. However, the aggregate amount of revenue recognised is subject
to variability. Consequently, IFRS 15 requires that the variable consideration provisions in the standard (including the
requirements for constraining variable consideration) should apply when measuring the amount of revenue to recognise for
goods sold with a right of return.
For those items which are expected to be returned, the vendor does not recognise revenue. Instead, it recognises a refund
liability together with an asset representing item(s) expected to be returned. Any refund liability is reassessed and updated
at each reporting date. If the realisable value of the item to be returned (including any adjustment for expected costs of
recovering the item and any potential decrease in value) is expected to be less than the cost of the related inventory, an
adjustment is made to cost of sales.
Example
Entity R, a clothes retailer, grants customers a right to return any goods within three months of purchase for a full refund or an
exchange of goods for equivalent value, if undamaged. At the reporting date, sales made in the previous three months amount
to CU 1 million, with those goods costing Entity R CU 750,000. It has therefore made the following entries before accounting
for customers’ rights of return:
Dr Cash CU 1,000,000
Cr Revenue CU 1,000,000
Dr Cost of Sales CU 750,000
Cr Inventory CU 750,000
Entity R’s historical experience is that 8% (by sales value) of goods on average are returned, with a 90% confidence that
the value of goods that are returned will fall in the range of 6% to 10% of sales value. Therefore, Entity R’s best estimate is
that goods sold for CU 920,000 will not be returned (i.e. it estimates there will be a reversal of revenue recognised to date of
CU 80,000), even though in theory all of the goods sold for CU 1,000,000 could be returned. It further concludes that it is
highly probable that goods sold for CU 900,000 will not reverse (i.e. it is highly probable there will not be a significant reversal
in excess of CU 100,000).
Entity R applies the variable consideration requirements in IFRS 15 and processes the following accounting entries at the
reporting date.
Dr Revenue CU 100,000
Cr Refund liability CU 100,000
Dr Inventory to be returned CU 75,000
Cr Cost of Sales CU 75,000
Entity R separately considers whether the asset of CU 75,000, reflecting the cost of goods to be returned as a result of
customers exercising their right of return, is recoverable.
BDO comment
Paragraph B26 of IFRS 15 states that exchanges by customers of one product for another of the same type, quality, condition
and price (for example one colour or size for another) are not considered returns. Although goods might be returned, there is no
variability in the aggregate amount of revenue that will be received by the entity. This paragraph therefore ensures that those
entities which only give such restrictive rights of return do not need to apply the variable consideration requirements in IFRS 15.
In our view, where customers are granted a general right of return (i.e. there is no restrictions on what products store credits
can be used to purchase), there is no need to determine how any cash refund or store credit is subsequently used. If the
customer chooses to use the store credit to purchase a similar product (for example, a different coloured shirt), this is a second
transaction. However in other cases, where there are restrictions on the right of return, entities may be required to know to
what extent customers ultimately return goods for a product of the same type as opposed to taking cash, store credits, or
exchanging the returned goods for a different type of product. In the above example, therefore, had Entity R not offered
a general right of return, it would also need to know which customers ultimately return an item for one of the same type,
quality, condition and price. This would in turn lead to the refund liability (and associated adjustment to revenue for variable
consideration) being less that CU 100,000. The asset reflecting inventory to be returned (and associated adjustment to cost of
sales) would similarly be less than CU 75,000.
In cases where an entity needs to know the extent to which returned goods are exchanged for a product of the same type, it
may need to update its inventory systems to track this information. Determining whether such information must be tracked will
be a matter of judgment as the level of restriction placed on returns could vary.
When a vendor transfers products with a right of return, revenue is recognised only to the extent that the vendor expects to
be entitled to it. To determine the amount of consideration to which it expects to be entitled, a vendor:
–– Applies the guidance regarding constraining estimates of variable consideration;
–– Considers the nature of the products expected to be returned.
In subsequent periods the vendor updates:
–– Its assessment(s) of amounts to which it expects to be entitled in exchange for the transferred products;
–– The measurement of the refund liability at the end of each reporting period for changes in expectations about the
amount of refunds;
–– The measurement of the asset (i.e. so that it corresponds with changes in the measurement of the refund liability and any
impairment recognised).
Note that a vendor’s obligation to accept a returned product during the return period is not accounted for as a performance
obligation in addition to the obligation to provide a refund.
TRG discussions
Accounting for restocking fees and other related costs (Agenda Paper 35; July 2015)
Sometimes restocking fees are charged to customers when they return products to the entity. Most of the TRG members
agreed with the staffs’ view that these restocking fees and other related costs should be accounted for at the point at
which the product is transferred to the customer. This is because the sale of a product with restocking fees is similar to a
‘partial return right’.
5.4. Warranties
IFRS 15 distinguishes between two types of warranties:
–– Warranties that provide a customer with the assurance that the product will function as intended because it complies
with agreed-upon specifications. These warranties may be provided in accordance with the contract (and hence included
in the purchase price of the goods), required to be provided by law, or are provided in accordance with the vendor’s
customary business practices. They are accounted for in accordance with the guidance on product warranties included
within IAS 37 Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets and not as a separate performance obligation.
Therefore, a vendor recognises a provision for the expected costs of meeting their obligation under the warranty. If the
warranty provides the customer with a service in addition to the assurance that the product complies with agreed upon
specifications, then only that incremental service will be a performance obligation to which some of the transaction price
should be allocated;
–– Optional warranties that provide the customer with assurance that the product complies with agreed-upon specifications
for an extended period. These ‘extended warranties’ are accounted for as a separate performance obligation from the
related goods which have been sold. It is therefore necessary to allocate a portion of the transaction price to the warranty
in accordance with the requirements of IFRS 15.
In assessing whether a contract contains a service in addition to the assurance that the product complies with agreed-upon
specifications, judgment may be needed. A vendor considers factors such as:
–– Whether the warranty is required by law – if required by law then this indicates the warranty is not a separate
performance obligation;
–– The length of the warranty coverage period – the longer the coverage, the more likely it is that the promised warranty is a
performance obligation;
–– The nature of the tasks that the vendor promises to perform – if the vendor must perform specified tasks to provide the
assurance that a product complies with agreed-upon specifications (e.g. a return shipping service for a defective product),
then those tasks are unlikely to give rise to a performance obligation.
If a customer does not have an option to purchase a warranty separately, it is accounted for in accordance with IAS 37
unless part or all of that warranty provides the customer with a service in addition to an assurance that the good or services
complies with agreed-upon specifications.
BDO comment
In some cases, careful consideration will be needed of whether a warranty goes beyond providing assurance that a product
complies with agreed-upon specifications, and needs at least partially to be accounted for separately. For example, in some
jurisdictions car manufacturers include a warranty period which goes well beyond the period required by law, and is used as a
marketing tool to enhance sales.
TRG discussions
Warranties as performance obligations (Agenda Paper 29; March 2015)
The TRG considered how an entity should evaluate whether a product warranty is a separate performance obligation when the
warranty is not separately priced. As part of their deliberations they considered a warranty provided by a luggage company to
its customers in which it undertakes to repair or replace the luggage free of charge if it is damaged or broken. The staffs’ view
is that such a warranty would include a service because the luggage company is undertaking to fix any defect with the product
for an indefinite period, which goes beyond an assurance that the luggage will operate as intended. That is, the nature of the
vendor’s promise goes beyond providing assurance that the product complies with an agreed-upon specification.
The TRG generally agreed with this conclusion, although there was some debate around whether the absence of an expiry
date of the warranty provided in the luggage example was a more pervasive factor. Ultimately, it was generally agreed that
entities will need to consider the substance of any particular warranty and exercise judgement based on specific facts and
circumstances in concluding whether a warranty not separately priced contains a separate performance obligation that is a
service. That assessment is not necessarily limited to the three factors identified in IFRS 15.
BDO comment
Some warranties give the purchaser a right to compensation (i.e. a refund), rather than replacement or repair.
A question which then arises is whether a warranty that gives the customer a right to a refund for a defective product should be
accounted for as an assurance warranty in accordance with IAS 37, or as a right of return in accordance with IFRS 15 which will
give rise to variable consideration?
In our view, a customer’s right to return a defective item for a cash refund should be accounted for as a right of return as
discussed in Section 5.3 above. In many cases this will be a change in practice from how these refunds are accounted for under
current guidance, with many entities recognising a provision and associated cost for the profit that will reverse when the goods
are returned, rather than a reduction in revenue for the estimated refund and a separate asset for the original cost of goods that
will be returned.
IFRS 15 is clear that a warranty that provides the customer with a right to a refund should be accounted for as variable
consideration based on the definition of a right of return. This view is supported by IFRS 15’s Basis for Conclusions which states
at Paragraph BC367:
‘A return right gives an entity a contractual right to recover the good from a customer if the customer exercises its option
to return the good and obtain a refund.’
In addition, Paragraph BC376 states that:
‘…the Boards decided that an entity should recognise an assurance-type warranty as a separate liability to replace or
repair a defective product.’
This definition of an assurance-type warranty does not include defective products that are returned for a refund, but
only contemplates defective products that are replaced or repaired. When discussing warranties the Boards state in
Paragraph BC369 that:
‘…a unifying feature of all warranties is that an entity promises to stand ready to replace or repair the product in
accordance with the terms and conditions of the warranty…’
As a result, for goods that are sold with a warranty that gives the customer the right to return a defective product in return for a
refund will be subject to the guidance for variable consideration. This requires an estimate to be made of the amount of revenue
to which the vendor will be entitled which will be the gross amount for all goods less the amount of revenue attributable to the
items that are estimated to be returned. That is, no revenue is recognised for items expected to be returned.
When estimating the amount of revenue to which a vendor will be entitled, IFRS 15 restricts the amount of revenue that can be
recognised to an amount for which it is highly probable that there will not be a subsequent significant reversal in the cumulative
amount of revenue recognised when the subsequent uncertainty (in this case, the number of defective products returned
in exchange for a refund) is resolved. In estimating the amount of revenue, either an expected value approach (the sum of
probability weighted amounts for a portfolio of contracts for similar items) or the most likely amount approach (the single most
likely outcome of a contract) is required to be used. The approach selected is based on which is expected better to predict the
amount of consideration to which an entity will ultimately be entitled once the actual returns experience is known.
This means that no revenue is ultimately recognised for returned products for which a refund is made and any changes to the
estimated amount of refunds from one reporting period to the next are accounted for an upward or downward adjustment to
revenue. This is consistent with the accounting for variable consideration, which is similarly recorded as an adjustment to the
transaction price. Under existing guidance, the way in which these arrangements are accounted for varies and so some entities
will need to change their approach.
5.5. Principal vs. agent

When a third party is involved in providing goods or services to a customer, the vendor is required to determine whether the
nature of its promise is a performance obligation to:
–– Provide the specified goods or services itself (principal); or
–– Arrange for a third party to provide those goods or services (agent).
A vendor acting as principal controls a good or service before the vendor transfers the good or service to the customer. It
may satisfy a performance obligation by itself or engage another party (for example, a subcontractor) to satisfy some or
all of a performance obligation on its behalf. When a vendor, in its role as a principal, satisfies a performance obligation, it
recognises revenue at the gross amount. However, the vendor is not necessarily acting as a principal if the vendor obtains
legal title of a product only shortly before legal title is transferred to a customer.
The obligation of an agent is to arrange for the provision of goods or services by another third party. When a vendor
represents an agent, and satisfies a performance obligation, it recognises revenue as the amount of any fee or commission
to which it expects to be entitled. A vendor’s fee or commission might be the net amount of consideration that the vendor
retains after paying the third party the consideration received in exchange for the goods or services to be provided by that
party. A vendor acting as agent does not control the good or service before it is transferred to the principal’s customer.
Indicators that an entity is acting as principal include:
–– Having primary responsibility for fulfilling the promise to provide the specified good or service;
–– Assuming inventory risk before the specified good or service has been transferred to the customer or after transfer of
control to the customer (e.g. the customer has a right of return);
–– Having discretion in establishing the price for the specified good or service.
The relevance of each of these indicators depend on the nature of the specified good or service, and different indicators may
provide more evidence in different contracts.
BDO comment
In practice it is sometimes difficult to identify whether a vendor is acting as principal or agent. We expect those judgements to
continue to be challenging when accounting in accordance with IFRS 15. For example, transactions involving virtual goods and
services are often executed in milliseconds and involve multiple counterparties. Consequently, control over a virtual good may,
in some cases, transfer almost instantaneously.
It is likely that significant focus will need to be placed on the precise contractual terms of the arrangements to determine the
nature of the promises made (that is, what each party is providing) and the consideration payable to each party. This links to
the first of the five steps in IFRS 15, which is to identify the contract, including the goods or services to be transferred and the
payment terms.
TRG discussions
Principal vs. Agent (Agenda Paper 1; July 2014 and Clarifications to IFRS 15)
In connection with the guidance set out above, the TRG discussed a number of issues regarding Paragraphs B34-B38 (Principal
vs Agent considerations). Some stakeholders questioned whether control is always the basis for determining whether an entity
is a principal or an agent, and how the control principle and the indicators in Paragraph B37 work together. Other stakeholders
questioned how to apply the control principle to contracts involving intangible goods or services.
As a consequence of this, the IASB issued Clarifications to IFRS 15 in April 2016 to clarify the application of the control principle.
It amended Paragraphs B34-B38 of IFRS 15, Examples 45-48 accompanying IFRS 15 and added Examples 46A and 48a. The
FASB reached the same decisions as the IASB regarding the application of the control principle when assessing whether an
entity is a principal or an agent.
The TRG discussed at its July 2014 meeting whether certain types of billing to customers should be accounted for as revenues:
–– Shipping and handling fees;
–– Reimbursements of other out-of-pocket expenses;
–– Taxes collected from customers.
TRG members noted that the revenue standard provides sufficient guidance about determining the appropriate presentation of
amounts billed to customers and that an entity would therefore record the gross amount received from a customer unless the
entity is only collecting amounts on behalf of third parties. It is necessary to consider the principal and agent guidance to help
determine how to present these types of billings.
Shipping and handling fees (Agenda Paper 2; July 2014 and Amendments to Topic 606)
Some stakeholders in the US have expressed differing views about whether and when shipping and handling activities that
occur after the transfer of control to the customer should be accounted for as a promised service or as a fulfilment activity. The
FASB has made an amendment to Topic 606 to state explicitly that an entity is permitted (as an accounting policy choice) to
account for shipping and handling activities that occur before the customer obtains control of the related good as fulfilment
activities. The IASB has not made a similar amendment in order to avoid creating an exception to the revenue recognition
model.
Taxes (Agenda Paper 2; July 2014 and Clarifications to IFRS 15)

Due to the concerns expressed by some US stakeholders about the cost and complexity of assessing tax laws in each
jurisdiction, the FASB decided to permit entities an accounting policy choice either to include or exclude from the measurement
of the transaction price all taxes assessed by a governmental authority that are both imposed on and concurrent with a specific
revenue-producing transaction and collected from customers (for example, sales, use or value added taxes). The IASB has
decided not to provide a similar accounting policy choice under IFRS 15 and, consistent with current standards, sales taxes
included in the amounts charged to customers that are collected on behalf of governments are excluded from the transaction
price in Step 3.
5.6. Customer options for additional goods or services

Customer options to acquire additional goods or services (either free of charge or at a discount) come in many forms,
including sales incentives, customer award credits (or points), contract renewal options, or other discounts on future goods
or services. Such customer options give rise to a performance obligation in the contract when the option provides a material
right to the customer that it would not receive without entering into the contract. In those cases, the vendor is required to
defer the portion of payment received from its customer that relates to those future goods or services and recognise that
portion as revenue only when those future goods or services are transferred to the customer (or when the option expires).
The allocation is based on the relative stand-alone selling prices of the goods or services and, if the prices of the future
potential goods or services are not observable, they are estimated. This estimate takes into account any discount that the
customer would receive without exercising the option together with the likelihood that the option will be exercised.
Example
Entity P, a pizza restaurant chain, undertakes a promotion campaign giving customers a voucher entitling them to a
50% discount on their next purchase (valid until 30 June 20X8) if they spend more than CU 50 in a single transaction during
December 20X7. Entity P considers that each voucher issued grants the customer with a material right (i.e. a discount of
50% off their next purchase) and therefore constitutes a separate performance obligation to which revenue on each qualifying
meal sold should be allocated.
During December 20X7 Entity P issued 10,000 vouchers on sales of 600,000 (i.e. an average spend of CU 60). Total sales
during December 2017 were CU 700,000 as some customers spent less than CU 50 in a single transaction (generating sales of
CU 100,000 in total) and therefore did not receive a discount voucher.
Based on historical experience of recent similar promotions, Entity P anticipates 25% of customers receiving a voucher
will return and use the voucher during the first six months of 20X8, with the expected average spend to which the
discount will apply being CU 80. Entity P therefore estimates the standalone selling price of each voucher to be CU 10
(i.e. CU 80 x 50% x 25%).
Entity P therefore allocates the CU 60 received on each qualifying purchase during December 2016 as follows:
Revenue CU 60 x CU 60/(CU 60+CU 10) = CU 51.43
Consideration allocated to each voucher CU 10 x CU 10/(CU 60+CU 10) = CU 8.57
CU 60.00
Consequently, Entity P processes the following accounting entries in December 2017:
Dr Cash CU 700,000
Cr Revenue CU 614,300
Cr Deferred income CU 85,700
Assuming that there is no change in the number of vouchers that Entity P expects to be used, Entity P recognises the deferred
income as revenue on the earlier of:
–– The voucher being used; and
–– Expiry of the voucher (30 June 20X8).
TRG discussions
Accounting for a customer’s exercise of a material right (Agenda Papers 18 and 32; January and March 2015)
IFRS 15 does not provide explicit guidance on the accounting model to apply when such an option is exercised. The question
that arises is whether it should be:
–– Considered a continuation of the original contract whereby the additional consideration would be allocated to the material
right;
–– A contract modification, which could require consideration to be re-allocated between performance obligations; or
–– Treated as variable consideration.
TRG members considered that the option to exercise the material right should be viewed as a continuation of the contract, but
agreed with the staff view that it would be reasonable for an entity to account for it as either a continuation of the contract or
a contract modification. The possibility of treating the amount allocated to the material right as variable consideration was
rejected.
Assessment of whether an option gives rise to a material right (Agenda Paper 6; October 2014)
The TRG discussed two issues associated with the evaluation of whether customer options to acquire additional goods and
services give rise to a material right:
1) Whether the evaluation be performed only in the context of the current transaction or whether it should factor in past and
expected future transactions;
2) Whether the evaluation should consider qualitative as well as quantitative factors.
Most TRG members agreed that the evaluation should both:
–– Factor in past and future transactions as well as present ones; and
–– Consider qualitative factors (such as whether the right accumulates over time as happens with loyalty points).
Distinguishing options and variable consideration (November 2015)

Another question raised was how an entity should determine when a contract contains an option to purchase additional
goods and services or includes variable consideration based on a variable quantity. This question might arise, for example, in a
software company might grant 500 licenses to use software for a fixed fee of CU 500,000, with the price for additional users
being CU 800.
TRG members agreed that all facts and circumstances should be taken into account when analysing these kind of contracts and
that this analysis requires judgement. However, they concluded that the first step to distinguishing between optional goods or
services and variable consideration for promised goods or services is to identify:
–– The nature of the entity’s promise to the customer; and
–– The enforceable rights and obligations of the parties.
With an option for additional goods or services, the customer has a present right to choose to purchase additional distinct
goods or services (or change the goods and services to be delivered). Prior to the customer’s exercise of that right, the vendor is
not presently obligated to provide those goods or services and the customer is not obligated to pay for those goods or services.
In contrast, in the case of variable consideration for a promised good or service, the vendor and the customer previously entered
into a contract that requires the entity to transfer the promised good or service and the customer to pay for that promised good
or service. The future events that result in additional consideration occur after (or as) control of the goods or services have (or
are) transferred. When a contract includes variable consideration based on a customer’s actions, those actions do not oblige the
vendor to provide additional distinct goods or services (or change the goods or services to be transferred), but rather, resolve
the uncertainty associated with the amount of variable consideration that the customer is obligated to pay.
5.7. Renewal options

A renewal option is different from customer loyalty programmes and many discount vouchers. With loyalty programmes
and vouchers, the underlying goods or services in the contract with the customer will often have a different nature, and
accordingly they would be considered as separate deliverables rather than being similar to the original goods or services in
the original contract. A renewal option, in contrast, gives a customer the right to acquire additional goods or services of the
same type as those supplied under an existing contract.
If an entity grants a customer the option to acquire additional goods or services, that option only gives rise to a performance
obligation if it provides a material right to the customer that it would not receive without entering into that contract (for
example, a discount that is incremental to the range of discounts typically given). Similarly, an option to acquire additional
goods or services at a price that would reflect their stand-alone selling price also does not constitute a material right even if
it can be exercised only be entering into an earlier contract.
Example
Entity G operates gyms for its members. To become a member, a customer must pay a one-off upfront joining fee of CU 1,000
and an annual subscription fee. The joining fee therefore entitles the customer to renew the contract, i.e. an option to acquire
gym services in the future by paying the annual subscription. Entity G concludes that the renewal option (i.e. the right to
continue beyond Year 1 as a gym member) is not a separate performance obligation because it does not result in a material
right being given to a new member over and above the rights of existing members, i.e. all members – existing and new
members – have to pay the same annual subscription.
Entity G therefore assesses whether the joining fee relates to the transfer of a promised good or service on inception of the
customer’s membership and concludes that it does not. Instead, the joining fee is an advance payment for future gym services.
Entity G therefore recognises the CU 1,000 on a straight-line basis over the period it expects customers to remain as gym
members. The annual subscription fee is recognised over the annual period to which it relates.
BDO comment
In the above example, an alternative analysis could be that the upfront joining fee of CU 1,000 includes a material right –
namely that a customer is able to renew the contract on an annual basis in the future without paying the same fee. However,
the ultimate accounting would be unchanged. As the annual subscription fee is the same for both new and renewing members,
the relative standalone selling price of the upfront joining fee would also be CU 1,000. Entity G would similarly need to estimate
the period over which new members will exercise their renewal options, with the up-front fee recognised as revenue over that
period (i.e. as Entity G provides gym membership services to which the upfront joining fee relates).
If a renewal option does constitute a material right, as a practical alternative to estimating the stand-alone selling price of
the option, an entity can allocate the transaction price to the optional goods and services by reference to the goods and
services expected to be provided and the corresponding expected amount of consideration if the following two conditions
are met:
1. The additional goods or services are similar to the original goods or services in the contract (i.e. a vendor continues to
provide what it was already providing). Consequently, it is more intuitive to view the goods or services underlying such
options as part of the initial contract.
2. The additional goods or services are provided in accordance with the terms of the original contract. Consequently, the
vendor’s position is restricted because it cannot change those terms and conditions and, in particular, it cannot change
the pricing of the additional goods or services beyond the parameters specified in the original contract.
Example
Entity F, a professional football club, offers season tickets for the following season at a price of CU 5,000. As part of a
promotion drive it offers supporters the opportunity to buy a season ticket for the following season for CU 8,000, which
will also grant them those supporters the right to a 25% discount off the standard season ticket price for the subsequent
four seasons.
Entity F concludes that the practical expedient applies because:
–– The services to be provided in Seasons 2 to 5 are similar to the services to be provided in Season 1; and
–– The services to be provided in Seasons 2 to 5 will be provided in accordance with the terms of the contract (with no
contractual right to change or withdraw the 25% discount offer).
Consequently, for each season ticket sold for CU 8,000 Entity F recognises revenue CU 5,000 during Season 1 and allocates
CU 3,000 to customer renewal options rather than allocating amounts based on relative stand-alone selling prices.
See Section 5.8 below on ‘breakage’ dealing with when the CU 3,000 is recognised as revenue.
Accounting for early renewal rights

It is common for entities to offer non-cancellable contracts that provide the customer with the option to renew the contract
prior to contract expiry. This would be common in telecommunications industry and other industries where a product is sold
on day 1 of the contract with ongoing services to be provided over the contract period.
Example
Company X is in the telecommunications industry, and offers the following contract to customers:
–– 24 month non-cancellable contract which includes a device and a package of services;
–– Customers pay 24 equal monthly instalments. Company X allocates each instalment between the device and the services
on the same basis;
–– The contract states that the customer has an option to renew their contract at any time after 21 months without penalty (no
recovery is made of instalments that would have been made during the period from renewal up to the end of the original
24 month contract period);
–– The early renewal results in the customer obtaining a new device and the same services for a subsequent 24 months from
the renewal date;
–– The renewed contract is priced at the stand-alone selling price for that contract at the time that the customer exercises the
early renewal right.
The issue is how the customer’s option to renew early (prior to the full contract term of 24 months ending) should be accounted
for in accordance with IFRS 15.
The early renewal right was embedded in the rights and obligations agreed to by the parties at contract inception. Therefore
the early renewal option is not a contract modification because it is not an amendment to the original rights and obligations of
the parties. IFRS 15.18 states that:
‘A contract modification exists when the parties to the contract approve a modification that either creates new or
changes existing enforceable rights and obligations of the parties to the contract.’
The option to renew early affects the amount of consideration to which the entity expects to be entitled for the device
provided to the customer on day 1. This is because the amount of consideration could vary depending on when customers
exercise their option to renew. Consequently, the amount of consideration in respect of the device is variable consideration as
described in IFRS 15.51.
Company X will therefore need to estimate the amount of variable consideration to which it will be entitled, in accordance with
IFRS 15.56-59. This requires that variable consideration (in this case the monthly instalments between months 21 and 24) will
only be recognised as revenue to the extent that it is highly probable that there will not be a significant reversal in the amount
of cumulative revenue recognised when the uncertainty over the variable consideration is resolved.
In this case, the uncertainty will be resolved when it is known whether the customers will exercise their renewal rights early.
This will affect the allocation of monthly instalments between the handset (for which revenue will be recognised on inception
of the contract with a related receivable being settled through the partial allocation of future monthly instalments) and the
services (for which revenue will be recognised over the period of the contract, being the residual amount after deduction of the
amount allocated to the handset).
The amount of variable consideration that is taken into account will depend on the facts and circumstances in each case.
However, for a period of more than 21 months to be taken into account for part or all of the customer base, clear evidence
would be required of the expected pattern of exercise of the early renewal option.
5.8. Breakage (unexercised rights)

Breakage refers to situations where customers do not exercise all of their contractual rights to receive goods or services in the
future. Common examples include:
–– Forfeiting balances on gift cards;
–– Not claiming loyalty points or air miles; and
–– Non-refundable theatre and travel tickets, where the customer foregoes amounts paid in advance if they do not turn up.
When a vendor expects to be entitled to a breakage amount, it recognises revenue in proportion to the expected pattern
of rights that customers will exercise (i.e. by comparing the goods or services delivered to date with those expected to be
delivered overall). This increases the transaction price allocated to the individual goods or services transferred to include
revenue from the vendor’s estimate of unexercised rights.
When the vendor does not expect to be entitled to a breakage amount, it is recognised as revenue when the likelihood of
the customer exercising its remaining rights becomes remote. As with the variable consideration constraint, it would only
recognise breakage as revenue to the extent it was highly probable there would not be a significant reversal of that revenue.
Example (continued from Example in Section 5.7)

Entity F sells 10,000 season tickets for CU 8,000 each that grant supporters the right to a 25% discount in each of Seasons 2
to 5. At the start of Season 1 Entity F has therefore received a total of CU 80 million of which CU 50 million is recognised as
revenue in Season 1 and CU 30 million relates to supporters’ renewal options.
At the two extremes of potential outcomes:
–– If no supporter exercises their renewal option CU 80 million would have been received for Season 1; and
–– If every supporter exercises their renewal options for all of Seasons 2 to 5, then CU 7.5 million will be recognised as revenue
in each of Seasons 2 to 5 (i.e. a total of CU 30,000,000 or CU 750 per season ticket holder per season).
The contractual terms of the renewal option stipulate that if a supporter fails to renew a season ticket in any year, they lose
their right to the 25% discount in all subsequent seasons (e.g. if a season ticket holder renews at a 25% discount in Season 2,
but does not renew their season ticket in Year 3, they would lose their right to a 25% discount in Seasons 4 and 5.
At the start of Season 2, the price of a standard season ticket rises to CU 5,500. 800 supporters do not exercise their renewal
option and hence also forfeit rights to a 25% discount in Seasons 3 to 5. 9,200 supporters renew their season ticket at a price of
CU 4,125 being the standard price of CU 5,500 less the 25% discount.
Example (continued from Example in Section 5.7)

Scenario A
Entity F has no prior experience of offering such discounts to supporters and therefore cannot estimate whether it will be
entitled to any breakage. Consequently, it concludes that it cannot recognise any of the CU 30 million as breakage revenue
prior to knowing that supporters have forfeited their option (i.e. by not renewing their season ticket) as to do otherwise could
result in their being a significant reversal in future periods of the amount of breakage recognised. Therefore Entity F does not
recognise any revenue in Season 1 for breakage.
At the start of Season 2 Entity F recognises CU 2,400,000 as breakage (i.e. CU 750 x 800 x 4). This reflects that 800 supporters
have forfeited their renewal rights (valued at CU 750 per season for each of Seasons 2 to 5 inclusive) and is therefore accounted
for as additional revenue earned for services provided in Season 1. Entity F also recognises:
–– CU 6,900,000 during Season 2 (i.e. CU 750 x 9,200) reflecting that 9,200 supporters exercised their renewal right for
Season 2; and
–– CU 37,950,000 during Season 2 (i.e. CU 4,125 x 9,200) reflecting the amounts paid by those 9,200 supporters for the price
paid for the season ticket.
Scenario B
Entity F estimates based on past experience that 60% of supporters buying such season tickets will renew their season
ticket for all four subsequent seasons, with the remaining 40% relinquishing their renewal options broadly on a linear basis
(i.e. 10% or 1,000 supporters in each of the four seasons to which a discount is available). It therefore recognises breakage in
Year 1 of CU 4,812,500. This is calculated as follows:
Supporters Rights Value of Allocate Allocate Allocate Expected

not expected expected to breakage Season 2 Season 3 Season 4 attribution to
to renew in be forfeited breakage to breakage to breakage to each season
following at end of Seasons Seasons Seasons
Season season each season CU 1 and 2 1, 2 and 3 1, 2, 3 and 4 CU
1 1,000 4,000 3,000,000 1,125,000 500,000 187,500 4,812,500
2 1,000 3,000 2,250,000 1,125,000 500,000 187,500 1,812,500
3 1,000 2,000 1,500,000 500,000 187,500 687,500
4 1,000 1,000 750,000 187,500 187,500
5 n/a 0
Total 10,000 7,500,000 2,250,000 1,500,000 750,000 7,500,000
In Season 2, Entity F:
–– Recognises revenue of CU 6,900,000 for the 9,200 supporters who actually exercised their renewal right for season
(i.e. CU 750 x 9,200);
–– Recognises revenue of CU 37,950,000 reflecting the amounts paid by those 9,200 supporters for the price paid for the
season ticket (i.e. CU 4,125 x 9,200);
–– Reverses revenue of CU 600,000 to reflect the fact that in recognising breakage in Season 1 it overestimated by 200 the
number of supporters that would not exercise their renewal rights in Season 2 (i.e. CU 750 x 200 x 4); and
–– Re-assesses the rate of attrition for the 9,200 supporters over the remaining 3 seasons (i.e. a total of 27,600 renewal
options) and recognises breakage attributable to Seasons 1 and 2 accordingly.
BDO comment
In some cases, customers’ options may be perpetual and not have an expiration date (e.g. air miles often have no expiry date).
The question that arises in these cases is whether an entity should apply the guidance in IFRS 15 on unexercised rights.
In our view, an entity should apply the guidance on unexercised rights, subject to the guidance on constraining estimates of
variable consideration.
The guidance on options requires an entity to estimate the standalone selling price of the option at contract inception,
considering the likelihood that the option will be exercised. The guidance also requires an entity to recognise any change in the
likelihood that the option will be exercised when estimating the measure of progress of the performance obligation related to
the option.
As a result, the standalone selling price of the option is not updated; instead, the entity updates its estimate of the portion of
the option that will be redeemed. This results in the entity recognising revenue in proportion to the pattern or recognition of
other performance obligations in the contract.
Once the number of options expected to be exercised have actually been exercised, the entity would no longer recognise a
contract liability.
In situations where a single option exists and the portfolio approach is not or cannot be applied, the standalone selling price
of the option would still include the likelihood that the option will be exercised. The revenue related to the option would be
recognised when the option is exercised or when it is determined that the likelihood of the option being exercised becomes
remote.
Existing guidance is less prescriptive on this issue, and some entities may need to change their accounting approach.
5.9. Non-refundable upfront fees

A vendor may charge a customer a non-refundable upfront fee at (or near) contract inception, which may be related to an
activity that the vendor is required to undertake at (or near) contract inception in order to fulfil the contract (for example,
gym membership joining fees as discussed in Section 5.7 above). The vendor is required to determine whether the fee relates
to the transfer of a promised good or service, in order to identify the performance obligations within the contracts.
When the non-refundable upfront fee is not related to a performance obligation but to setup activities or other
administrative tasks, the non-refundable upfront fee is accounted for as an advance payment for future goods or services and
is therefore only recognised as revenue when those future goods or services are provided.
In practice, non-refundable upfront fees typically relate primarily to setup activities, and not to a performance obligation.
5.10. Licensing
A license establishes a customer’s rights over the intellectual property of a vendor, such as:
–– Software and technology;
–– Media and entertainment (e.g. motion pictures);
–– Franchises;
–– Patents, trademarks, and copyrights.
A contract to transfer (provide) a license to a customer may include obligations to provide other goods and services in
addition to the promised license. Those obligations may be specified in the contract or implied by the vendor’s customary
business practices, published policies or specific statements. The accounting treatment depends on whether or not the
license is ‘distinct’ from those other promised goods or services.
When the license is not distinct from those other goods or services , they are accounted for together as a single performance
obligation. This would be the case, for example, when the license forms a component of a tangible good and is integral to the
good’s functionality (for example, a software license which requires ongoing maintenance and upgrade services in order for
it to continue to operate), or it is a license that the customer can benefit from only in conjunction with a related service (for
example, a software hosting agreement on an internet site).
When the license is distinct from the other promised goods or services, the license is accounted for as a separate
performance obligation. Revenue is then recognised either at a point in time, or over time, depending on whether the nature
of the vendor’s promise in transferring the license to the customer is to provide that customer with either:
–– Access to the vendor’s intellectual property as it exists at any given time throughout the license period (i.e. the vendor
continues to be involved with its intellectual property); or
–– A right to use the vendor’s intellectual property as it exists at a point in time the license is granted.
A vendor continues to be involved with its intellectual property by undertaking activities that do not transfer goods or
services to the customer, but instead change its intellectual property to which the customer has rights. This applies if all of
the following criteria are met:
(i) The contract requires, or the customer reasonably expects, that the vendor will undertake activities that significantly
affect the intellectual property to which the customer has rights (that is, the intellectual property to which the customer
has rights is dynamic).
Factors that may indicate that a customer could reasonably expect that a vendor will undertake activities that will
significantly affect the intellectual property include:
–– The vendor’s customary business practices;
–– Published policies;
–– Specific statements;
–– The existence of a shared economic interest (e.g. a sales-based royalty) between the vendor and the customer
related to the intellectual property licensed to the customer.
(ii) The rights granted by the license directly expose the customer to any positive or negative effects of the vendor’s
activities that affect the intellectual property as and when the vendor undertakes those activities.
(iii) The vendor’s activities do not transfer a good or a service to the customer as those activities occur (that is, the activities
are not accounted for as performance obligations).
When all of the above criteria are met, a vendor accounts for the license as a performance obligation satisfied over time
because the customer will simultaneously receive and benefit from the vendor’s performance as the performance occurs. An
appropriate method is selected to measure the vendor’s progress toward complete satisfaction of its performance obligation
to provide access to the intellectual property.
When one or more of the criteria above are not met, the nature of the license is to transfer a right to access intellectual
property as it exists at the point at which the license is granted. Because the intellectual property to which the customer has
rights to is ‘static’ (i.e. is not affected by continuing involvement by the vendor), the right granted enables the customer to
direct the use of and obtain substantially all of the remaining benefits from the intellectual property in its form at the point
at which the license is granted to the customer. Therefore, the promise of a license that transfers a right is accounted for as
a performance obligation satisfied at a point in time. The point in time cannot be before control of the license is transferred
to the customer. This means that, if the vendor provides (or otherwise makes available) to the customer an access code that
is necessary to enable the customer to access or use licensed software, the vendor would not recognise revenue until the
access code has been made available, even though the license period could have started at an earlier date.
When determining the type of license that has been granted (intellectual property as it exists at any point during the license
period or as it exists at the point at which the license is granted), the following factors are disregarded:
–– Restrictions of time, geography, or use. This is because these restrictions define the attributes of the promised license,
rather than define whether the vendor satisfies its performance obligation at a point in time or over time;
–– Guarantees provided by the vendor that it has a valid patent to intellectual property and that it will defend that patent
from unauthorised use. A promise to defend a patent right is not a performance obligation because it protects the value
of the vendor’s intellectual property asset and provides the customer with assurance that the license transferred meets
the related contractual specifications.
Clarifications to IFRS 15
The TRG discussed issues relating to the application of the licensing guidance in IFRS 15. Those issues related to:
–– Determining the nature of the entity’s promise in granting a license of intellectual property;
–– The scope and applicability of the sales-based and usage-based royalties exception;
–– The effect of contractual restrictions in a license on identifying the performance obligations in the contract; and
–– When the guidance on determining the nature of the entity’s promise in granting a license applies.
As a consequence of these discussions the IASB clarified the application guidance on licensing and the accompanying
Illustrative Examples.
Except for the scope and applicability of the sales-based and usage-based royalty exception, the FASB reached different
conclusions on these issues. Consequently, for a limited number of arrangements, it is possible that the accounting under
IFRS and US GAAP will differ.
Activities affecting the intellectual property

To clarify when an entity’s activities significantly affect the intellectual property to which the customers has rights, the IASB has
added Paragraph B59A to IFRS 15, which states the following:
An entity’s activities significantly affect the intellectual property to which the customer has rights when either:
a) Those activities are expected to significantly change the form (for example, the design or content) or the
functionality (for example, the ability to perform a function or task) of the intellectual property to which the
customer has rights; or
b) The ability of the customer to obtain benefit from the intellectual property is substantially derived from, or
dependent upon, those activities. For example, the benefit from a brand is often derived from, or dependent upon,
the entity’s ongoing activities that support or maintain the value of the intellectual property.
Accordingly, if the intellectual property to which the customer has rights has significant stand-alone functionality,
a substantial portion of the benefit is derived from that functionality. Consequently, the ability of the customer to
obtain benefit from that intellectual property would not be significantly affected by the entity’s activities unless
those activities change its form or functionality. Types of intellectual property that often have significant stand-alone
functionality include software, biological compounds or drug formulas, and completed media content (for example,
films, television shows and music recordings).
Example
A vendor grants a franchise license to a customer, which provides the right to use the vendor’s trade name and sell its products
for a period of 10 years. During this period, the vendor will undertake activities that will affect the franchise license, including
analysing changes in customer preferences, implementing product improvements and undertaking marketing campaigns.
The nature of the vendor’s promise to its customer is to provide access to the vendor’s intellectual property in its form as it
exists throughout the license period, and not only as it exists at the start of the license period. Consequently, the performance
obligation is satisfied over time.
Example
A vendor (a music record label) licenses a specified recording of a Beethoven symphony to a customer for a period of two years.
The customer has the right to use the recording in all types of advertising campaigns (including television, radio and online
media) in a specified country. The contract is non-cancellable and the customer is required to pay CU 10,000 per month.
The nature of the vendor’s promise to its customer is to provide access to the recording in its condition as at the start of the
license period. Consequently, the customer’s rights to the intellectual property are static and the vendor’s performance
obligation is satisfied at a point in time.
The vendor recognises all of the revenue (adjusted for a significant financing component, if appropriate) at the point at which
the customer is able to use, and obtain substantially all the benefits, of the licensed intellectual property.
TRG discussions
Intellectual property sales (Agenda Paper 45; November 2015)
The following topics related to licenses of Intellectual Property (IP) were discussed:
–– The accounting for renewals of right-to-use licenses (revenue accounted for at a point in time);
–– The accounting for license restrictions in terms of time, geography or usage.
Most of the TRG members agreed that further clarification was needed in respect of how to account for license restrictions and
whether time-based restrictions should be addressed differently from other restrictions.
The following examples were discussed:
Example 1
Renewal of a right-to use license (revenue recognised at a point in time)
A licensor and a customer enter into a multi-year software arrangement. Before the end of the initial license period, it is
renewed and extended for an additional multi-year period.
The staffs concluded that the licensor should recognise revenue for the renewal when it is agreed with the customer (i.e.
before the end of the end of the initial license), because no additional performance is required from the licensor. Instead the
renewal is a change to an attribute of the license that the customer controls.
Example 2
Right-to-use license containing additional rights that the customer obtains over the contract period
In this example the licensor grants the customer the right to use its patent to manufacture a product for a multi-year period.
During the first ‘x’ years covered by the contract the customer can only commercialise the product in a specific geographical
area. From that point in time onwards, the product can be commercialised in other regions as well.
The staffs concluded that the customer is granted two distinct licenses because the right to commercialise the product in
one region is distinct from the right to commercialise it in other regions. Therefore, the licensor recognises revenue for the
second performance obligation when the rights are made available to the customer.
Some TRG members did not agree with the staffs’ views, due to a potential conflict with other guidance in the standard.
Amendments to Topic 606
Some differences in comparison with IFRS have arisen from the FASB addressing licensing issues in its amendments to
Topic 606.
The differences are as follows:
–– Determining the nature of the entity’s promise in granting a license of intellectual property
The FASB decided to amend the criteria to determine the nature of a license by requiring an entity to classify the intellectual
property underlying the license as functional or symbolic based on whether the intellectual property has significant stand-
alone functionality. A license to functional intellectual property is considered a right to use, while a license to symbolic
intellectual property is considered a right to access the underlying intellectual property. The IASB has not made similar
amendments to the criteria in IFRS 15 for the purposes of determining the nature of the license.
–– Contractual restrictions in a license and the identification of performance obligations
Topic 606 has been amended to clarify that the requirements about contractual restrictions of the nature described in
Paragraph B62 do not replace the requirement for the entity to identify the number of licenses promised in the contract.
The IASB has not made similar amendments to IFRS 15.
–– Renewals of licenses of intellectual property
The FASB has included an additional example in the Standard to specify that an entity would not generally recognise
revenue from the transfer of a license renewal until the beginning of the license renewal period. The IASB has not made
similar amendments.
–– When to consider the nature of an entity’s promise in granting a license
Unlike the IASB, the FASB has decided to make amendments that explicitly state that an entity considers the nature of its
promise in granting a license when applying the general revenue recognition model to a single performance obligation that
includes a license and other goods or services.
5.11. Sales-based or usage-based royalties

When an entity earns royalties based on the extent to which a customer uses or benefits (through onward sales) from a
license of IP, it has transferred control of the IP to its customer, with uncertainty over the amount of consideration (i.e. the
consideration is variable). As an exception to the general principles in IFRS 15 that revenue is recognised when control of a
good or service has been transferred to a customer and measured at an amount to which it expects to be entitled, royalties
earned from sales- or usage-based licenses of intellectual property are recognised only at the later of the following:
–– The subsequent sale or usage occurs; and
–– The performance obligation to which some or all of the sales- or usage-based royalty has been allocated has been
satisfied (or partially satisfied).
The interaction of this restriction, and the requirement to consider stand-alone selling prices when allocating consideration
to multiple performance obligations in a contract, can lead to patterns of revenue recognition which differ from amounts
stated in contracts. This arises, for example, in cases where two or more licenses over intellectual property that are to be
transferred to a customer at different times are included in a single overall contract, and the prices specified in the contract
do not reflect the stand-alone selling prices of the licenses. The approach required by IFRS 15 is designed to ensure that the
timing and profile of revenue recognition is not affected by what might be considered to be artificial price allocations in
contracts. See the example in Section 4.4 ‘Allocation of variable consideration’ above.
BDO comment
The term ‘royalty’ is not defined, and there are some cases where it is not clear whether a payment structure results in the sales-
or usage- based royalty exception being applied. Certain payment terms may be ‘in-substance’ sales or usage based royalties,
even if the contract does not label the payments as royalties. In addition there are situations where the amount of consideration
is similar to a bonus and depends on the customer’s subsequent sales or usage, even though the amount is not calculated on the
basis of each sale or usage. For example:
–– An entity licenses IP in exchange for a payment of CU 10 million if cumulative sales of the licensee’s products making use of
the IP exceeds CU 100 million over a specified five year period.
–– An entity licenses IP in exchange for ‘stepped’ payments. This might be no royalty if the sales of the licensee’s products
making use of the IP are between CU 1 and 10 million, a royalty of 1% of sales between CU 10 million and CU 25 million and
a royalty of 2% of sales above CU 25 million.
In our view, the exception does apply to these situations (unless the ‘license’ is in fact an in-substance sale of the IP – see further
comment and example below) because the consideration is based on the sales to the customer’s customer even though it might
not be described as a royalty. This follows from the discussion in the Basis for Conclusions to IFRS 15, which at Paragraph BC415
states:
‘The boards decided that for a license of intellectual property for which the consideration is based on the customer’s
subsequent sales or usage, an entity should not recognise any revenue for the variable amounts until the uncertainty is
resolved (that is, when a customer’s subsequent sales or usage occurs).’
This supports the Boards’ intention to apply the exception to consideration that relates to licenses of IP and is based on
the customer’s subsequent sales or usage regardless of whether it is labelled as a royalty or whether it is structured so that
consideration accumulates evenly over all sales or usage.
Care should be taken, to ensure this view is not being applied to contract clauses that have no economic substance (i.e. the
payment is fixed and does not vary based on usage).
IFRS 15.BC421 also notes that:
‘…The boards also noted that because this is a specific requirement intended for only limited circumstances, entities
should not apply it by analogy to other types of promised goods or services or other types of variable consideration.’
This clarifies that the board is making a distinction between consideration that is based on sales or usage, and other forms of
variable consideration (for example, an arrangement where the vendor may receive a performance based bonus).
BDO comment
Some arrangements that are licenses in legal form are currently accounted for as ‘in-substance sales’. Such arrangements
are common in industries such as pharmaceuticals, where legal title to the IP may be retained by the vendor. The effect is
that, although a transaction is described in the legal documents as being a license, in reality it is a sale of the IP under which
substantive control has been transferred to the customer.
In our view, the requirements in IFRS 15 dealing with sales and usage based royalties in exchange for a license of IP do not apply
to outright sales of IP. Therefore it should also not apply to what are genuinely ‘in substance sales’. This view reflects ‘substance
over form’ and faithfully represents the economic substance of the transaction.
The determination of whether a licensing arrangement is an ‘in substance sale’ is a matter of judgement. Therefore an entity
should also consider the requirements of IAS 1 Paragraph 122 related to disclosure of significant judgements. It is important
to note that under for a sale to be recognised under IFRS 15, control of the IP must be transferred. Looking only at risks
and rewards is not sufficient to conclude that the arrangement is an ‘in substance sale’. It should also be noted that if the
arrangement is determined to be an ‘in-substance sale’ and an asset was previously recognised related to the IP, the related
asset or a portion of that asset would also need to be derecognised.
Note that due to differences in the wording of the Basis for Conclusions, differences between the application of US GAAP and
IFRS may exist. For US GAAP purposes, Paragraph BC78(b) of ASU 2016-10 states that an entity should not discern whether
a license to intellectual property is an ‘in substance sale’ of that intellectual property in deciding whether or not the royalties
exception applies. The wording in IFRS 15 is not as explicit and therefore treating a ‘legal license’ as an ‘in substance sale’ may
be possible. The following example highlights the potential difference between IFRS and US GAAP.
Example
BIOTECH and PHARMA entered into a license, development and commercialisation agreement for Drug X, a Phase III-ready
drug candidate for the treatment of cancer and other potential indications. Under the terms of the agreement, PHARMA
will get exclusive perpetual worldwide rights, including manufacturing and commercialisation rights, and will be responsible
for funding the global development of Drug X. As compensation for such grant of rights, BIOTECH will receive payments of
$ 20 million, comprised of a $ 15 million upfront payment and a $ 5 million payment upon dosing of the first patient in the
upcoming Phase III study of Drug X in newly diagnosed patients unfit to receive induction therapy. In addition, BIOTECH will
be eligible to receive up to $ 500 million in sales-based milestone payments, along with additional tiered royalty payments
in selected territories.
US GAAP Analysis
Based on Paragraph BC78(b) of ASU 2016-10 BIOTECH should not attempt to determine whether a license is an in-
substance sale. The legal form of the arrangement is license of intellectual property therefore the sales and usage based
royalty exception would apply.
IFRS Analysis
BIOTECH would have to determine if control of the intellectual property has been transferred to PHRAMA. Given this
arrangement provides for the worldwide rights to the intellectual property in perpetuity, the conditions in Paragraph 38 of
IFRS 15 have been met and the license agreement is an in-substance sale of the intellectual property. As a result the sales
and usage based royalty exceptions would not apply. The milestone and royalty payments would be treated as variable
consideration.
BDO comment
Royalty revenue can only be recognised once the subsequent sale or usage and related performance have both occurred. This
exception applies regardless of whether the underlying license provides a ‘right to access’ to an entity’s IP, or a ‘right to use’ an
entity’s IP as it exists at a point in time. IFRS 15 also requires that performance obligations satisfied over time in accordance
with Paragraphs 35-37 are recognised by measuring the progress towards satisfaction of that performance obligation. The
objective when measuring progress is to depict an entity’s performance in transferring control of goods or services promised to
a customer (i.e. the satisfaction of an entity’s performance obligation).
However, in some licenses that provide a customer with a right to access an entity’s IP over time, royalty rates are not
necessarily constant over the license term. A question therefore, arises as to whether the requirement to recognise royalties at
the rate specified in a contract takes precedence over the requirement to measure revenue by reference to the entity’s progress
towards satisfying a performance condition.
In our view, it does not take precedence. It only overrides the requirement to constrain variable consideration.
Example
A vendor enters into a non-cancellable license agreement for a five year period in exchange for a small amount of fixed
consideration plus a sales-based royalty and determines that the license gives its customer the right to access the entity’s
intellectual property as it may exist from time to time throughout the license period, and not at the point in time when the
license was granted. The entity estimates that:
–– The customer sales on which the royalty is based will be approximately equal for each of the five years under license; and
–– Any activities undertaken by the entity affecting its intellectual property will be performed on an even and continuous
basis throughout the license period.
The licensee agrees to the following royalty rates: Year 1: 10%, Year 2: 8%, Year 3: 6%, Year 4: 4% Year 5: 2%.
Following the legal form of the royalty (i.e. recognising royalty rates of 10% in Year 1, 8% in Year 2, etc.) would not
appropriately depict progress in satisfying the entity’s performance obligation for providing access to its intellectual
property as it may exist from time to time throughout the license period. Although the requirement to recognise royalties on
the later of:
(i) When the sale or usage occurs; and
(ii) Satisfaction of the performance obligation to which the royalty relates sets a limit on the maximum amount of revenue
that can be recognised, it does not mean that the maximum royalty receivable should necessarily be recognised.
The entity also needs to consider whether it is required to defer royalty income to ensure it continues to comply with the
requirement to measure revenue based on performance to date. Therefore the vendor decides it should initially apply an
average expected royalty rate of 6%. It re-assesses this estimate on a regular basis throughout the license period to ensure
the rate applied remains appropriate.
In some contracts an IP license is offered with other goods or services in a contract (e.g. software licenses with post-contract
customer support, franchise licenses with training services, biotechnology and pharmaceutical licenses sold with research
and development services or a promise to manufacture a drug for the customer), with the consideration again being in the
form of a sales- or usage based royalty. In some of those contracts the license and other goods or services are distinct and in
other cases they are not distinct.
Whether or not the other goods or services are distinct from the license IFRS 15 clarifies that the requirement to recognise
royalties on the later of (i) when the sale or usage occurs and (ii) satisfaction of the performance obligation to which
the royalty relates applies to arrangements for which the license is the predominant item. When the license is not the
predominant item, the royalty income represents variable consideration which needs to be estimated (and constrained), and
would then be allocated to each performance condition (including the license) based on relative standalone selling prices.
The revenue allocated to each performance condition would then be recognised at a point in time or over time depending on
when control of the good or service is transferred to the customer.
The requirement to recognise royalty income on the later of (i) when the sale or usage occurs and (ii) satisfaction of the
performance obligation to which the royalty relates would apply, however, when a single license is not the predominant item
to which the royalty relates, but the royalty predominantly relates to two or more licenses promised in a contract.
Although the FASB added an example to Topic 606 to illustrate when a license is the predominant item to which a royalty
relates, the IASB decided that no further guidance on the term ‘predominant’ was needed in IFRS 15 because stakeholders
feedback suggests that the term can be applied in practice.
BDO comment
In some licenses for intellectual property that pay a sales- or usage-based royalty, the royalties receivable are subject to a
guaranteed minimum amount. The pattern of revenue recognition depends on whether the license meets the criteria for
recognition at a point in time or over time (see Section 5.10 above). When the license meets the criteria for point-in-time
revenue recognition, the fixed guaranteed minimum should be recognised when the performance obligation is satisfied, i.e.
when the license is transferred to the customer. This treatment would be consistent with treatment for a license that is provided
on a fixed fee basis.
When the license meets the criteria for over time revenue recognition, entities will need to consider the facts and circumstances
and apply judgement to determine an appropriate approach that depicts progress towards the satisfaction of the performance
obligation. In determining the pattern of revenue recognition factors to consider include:
–– What is the appropriate measure of progress, time or the underlying sales or usage?
–– Is the guaranteed minimum substantive?
–– Are the royalties expected to exceed the guaranteed minimum?
Example
A licensor enters into a five year arrangement to license intellectual property (IP). The license requires the customer to
pay a sales based royalty of 5% of the customer’s gross sales associated with the IP with a minimum guaranteed amount is
CU 5 million. Over the term of the license the expected royalties are:
Year 1 CU 750
Year 2 CU 1,500
Year 3 CU 2,000
Year 4 CU 1,000
Year 5 CU 3,000
Total CU 8,250
In each of the scenarios below, it is assumed actual royalties received in each year equal the above expected royalties.
Scenario A – Point in time

If the license meets the criteria for recognition at a point in time, i.e. when the license is transferred to the licensee, the licensor
recognises revenue as follows:
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5

Royalties Received 750 1,500 2,000 1,000 3,000
Cumulative Royalties 750 2,250 4,250 5,250 8,250
Annual Revenue 5,000 - - 250 3,000
Cumulative Revenue 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,250 8,250
Example (continued)
Scenario B – Over time
If the license meets the criteria for recognition over time, the licensor applies judgement in light of the specific facts and
circumstances, with a number of potential approaches. Under the first approach, the licensor recognises the royalty as revenue
as the customer’s gross sales associated with the IP occur. This approach is based on the underlying sales/usage being the
appropriate measure on which to recognise revenue and results in annual revenue equaling the amount of royalties received
each year. It is only appropriate when the royalties are expected to exceed the minimum guarantee.

Annual Revenue 750 1,500 2,000 1,000 3,000
Cumulative Revenue 750 2,250 4,250 5,250 8,250
Under the second approach, the licensor estimates the transaction price for the performance obligation (including fixed and
variable consideration) and recognises revenue using an appropriate measure of progress, subject to the royalty constraint. This
approach is based on time being the appropriate measure on which to recognise revenue, and like the first approach, is only
appropriate when royalties are expected to exceed the minimum guarantee. It requires periodic reassessment of the estimate
of total consideration and, if appropriate, an update to the measure of progress. This will result in periodic cumulative catch-up
adjustments to revenue. Under this approach CU 1,650 (the expected total of CU 8,250 over five years) will be recognised each
year, subject to the constraint which results in only CU 300 being recognised in Year 4.

Annual Revenue 1,650 1,650 1,650 300 3,000
Under the third approach, the licensor recognises the minimum guarantee (fixed consideration) using an appropriate measure
of progress and recognises royalties only when cumulative royalties exceed the minimum guarantee. Assuming time is the
measure of progress, CU 1,000 (CU 5,000 over five years) will be recognised each year. Royalties in excess of the CU 5,000 are
recognised in the year received, which result in the additional CU 250 and CU 3,000 recognised in Years 4 and 5.

Annual Revenue 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,250 4,000
5.12. Repurchase agreements

A repurchase agreement arises when a vendor sells an asset to a customer and is required, or has an option, to repurchase
the asset. The asset itself could be the same one as was originally sold to the customer, one which is substantially the same,
or another (larger) asset that includes as a component the asset which was originally sold. Typically the arrangements come
in the following three forms:
1. The vendor has an obligation to repurchase, and the customer an obligation to sell back, the asset (a forward contract);
2. The vendor has a call option, giving it a right but not an obligation to repurchase the asset; and
3. The customer has a put option, giving it the right but not an obligation to sell back the asset.
In the first two types of arrangement (a forward and a vendor call option), the customer is limited in its ability to direct the
use of and obtain substantially all of the remaining benefits from the asset, meaning that it does not obtain control of the
asset. Therefore the vendor does not recognise any revenue from the sale and instead, depending on the contractual terms,
the contract is accounted for as either a lease or a financing arrangement. To determine in which of these two ways the
vendor accounts for the transaction it compares the repurchase price of the asset with its original selling price, taking into
account the effects of the time value of money.
If the repurchase price is lower than the original selling price of the asset, the contract is accounted for as a lease in
accordance with IAS 17 Leases or, for accounting periods beginning on or after 1 January 2019, IFRS 16 Leases, unless the
contract is part of a sale and leaseback transaction. If it is part of a sale and leaseback transaction, the vendor must continue
to recognise the asset and also recognise a financial liability (accounted for in accordance with IFRS 9 Financial Instruments
for any consideration received from the customer).
If the repurchase price is greater than or equal to the original selling price of the asset, the contract is accounted for as a
financing arrangement and, therefore, the vendor recognises a financial liability for any consideration received from the
customer and continues to recognise the asset. The difference between the amount of consideration received from the
customer and the amount of consideration to be paid to the customer on repurchase is interest and, if applicable, processing
or holding costs (e.g. insurance). When the repurchase agreement is a vendor call option rather than a forward and the
option lapses unexercised, the vendor derecognises the liability and recognises revenue.
In the third situation (i.e. a customer put option), the accounting also depends on the relationship between the repurchase
price of the asset and the original selling price of the asset.
If the repurchase price of the asset is lower than the original selling price of the asset, then at contract inception the
vendor considers whether the customer has a significant economic incentive to exercise its right. This may be the case if,
for example, the asset’s repurchase price is expected to significantly exceed its market value in the period the put option
becomes exercisable. If the customer does have an economic incentive to exercise the put option then it does not obtain
control of the asset and the agreement is accounted for as a lease (unless the contract is part of a sale and leaseback
transaction, in which case the contract is accounted for as a financing arrangement in the same way as a forward or vendor
call option).
If the customer does not have a significant economic incentive to exercise its option, the customer obtains control of the
asset and the vendor accounts for the transaction as a sale with a right of return. This means the transaction price is variable
and so the amount of revenue is only recognised to the extent that it is highly probable it will not reverse, i.e. revenue is only
recognised to the extent it is highly probable the put option will not be exercised. Section 5.3 above discusses sales with a
right of return in more detail.
BDO comment
The effects of this part of IFRS 15 may be significant in some industry sectors. For example, in many jurisdictions cars are sold
to customers together with the right for the customer to require the vendor to repurchase the cars for a specified price after
a period of between two and four years. Careful consideration of the exercise price of these customer put options will be
required, as well as identifying the various parties to the contractual arrangements. This includes whether the vendor or an
unrelated third party finance company grants the put option and, if the latter, whether there are any associated contractual
arrangements between the vendor and that third party finance company.
Example
A manufacturer of industrial equipment (Entity X) enters into a sales contract with a customer, under which it sells
equipment with a production cost of CU 500 to the customer for a sales price of CU 750.
The customer is granted a contractual right to return the equipment to Entity X after two years in exchange for a
predetermined amount of CU 450 (the repurchase price). The fair value of the equipment after two years is expected to be
in the range of CU 425 to CU 475 with a linear distribution of expected values (that is, the mean of the various estimates
is CU 450). The present value of the repayment obligation, discounted at Entity X’s incremental borrowing rate of 6%,
is CU 400.
The expected useful life of the equipment is five years.
At contract inception:
–– The repurchase price of CU 450 is less than the original sales price of CU 750; and
–– The customer does not have a significant economic incentive to exercise the right of return because the repurchase price
is not significantly in excess of the expected market value of the equipment.
Consequently, Entity X accounts for the transaction as a sale with a right of return. This means that Entity X will only
recognise revenue of CU 750 and derecognise its asset (the equipment) of CU 500 with an associated cost of sales, if it
considers that it is highly probable that the customer will not exercise its option to require Entity X to repurchase the asset.
This is likely to require consideration of past practice with other similar transactions and any other available evidence.
If Entity X has experience with other similar transactions (and, potentially, other supporting evidence), the transaction may
be recorded as a sale. The accounting entry would be:
Dr Cash 750
Dr Cost of Sales 500
Cr Inventory 500
Cr Revenue 750
5.13. Consignment arrangements

A vendor may deliver a product to another party, such as a dealer or retailer which will sell the product to its own end
customers. In these circumstances, the vendor is required to assess whether the other party has obtained control of the
product. If the other party has not obtained control, the product may be held in a consignment arrangement. A vendor does
not recognise revenue on delivery of a product to another party which is held on consignment.
The following indicates the existence of a consignment arrangement:
–– The product is controlled by the vendor until a specified event occurs (e.g. sale of the product to a customer of the dealer
or retailer, or until a specified period expires);
–– The vendor is able to require the return of the product or transfer the product to a third party (e.g. transfer to another
dealer or retailer); and
–– The dealer or retailer does not have an unconditional obligation to pay for the product, even if it is required to pay a
deposit.
5.14. Bill-and-hold arrangements

Bill-and-hold arrangements involve the vendor invoicing a customer for goods, but instead of delivering them to the
customer, the vendor retains physical possession with the goods being shipped or delivered to the customer at a later
date. A customer might request this type of arrangement if, for example, it does not have sufficient space of its own to
accommodate the product. The effect is that in addition to selling the product, the vendor provides a custodial service.
In addition to evaluating whether control of the goods has transferred to the customer in the same way as for any other sale
(or performance obligation) to be recognised at a point in time, all of the following criteria are required to be met for the
vendor to recognise revenue:
–– The reason for the bill and hold arrangement must be substantive (for example, the arrangement might be requested by
the customer because of a lack of physical space to store the goods);
–– The product must be identified separately as belonging to the customer (that is, it cannot be used by the supplier to
satisfy other orders);
–– The product must currently be ready for physical transfer to the customer;
–– The vendor cannot have the ability to use the product, or to direct it to another customer.
BDO comment
The criteria in IFRS 15 for bill and hold arrangements are not the same as in current standards. Therefore, some types of bill
and hold arrangements on which revenue has historically been recognised may no longer qualify for revenue recognition until
delivery to the customer.
Careful consideration of the terms of bill and hold arrangements will also be needed to determine whether there are additional
performance obligations (e.g. for custodial services) to which some of the transaction price for the sale of goods should be
allocated.
5.15. Customer acceptance

If a customer accepts an asset, this may indicate that control over the asset has passed to the customer. However,
contractual arrangements typically include clauses which enable the customer to require the vendor to take action if the
asset does not meet its contractually agreed upon specifications, and might allow the customer to cancel the contract.
If a vendor can demonstrate that an asset that has been transferred to a customer meets the contractually agreed upon
specifications, then customer acceptance is considered to be a formality that is not taken into account when determining
whether control over the asset has passed to the customer. For example, if the sale of an asset is subject to it meeting certain
size and weight specifications, the vendor would typically be able to confirm whether these had been met when the asset
is delivered to the customer. However, if the vendor recognises revenue in advance of receiving customer acceptance, the
vendor is required to consider whether there are any other performance obligations that have not yet been fulfilled.
If the vendor is not able to determine that the asset that has meets the contractually agreed upon specifications, then
control over the asset does not transfer to the customer until the vendor has received the customer’s acceptance. In addition,
if products are delivered to a customer for trial purposes, and the customer has no commitment to pay any consideration
until the trial period has ended, control of the asset does not pass to the customer until the earlier of the point at which the
customer accepts the asset or the trial period ends.
5.16. Treatment of onerous contracts

IFRS 15 Revenue from Contracts with Customers does not contain specific guidance for onerous contracts, and instead refers
to IAS 37 Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets (IFRS 15.5).
IAS 37 does not provide any guidance on how to combine or segment contracts, while IFRS 15 provides significant guidance
on these topics.
In addition IAS 37.68 specifies that onerous contracts need to be assessed taking into consideration economic benefits to be
received. IAS 37 does not define these economic benefits, including contracts which contain variable consideration, while for
those contracts IFRS 15.56-58 constrain the amount of variable consideration that can be recognised.
When assessing onerous contracts in accordance to IAS 37, an initial question is whether that might arise is whether the unit
of account is the contract as a whole or the performance obligations identified through the application of IFRS 15.
Because IAS 37 refers to contracts, the unit of account is the contract as a whole and not the individual performance
obligations. Consequently, a provision would not be recognised for a contract with multiple performance obligations, in
which one performance obligation was onerous but the overall contract was not. However, it is possible that two or more
contracts would need to be combined into a single unit of account.
The contract level unit of account is consistent with IFRS 15, which clearly distinguishes between a contract and performance
obligations in a contract. However if two or more contracts are entered into at or near the same time with the same
customer (or related parties of the customer) and they meet one of the following criteria from IFRS 15.17, the contracts
should be combined for the purposes of both IFRS 15 and IAS 37:
–– The contracts are negotiated as a package with a single commercial objective;
–– The amount of consideration to be paid in one contract depends on the price or performance of the other contract; or
–– The goods or services promised in the contracts are a single performance obligation.
An additional question, for the purposes of assessing onerous contracts in accordance with IAS 37 is whether variable
payments should be subject to the variable consideration constraint in accordance with the requirements of IFRS 15.
For this issue, there is no requirement in IAS 37 that requires the revenue recognition constraint in IFRS 15 to be applied
when a contract gives rise to variable consideration. IFRS 15 does not apply to an assessment of onerous contracts (instead
referring to IAS 37), meaning that for the purposes of IAS 37 the definition of ‘economic benefits to be received’ is interpreted
more widely. This means that for the purposes of accounting for an onerous contract in accordance with IAS 37, all expected
revenues are included. This is in contrast to the constraint in IFRS 15, which permits revenue from a contract which gives rise
to variable consideration to be recognised only when it is highly probable that there will not be a subsequent reversal in the
amount of revenue which has been recognised to date.
Example
A professional services company has entered into a contract with its customer and identified two distinct performance
obligations (POs), which meet the conditions for recognising revenue over time. Total contract revenue is CU 250,000 of which
CU 100,000 relates to PO 1 and CU 150,000 relates to PO 2s (determined by reference to relative standalone selling prices).
Expected costs on inception of the contract for PO 1 and PO 2 were CU 75,000 and CU 120,000 respectively (i.e. a total of
CU 195,000) meaning that both POs were expected to be profitable as well as the overall contract.
The company measures its progress towards completion using the cost input method.
At the end of Year 1, costs incurred and expected to be incurred are as follows.
Scenario A
Incurred to date Forecast future costs Total costs Forecast profit/(loss)
–– PO 1 50 70 120 (20)
–– PO 2 30 70 125 25
–– Contract Total 80 140 220 5
Amounts recognised in the income statement for Year 1 is as follows prior to considering the need for an onerous contract
provision is as follows:
–– PO 1: 50/120 x 100,000 41,666
–– PO 2: 30/125 x 150,000 36,000
–– Total Revenue 77,666
–– Less costs incurred to date (80,000)
–– Net loss 2,334
Because the overall contract is still expected to generate a profit, no onerous contract provision is recognised, even though
PO 1 is expected to be loss making.
Scenario B
Incurred to date Forecast future costs Total costs Forecast profit/(loss)
–– PO 1 30 40 70 30
–– PO 2 40 160 200 (50)
–– Contract Total 70 200 270 (20)
Amounts recognised in the income statement for Year 1 is as follows prior to considering the need for an onerous contract
provision is as follows:
–– PO 1: 30/70 x 100,000 42,857
–– PO 2: 40/200 x 150,000 30,000
–– Total Revenue 72,857
–– Less costs incurred to date (70,000)
–– Net loss 2,857
However, the contract is now expected to result in an overall loss of CU 20,000. Consequently the company recognises an
onerous loss provision in accordance with IAS 37 as follows:
Dr Income statement – contract costs 22,857

Cr Provision for onerous contract 22,857
6. PRESENTATION
In accordance with the requirements of IAS 1 Presentation of Financial Statements, a vendor presents or discloses revenue
from contracts with customers separately from the vendor’s other sources of revenue.
In its statement of financial position, a vendor is required to present separate amounts for contract assets, contract liabilities
and receivables due from customers. Alternative descriptions can be used for these line items.
When a vendor transfers control over goods or services to a customer before the customer pays consideration, the
vendor presents the contract as either a contract asset or a receivable. A contract asset is defined as a vendor’s ‘right
to consideration in exchange for goods or services that the vendor has transferred to a customer when that right is
conditioned on something other than the passage of time (for example the vendor’s future performance)’. A receivable
due from customers, in contrast, is a vendor’s unconditional right to consideration, and is accounted for in accordance with
IFRS 9 Financial Instruments or IAS 39 Financial Instruments: Recognition and Measurement. To have an unconditional right
to consideration does not mean that the amount of consideration to be received is certain. Instead it is that the vendor is
exposed only to credit risk, and not to other risks such as performance risk.
Example
Entity C is a construction company and has entered into a contract for which revenue will be recognised over time. The terms of
the contract are:
–– A stated contract price of CU 100 million;
–– CU 25 million is invoiced on each of four specified milestones;
–– If construction is completed after a specified date, the last milestone payment is reduced by a fixed CU 10 million to
CU 15 million (i.e. a total transaction price of CU 90 million) and if completed before a specified date the last milestone
payment is increased by up to CU 10 million to a maximum of CU 35 million (i.e. a maximum total transaction price
of CU 110 million). Consequently, the contract is analysed as comprising for fixed consideration of CU 90 million and
additional variable consideration of somewhere between CU 10 million and CU 20 million.

At its reporting date, Entity C is 80% of the way through the project, having just reached the third milestone, and is well ahead
of schedule. Entity C considers it probable that it will receive CU 110 million. However, uncertainties mean that it constrains this
estimate to CU 106 million to ensure that it is highly probable that none of the variable consideration recognised as revenue
will subsequently reverse. Entity C therefore:
–– Recognises cumulative revenue of CU 84.8 million (estimated transaction price of CU 106 million x 80%);
–– Recognises a receivable of CU 25 million for the third milestone amount invoiced but not yet received; and
–– Recognises a total contract asset of CU 9.8 million. Entity C is not unconditionally entitled to this amount, which is
dependent on both achieving the 4th milestone (i.e. completing the construction) and also completing the construction by
the date that will result in the 4th milestone payment being CU 21 million.
When a customer pays consideration in advance, or an amount of consideration is due contractually before a vendor
performs by transferring a good or service, the vendor recognises a contract liability. A contract liability represents the excess
of consideration received by a vendor (plus amounts that it is unconditionally entitled to for which a receivable has been
recognised) over cumulative revenue recognised to date.
TRG discussions
Presentation of assets and liabilities (Agenda Paper 7; October 2014)
Three issues were discussed on presentation of contract assets and liabilities, with TRG members generally agreeing that:
–– A contract is presented as either a contract asset or a contract liability but not both. This means that separate balances are
not presented for separate performance obligations, but are aggregated into a single net amount, i.e. the unit of account for
presentation purposes is the contract not the separate performance obligations identified in the contract;
–– When, in Step 1, two or more legal contracts are combined for accounting purposes, the presentation guidance is similarly
applied to the combined contract, meaning a single net contract asset or liability is presented; and
–– Entities should look to existing guidance (e.g. in IAS 32 Financial Instruments: Presentation) to determine whether other
assets and liabilities can be offset against a contract asset or contract liability respectively.
7. DISCLOSURES
IFRS 15 Revenue from Contracts with Customers includes an overall disclosure objective, which is for the disclosures to include
sufficient information to enable users of financial statements to understand the nature, amount, timing and uncertainty
of revenue and cash flows arising from contracts with customers. This is accompanied by comprehensive disclosure
requirements about a vendor’s:
–– Contracts with customers;
–– Significant judgements, and changes in the judgements, made in applying IFRS 15 to those contracts;
–– Assets recognised in respect of costs of obtaining contracts, and in fulfilling contracts.
Consistent with the IASB’s current Disclosure Initiative project, IFRS 15 notes specifically that consideration is to be given to
the level of detail that is necessary to satisfy the disclosure objective, and to the emphasis to be placed on each disclosure
requirement. The purpose is to ensure that the information that users will find useful is not obscured by a large amount of
insignificant detail, with items with sufficiently different characteristics being disaggregated and presented separately.
BDO comment
Linkage between determining performance obligations and segment disclosures
IFRS 15 Revenue from Contracts with Customers requires an entity to determine whether a good or service is ‘distinct’.
An entity’s financial statements will also typically include disclosures made in accordance with the requirements of
IFRS 8 Operating Segments, with those disclosures being based on internal management reporting information.
The IFRS 8 disclosures may include revenues for each product or service, or group of similar products and services, which
are disaggregated to a lower level than the distinct performance obligations that are identified by IFRS 15.27. The question
that might arise in such cases would be whether an entity needs to use this lower level of disaggregation when identifying
performance obligations.
In our view this is not the case because segmental reporting disclosures are based on information provided to management,
which may (or may not) be prepared on the basis of amounts reported in accordance with IFRS. Although disclosures in the
segmental reporting note may be based on the same level of aggregation and disaggregation as separate performance
obligations determined in accordance with IFRS 15.27, they will not always be the same, and hence disclosure required by
IFRS 15 would need to be given in addition to the information required by IFRS 8.
In accounting periods prior to adopting IFRS 15, Paragraph 30 of IAS 8 Accounting Policies, Changes in Accounting Estimates
and Errors requires an entity to disclose:
–– The fact the standard has not yet been applied; and
–– Known or reasonably estimable information relevant to assessing the possible impact that application of IFRS 15 will have
on the entity’s financial statements in the period of initial application.
In complying with this requirements, Paragraph 31 of IAS 8 states that an entity should consider disclosing:
–– The nature of the impending change or changes in accounting policy;
–– The date by which application is required (i.e. the first accounting period beginning on or after 1 January 2018) and the
date as at which it plans to apply IFRS 15; and
–– Either:
–– A discussion of the impact that initial application of IFRS 15 is expected to have on the financial statements; or
–– If that impact is not known or reasonably estimable, a statement to that effect.
Other information which an entity might consider appropriate to comply with IAS 8’s disclosure requirements include:
–– A detailed description and explanation on how key IFRS 15 concepts will be implemented along the different revenue
streams (identification of performance obligations, determination and allocation of the transaction price, how
performance obligations are satisfied). Where relevant, highlight the differences to the current approaches; and
–– An explanation of the timeline for implementing IFRS 15, including expected use of any of the transition practical
expedients;
–– When quantitative information is not disclosed because it is unknown or not reasonably estimable, additional qualitative
information is required to enable users of financial statements to understand the magnitude of the expected impact.
BDO comment
On 20 July 2016 the European Securities and Markets Authority (ESMA) published a Public Statement to promote transparency
of disclosures on the implementation and effects of IFRS 15, and on its consistent application. In a subsequent public statement
published on 27 October 2017 setting out its enforcement priorities for 2017 financial statements ESMA noted that it undertook
a fact-finding exercise on 2016 annual and 2017 interim financial statements to assess the information issuers provided to users
concerning the implementation of IFRS 15. Although ESMA identified a number of informative qualitative disclosures on the
implementation of the new standards, it also noted that practice varied concerning the specificity of the information provided
and that it had expected a higher level of disclosure of the quantitative impact of the new standards than was provided.
ESMA now expects that entity-specific quantitative and qualitative disclosures about the application of the new standards
will be provided in 2017 annual financial statements. As the 2017 annual financial statements will be published after the
requirements in IFRS 15 will have become effective, ESMA expects that issuers will have substantially completed their
implementation analyses. Therefore, it expects that the impacts of the initial application of the new standards will be known
or reasonably estimable at the time of the preparation of the 2017 accounts and should therefore be disclosed. In ESMA’s view,
such disclosure should include sufficiently disaggregated information on both:
–– Accounting policy choices expected to be applied, including those relating to the transition approach and the use of
practical expedients; and
–– The amount and nature of the expected impacts compared to previously recognised amounts. When explaining the
impacts, issuers that expect to be significantly impacted are encouraged to provide financial information enabling analysts
and other users to update their models.
Appendix 1 includes an illustrative example of the disclosure requirements that may be applicable to a hypothetical company
operating in the manufacturing sector.
8. EFFECTIVE DATE AND TRANSITION
IFRS 15 Revenue from Contracts with Customers applies to annual reporting periods beginning on or after 1 January 2018.
Earlier application is permitted.
The date of initial application is the start of the reporting period in which a vendor first applies IFRS 15. IFRS 15 is applied
retrospectively either to:
–– Each prior period presented in the financial statements in accordance with IAS 8 Accounting Policies, Changes in
Accounting Estimates and Errors (sometimes referred to as the full retrospective method); or
–– The current period with a cumulative effect adjustment on the date of initial application (sometimes referred to as the
cumulative catch-up method).
The four practical expedients are:
1. An entity need not restate completed contracts, which are contracts that:
(i) Began and ended within the same annual reporting period; or
(ii) Were completed at the beginning of the earliest period presented (i.e. completed by 31 December 2016 for an entity
presenting one year of comparatives if adopting IFRS 15 for the first time for a year beginning 1 January 2018 or by
31 December 2015 if two years of comparatives are being presented).
2. For completed contracts that have variable consideration, the transaction price at the date the contract was completed
can be used instead of estimating variable consideration amounts in comparative reporting periods;
3. For contracts that were modified before the beginning of the earliest period presented an entity can reflect the aggregate
effect of all modifications that occur before the beginning of the earliest period presented when identifying satisfied
and unsatisfied performance obligations, determining the transaction price and allocating the transaction price to
performance obligations;
4. For all reporting periods presented before the date of initial application, disclosure is not required of the amount of the
transaction price allocated to remaining performance obligations, and an explanation of when that amount was expected
to be recognised as revenue.
For entities transitioning to IFRS 15 using the cumulative catch-up method:

–– Practical expedients 1 and 2 are not available;
–– Practical expedient 3 is available and, as an alternative, entities can also consider the combined effect of all contract
modifications that occur before the date of initial application rather than only those prior to the start of the earliest
comparative period presented; and
–– Practical expedient 4 is not applicable because disclosures for comparative periods presented would need to comply
with the requirements of IAS 11 Construction Contracts, IAS 18 Revenue, and related Interpretations. However, IFRS 15
instead requires entities using the cumulative catch-up method to disclose in the year of adoption the amount by which
each financial statement line item is affected as compared to IAS 11, IAS 18 and related Interpretations, as well as an
explanation of the reasons for the changes.
Note that for the purposes of practical expedients 1 and 2, a ‘completed contract’ is one for which the entity has transferred
all of the goods or services identified in accordance with IAS 11, IAS 18, and related Interpretations. This means that, for
contracts where not all revenue had been recognised in accordance with previous standards (for example, because of
uncertainty about the amount of revenue to be received), the remaining revenue will continue to be recognised in accordance
with previous standards and not in accordance with IFRS 15.
BDO comment
Although the cumulative catch-up method may at first seem attractive because it means comparatives do not need to be
restated in the first period IFRS 15 is applied, a number of factors potentially make this unattractive:
1) Comparatives will not be prepared on the same basis and therefore makes period-on-period comparisons of performance
difficult;
2) It is still a retrospective approach in that the adjustment to reserves on the date of initial application still needs to reflect
the position as if IFRS 15 had already applied but, unlike the retrospective approach, practical expedients 1 and 2 cannot be
used to simplify the transition process;
3) Dual systems will be needed to be able to show what the impact of IFRS 15 has been compared to current standards in the
year of adoption, disclosures which are not required if the full retrospective method is applied.
Careful consideration will be needed of the transition approach to be followed. This is because, for a contract which is in
progress in the comparative and current reporting periods when IFRS 15 is adopted, depending on the transition approach
adopted some revenue might be recognised in profit or loss in more than one period, and some might not be recognised at
all. The following example illustrates the potential effect.
Example
A vendor has a single four year contract which runs from 1 January 2015 to 31 December 2018. The total consideration
receivable is fixed at CU 2,000,000 and, under current IFRSs, is being recognised over that four year period as follows:
2015: CU 800,000
2016: CU 400,000
2017: CU 400,000
2018: CU 400,000
Under IFRS 15, revenue would have been recognised evenly over the four year period (CU 500,000 in each year).
Under each of the transition options, the effect would be:
2015 2016 2017 2018 Total

2017+2018
Existing IFRS 800 400 400 400 800
IFRS 15
Retrospective (no practical expedients)
Revenue 500 500 1,000
Opening equity adjustment (200) (200)
Cumulative effect adjustment

Revenue 400 500 900
Equity adjustment (100) (100)
Retrospective equity adjustment

The retrospective equity adjustment of 200 is calculated as the difference as at 1 January 2017 between the cumulative
amount of revenue recognised in accordance with existing IFRS (1,200, being 800 in 2015 and 400 in 2016) and the
amount that would have been recognised in accordance with IFRS 15 (1,000, being 500 in each of 2015 and 2016).
Cumulative effect adjustment

The cumulative effect adjustment of 100 is calculated as the difference as at 1 January 2017 between the cumulative
amount of revenue recognised in accordance with existing IFRS (1,600, being 800 in 2014 and 400 in each of
2015 and 2016) and the amount that would have been recognised in accordance with IFRS 15 (1,500).
APPENDIX 1
ILLUSTRATIVE DISCLOSURE EXAMPLE
IAS 1:117(b) Disclose accounting policies that are relevant to understanding the financial statements (i.e. those for
material items).
BDO Comment The information required by IFRS 15:119, 123 to 127 and 129 could be included as part of an overall
accounting policy for revenue recognition, which is the approach A Layout has adopted in the
narrative on the opposite pages.
IFRS 15:119 Disclose information about performance obligations in contracts with customers, including a
description of all of the following:
(a) When the entity typically satisfies its performance obligations (for example, upon shipment, upon
delivery, as services are rendered or upon completion of service), including when performance
obligations are satisfied in a bill-and-hold arrangement;
(b) The significant payment terms (for example, when payment is typically due, whether the contract
has a significant financing component, whether the consideration amount is variable and whether
the estimate of variable consideration is typically constrained in accordance with Paragraphs 56-58);
(c) The nature of the goods or services that the entity has promised to transfer, highlighting any
performance obligations to arrange for another party to transfer goods or services (ie if the entity is
acting as an agent);
(d) Obligations for returns, refunds and other similar obligations; and
(e) Types of warranties and related obligations.
IFRS 15:123 Disclose the judgements, and changes in the judgements, made in applying this Standard that
significantly affect the determination of the amount and timing of revenue from contracts with
customers. In particular, an entity shall explain the judgements, and changes in the judgements, used in
determining both of the following:
(a) The timing of satisfaction of performance obligations (see Paragraphs 124-125); and
(b) The transaction price and the amounts allocated to performance obligations (see Paragraph 126).
IFRS 15:124 For performance obligations that an entity satisfies over time, disclose both of the following:
(a) The methods used to recognise revenue (for example, a description of the output methods or input
methods used and how those methods are applied); and
(b) An explanation of why the methods used provide a faithful depiction of the transfer of goods or
services.
IFRS 15:125 For performance obligations satisfied at a point in time, disclose the significant judgements made in
evaluating when a customer obtains control of promised goods or services.
IFRS 15 Revenue from Contracts with Customers is effective for periods beginning on or after 1 January 2018. This appendix
provides example illustrative disclosures for a hypothetical manufacturing company called A Layout that adopts IFRS
in its 2018 annual group financial statements on a fully retrospective basis. For entities using the cumulative catch-up
method on adoption of IFRS 15 (i.e. not restating comparatives), then the disclosure requirements of IAS 18 Revenue and
IAS 11 Construction Contracts would apply to the comparatives, with the IFRS 15 requirements only applying to the period of
first adoption. However, if applying the cumulative catch-up method, IFRS 15 requires disclosures to be made in relation to
the current year showing what the impact has been of not applying IAS 11, IAS 18 and related interpretations, an example of
which is also at the end of this appendix.
Accounting policies – Revenue

Performance obligations and timing of revenue recognition
The majority of the Group’s revenue is derived from selling goods with revenue recognised at a point in time when control
of the goods has transferred to the customer. This is generally when the goods are delivered to the customer. However, for
export sales, control might also be transferred when delivered either to the port of departure or port of arrival, depending on
the specific terms of the contract with a customer. There is limited judgement needed in identifying the point control passes:
once physical delivery of the products to the agreed location has occurred, the Group no longer has physical possession,
usually will have a present right to payment (as a single payment on delivery) and retains none of the significant risks and
rewards of the goods in question.
A small minority of contracts are negotiated on a bill and hold basis. In such arrangements revenue is recognised even though
the Group still has physical possession only if:
–– The arrangement is substantive (i.e. requested by the customer);
–– The finished goods have been identified separately as belonging to the customer;
–– The product is ready for physical transfer to the customer; and
–– A Layout does not have the ability to use the product to direct it to another customer.
Some goods sold by the Group include warranties which require the Group to either replace or mend a defective product
during the warranty period if the goods fail to comply with agreed-upon specifications. In accordance with IFRS 15, such
warranties are not accounted for as separate performance obligations and hence no revenue is allocated to them. Instead,
a provision is made for the costs of satisfying the warranties in accordance with IAS 37 Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and
Contingent Assets. On some product lines, a customer is able to take out extended warranties. These are accounted for as
separate performance obligations, with the revenue earned recognised on a straight-line basis over the term of the warranty.
The Group has a small division which carries out design (consultancy-type) services for clients, with revenue recognised
typically on an over time basis. This is because the designs created have no alternative use for the Group and the contracts
would require payment to be received for the time and effort spent by the Group on progressing the contracts in the event
of the customer cancelling the contract prior to completion for any reason other than the Group’s failure to perform its
obligations under the contract. On partially complete design contracts, A Layout recognises revenue based on stage of
completion of the project which is estimated by comparing the number of hours actually spent on the project with the total
number of hours expected to complete the project (i.e. an input based method). This is considered a faithful depiction of
the transfer of services as the contracts are initially priced on the basis of anticipated hours to complete the projects and
therefore also represents the amount to which the Group would be entitled based on its performance to date.
IFRS 15:126 Disclose information about the methods, inputs and assumptions used for all of the following:
(a) Determining the transaction price, which includes, but is not limited to, estimating variable
consideration, adjusting the consideration for the effects of the time value of money and measuring
non-cash consideration;
(b) Assessing whether an estimate of variable consideration is constrained;
(c) Allocating the transaction price, including estimating stand-alone selling prices of promised goods
or services and allocating discounts and variable consideration to a specific part of the contract (if
applicable); and
(d) Measuring obligations for returns, refunds and other similar obligations.
Determining the transaction price

Most of the Group’s revenue is derived from fixed price contracts and therefore the amount of revenue to be earned from
each contract is determined by reference to those fixed prices. Exceptions are as follows:
–– Some contracts provide customers with a limited right of return. These relate predominantly, but not exclusively, to
online sales direct to consumers. Historical experience enables the Group to estimate reliably the value of goods that will
be returned and restrict the amount of revenue that is recognised such that it is highly probable that there will not be a
reversal of previously recognised revenue when goods are returned;
–– For one key customer, the Group accepts orders and is paid up to two years in advance of delivering the products.
The Group measures the amount of revenue to recognise on delivery of the goods by calculating a financing component
at the interest rate that would have applied had the Group borrowed the funds from its customer.
Allocating amounts to performance obligations

For most contracts, there is a fixed unit price for each product sold, with reductions given for bulk orders placed at a specific
time. Therefore, there is no judgement involved in allocating the contract price to each unit ordered in such contracts (it
is the total contract price divided by the number of units ordered). Where a customer orders more than one product line,
the Group is able to determine the split of the total contract price between each product line by reference to each product’s
standalone selling prices (all product lines are capable of being, and are, sold separately).
Most extended warranties are sold on the Group’s behalf by retailers when the end customer buys one of the Group’s
products from the retailer. There is therefore also no judgement required for determining the amounts received for extended
warranties in retail sales – it is the priced charged to the purchaser of the warranty. (From the Group’s perspective, the
contract with the end customer for the warranty is separate from the contract with the retailer for the original sale of the
goods). The price of extended warranties charged in retail sales provides a basis for determining the relative standalone
selling price of the goods and warranty in non-retail sales.
In order to win significant repeat business with key customers, the Group might enter into contracts entitling them to
discounts if it places repeat orders in the future. Such discounts constitute a ‘material right’ and result in some of the
consideration received for the initial sale being deferred and recognised as revenue when subsequent sales are fulfilled or
(if later) when the rights to receive a discount expire. The Group estimates both the probability that the customer will take
up its future discount offer and the value of future purchases that might be made in order to estimate the value of the
rights granted. This has to be done on a contract–by-contract basis for each customer to whom material rights have been
granted. The Directors do not consider past experience an appropriate basis for estimating the amount of total contract
revenue to allocate to future discount rights for two reasons. Firstly, there is not a significant number of such contracts on
which past experience can be extrapolated. And secondly, each customer has unique circumstances which will impact both
the probability and value of additional orders being placed. Therefore, the estimates are made by reference to discussions
had with the relevant customers as to the extent the discount options will be taken up when the original contracts were
negotiated.
IFRS 15:127 Describe both of the following:

(a) The judgements made in determining the amount of the costs incurred to obtain or fulfil a contract
with a customer (in accordance with Paragraph 91 or 95); and
(b) The method it uses to determine the amortisation for each reporting period.
IFRS 15:129 If an entity elects to use the practical expedient in either Paragraph 63 (about the existence of a
significant financing component) or Paragraph 94 (about the incremental cost of obtaining a contract),
disclose that fact.
IFRS 15:C5 For any of the practical expedients in Paragraph C5 that an entity uses, the entity shall apply that
expedient consistently to all contracts within all reporting periods presented. In addition, the entity
shall disclose all of the following information:
(a) The expedients that have been used; and
(b) To the extent reasonably possible, a qualitative assessment of the estimated effect of applying each
of those expedients.
Costs of obtaining long-term contracts and costs of fulfilling contracts

Incremental commissions paid to sales staff for work in obtaining design contracts of periods longer than one year are
recoded in prepayments and amortised based on the stage of completion of the contract, i.e. in the same pattern as
revenue is recognised (see above). No judgement is needed to measure the amount of costs of obtaining contracts – it is the
commission paid.
The costs of fulfilling contracts do not result in the recognition of a separate asset because:
–– Such costs are included in the carrying amount of inventory for contracts involving the sale of goods; and
–– For service contracts, revenue is recognised over time by reference to the stage of completion meaning that control of
the asset (the design service) is transferred to the customer on a continuous basis as work is carried out. Consequently, no
asset for work in progress is recognised.
Practical Exemptions
The Group has taken advantage of the practical exemptions:
–– Not to account for significant financing components where the time difference between receiving consideration and
transferring control of goods (or services) to its customer is one year or less; and
–– Expense the incremental costs of obtaining a contract when the amortisation period of the asset otherwise recognised
would have been one year or less.
Transition
The Group has applied the following transitional reliefs in IFRS 15:
–– For completed contracts that have variable consideration, the Group has used the transaction price at the date the
contract was completed rather than estimating variable consideration in earlier periods. Completed contracts are those
for which the Group had completed all its performance obligations prior to the date of transition.
–– It has not restated completed contracts that:
–– Begin and end within the same annual reporting period; or
–– Were completed contracts at the beginning of the earliest period presented.
–– For contracts that were modified before the beginning of the earliest period presented, the Group has reflected the
aggregate effect of all of the modifications that occurred before the start of the comparative period by:
–– Identifying the satisfied and unsatisfied performance obligations;
–– Determining the transaction price; and
–– Allocating the transaction price to the satisfied and unsatisfied performance conditions.
IFRS 15:114 Disaggregate revenue recognised from contracts with customers into categories that depict how the
nature, amount, timing and uncertainty of revenue and cash flows are affected by economic factors.
An entity shall apply the guidance in Paragraphs B87-B89 when selecting the categories to use to
disaggregate revenue.
IFRS 15:B87 The extent to which an entity’s revenue is disaggregated for the purposes of this disclosure depends on
the facts and circumstances that pertain to the entity’s contracts with customers. Some entities may
need to use more than one type of category to meet the objective in Paragraph 114 for disaggregating
revenue. Other entities may meet the objective by using only one type of category to disaggregate
revenue.
IFRS 15:B88 When selecting the type of category (or categories) to use to disaggregate revenue, an entity shall
consider how information about the entity’s revenue has been presented for other purposes, including
all of the following:
(a) Disclosures presented outside the financial statements (for example, in earnings releases, annual
reports or investor presentations);
(b) Information regularly reviewed by the chief operating decision maker for evaluating the financial
performance of operating segments; and
(c) Other information that is similar to the types of information identified in Paragraph B88(a) and (b)
and that is used by the entity or users of the entity’s financial statements to evaluate the entity’s
financial performance or make resource allocation decisions.
IFRS 15:B89 Examples of categories that might be appropriate include, but are not limited to, all of the following:
(a) Type of good or service (for example, major product lines);
(b) Geographical region (for example, country or region);
(c) Market or type of customer (for example, government and non-government customers);
(d) Type of contract (for example, fixed-price and time-and-materials contracts;
(e) Contract duration (for example, short-term and long-term contracts);
(f) Timing of transfer of goods or services (for example, revenue from goods or services transferred to
customers at a point in time and revenue from goods or services transferred over time); and
(g) Sales channels (for example, goods sold directly to consumers and goods sold through
intermediaries).
In addition, an entity shall disclose sufficient information to enable users of financial statements to
understand the relationship between the disclosure of disaggregated revenue (in accordance with
Paragraph 114) and revenue information that is disclosed for each reportable segment, if the entity
applies IFRS 8 Operating Segments.
BDO Comment A Layout has analysed revenue into primary geographic markets, the product type (nature of
performance obligation), the type of customers, and the timing of when revenue is recognised. If
the analysis repeats the numerical analysis required by by IFRS 8:33(a), the related IFRS 8 disclosure
requirement could be removed on adoption of IFRS 15. However, as segmental reporting disclosures
are based on information provided to management and not on the basis of amounts calculated in
accordance with IFRS 15, it is not necessarily the case that the IFRS 15 information would repeat the
information required by IFRS 8.
Disaggregation of Revenue
The Group has disaggregated revenue into various categories in the following table which is intended to:
–– Depict how the nature, amount, timing and uncertainty of revenue and cash flows are affected by economic date; and
–– Enable users to understand the relationship with revenue segment information provided in the segmental information
note.
Toys Board games Outdoor games All other segments Total
Year to 31 December 2018
CU’000 CU’000 CU’000 CU’000 CU’000
Primary Geographic Markets
Country A 55,212 18,930 4,732 - 78,874
Country B 30,674 10,955 2,191 - 43,820
Country C 29,095 2,555 - 3,406 35,056
Country D 7,875 2,625 - - 10,500
Other 3,344 1,743 1,841 100 7,028
126,200 36,808 8,764 3,506 175,278
Product type
Goods 115,858 36,808 7,755 - 160,421
Design services - - - 3,506 3,506
Extended Warranties 10,342 - 1,009 - 11,351
126,200 36,808 8,764 3,506 175,278
Contract counterparties
Retailers 67,073 34,920 838 - 102,831
Wholesalers 48,265 - 3,176 - 51,441
Direct to consumers (online) 10,862 1,888 4,750 - 17,500
B2B (services) - - - 3,506 3,506
126,200 36,808 8,764 3,506 175,278
Timing of transfer of goods and services

Point in time (delivery to
customer premises including 100,960 24,088 7,431 - 132,479
bill-and-hold)
20,173 10,245 1,333 - 31,751
port of departure)
5,067 2,475 - - 7,542
port of arrival)
Over time - - - 3,506 3,506
126,200 36,808 8,764 3,506 175,278
Revenue included above

1,489 695 100 - 2,284
related to material rights
BDO Comment Entities that apply the cumulative catch-up method for adopting IFRS 15 and therefore do not
restate comparatives are not required to provide comparative disclosures on an IFRS 15 basis in the
period of adoption. Instead, comparative disclosures would be made in accordance with IAS 18 and
IAS 10 as appropriate.
IFRS 15:113(a) Disclose revenue recognised from contracts with customers separately from its other sources of
revenue unless those amounts are presented separately in the statement of comprehensive income in
accordance with other Standards.
BDO Comment In many cases this figure may be presented on the face of the Statement of Comprehensive income
and therefore this disclosure would not need to be repeated in the notes.
IFRS 15:113(b) Disclose any impairment losses recognised (in accordance with IFRS 9) on any receivables or contract
assets arising from an entity’s contracts with customers separately from impairment losses from other
contracts.
BDO Comment In many cases, details of impairment losses on trade receivables might be disclosed in other notes as
required by IFRS 7. Details of impairment losses on contract assets in compliance with IFRS 15:118(c)
has been given overleaf in a reconciliation of contract balances. Therefore, compliance with
IFRS 15:113(b) might be achieved through compliance with disclosure requirements elsewhere, and
therefore would not need to be repeated.
Disaggregation of Revenue (continued)

Toys Board games Outdoor games All other segments Total
Year to 31 December 2017
CU’000 CU’000 CU’000 CU’000 CU’000
Primary Geographic Markets
Country A 55,464 14,974 4,496 - 74,934
Country B 31,393 7,909 2,327 - 41,629
Country C 21,722 8,326 - 3,255 33,303
Country D 7,431 2,220 - - 9,651
Other 3,882 1,540 1,503 75 7,000
119,892 34,969 8,326 3,330 166,517
Product type
Goods 109,889 34,969 7,331 - 152,189
Design services - - - 3,330 3,330
Extended Warranties 10,003 - 995 - 10,998
119,892 34,969 8,326 3,330 166,517
Contract counterparties
Retailers 63,683 33,255 2,972 - 99,910
Wholesalers 48,765 - 1,191 - 49,956
Direct to consumers (online) 7,444 1,714 4,163 - 13,321
B2B (services) - - - 3,330 3,330
119,892 34,969 8,326 3,330 166,517
Timing of transfer of goods and services

customer premises including 102,566 20,637 7,513 - 130,716
bill-and-hold)
15,609 12,333 813 - 28,755
port of departure)
1,717 1,999 - - 3,716
port of arrival)
Over time - - - 3,330 3,330
119,892 34,969 8,326 3,330 166,517
Revenue included above

1,636 823 75 - 2,534
related to material rights
IFRS 15:116 Disclose all of the following:

(a) The opening and closing balances of receivables, contract assets and contract liabilities from
contracts with customers, if not otherwise separately presented or disclosed;
(b) Revenue recognised in the reporting period that was included in the contract liability balance at the
beginning of the period; and
(c) Revenue recognised in the reporting period from performance obligations satisfied (or partially
satisfied) in previous periods (for example, changes in transaction price).
IFRS 15:118 Provide an explanation of the significant changes in the contract asset and the contract liability
balances during the reporting period. The explanation shall include qualitative and quantitative
information. Examples of changes in the entity’s balances of contract assets and contract liabilities
include any of the following:
(a) Changes due to business combinations;
(b) Cumulative catch-up adjustments to revenue that affect the corresponding contract asset or
contract liability, including adjustments arising from a change in the measure of progress, a change
in an estimate of the transaction price (including any changes in the assessment of whether an
estimate of variable consideration is constrained) or a contract modification;
(c) Impairment of a contract asset;
(d) A change in the time frame for a right to consideration to become unconditional (ie for a contract
asset to be reclassified to a receivable); and
(e) A change in the time frame for a performance obligation to be satisfied (ie for the recognition of
revenue arising from a contract liability).
BDO Comment The information required by IFRS 15:116 and 118 could (although is not required) to be presented as
a reconciliation. Changes that could be significant to other entities and warrant disclosure include:
interest income, contract balances recognised or de-recognised as a result of business combinations
or disposals respectively, and adjustments to the amount of revenue recognised in previous periods
as a result of changing the method for determining stage of completion.
IFRS 15:128 Disclose all of the following:

(a) The closing balances of assets recognised from the costs incurred to obtain or fulfil a contract with a
customer (in accordance with Paragraph 91 or 95), by main category of asset (for example, costs to
obtain contracts with customers, pre-contract costs and setup costs); and
(b) The amount of amortisation and any impairment losses recognised in the reporting period.
BDO Comment IFRS 15:116(a) requires disclosure of receivables (as distinct from contract assets) arising from
contracts with customers at the beginning and end of the period. Entities might already disclose the
balance of trade receivables at the end of each period (and hence also the start of the current period)
in a receivables note, but not necessarily at the beginning of the comparative period. That being the
case, the requirement to disclose the amount of trade receivables at the start of the comparative
period introduced by IFRS 15 might be more sensibly placed in such a receivables note.
BDO Comment Incremental costs to obtain a contract might be presented as its own asset category, classified as
current or non-current as appropriate. In some cases, the amount might not material and therefore
could reasonably be included within another asset category, such as prepayments.
Contract Balances
Contract Assets Contract Assets Contract Liabilities Contract Liabilities
2018 2017 2018 2017
CU’000 CU’000 CU’000 CU’000
At 1 January 600 500 (364) (169)

Interest on contract liabilities - - (12) (10)
Cumulative catch-up adjustments (50) - - -
Impairment of contract assets (30) - - -
Transfers in the period from contract
(403) (125) - -
assets to trade receivables
Amounts included in contract
liabilities that was recognised as - - 362 285
revenue during the period
Excess of revenue recognised
over cash (or rights to cash) being 250 225 - -
recognised during the period
Cash received in advance of
performance and not recognised as - - (198) (80)
revenue during the period
367 600 (213) (364)
Contract assets and contract liabilities are included within ‘trade and other receivables’ and ‘trade and other payables’
respectively on the face of the statement of financial position. They arise from the Group’s small design division, which enter
into contracts that can take a few years to complete, because cumulative payments received from customers at each balance
sheet date do not necessarily equal the amount of revenue recognised on the contracts.
The scope of one design contract (comprising a single performance objective) was changed during the period, which
resulted in the cumulative catch-up adjustment of CU 50,000 being recognised in the current period, but which related to
performance of the previous period.
The impairment of contract assets during the period arose as a result of one customer entering liquidation prior to the Group
having the right to invoice for work done to date.
Interest arose on the contract for which the Group is paid up to two years in advance of delivery.
[The balance of trade receivables at 1 January 2017 was CU X’000]
[The amount of incremental costs to obtain a contract which have been recognised as an asset is CU 75,000
(2017 – CU 84,000) and the amount of costs recognised as an expense in the period is CU 79,000 (2017 – CU 48,000).
No amount has been impaired in 2018 or 2017.]
IFRS 15:120 Disclose the following information about remaining performance obligations:
(a) The aggregate amount of the transaction price allocated to the performance obligations that are
unsatisfied (or partially unsatisfied) as of the end of the reporting period; and
(b) An explanation of when the entity expects to recognise as revenue the amount disclosed in
accordance with Paragraph 120(a), which the entity shall disclose in either of the following ways:
(i) On a quantitative basis using the time bands that would be most appropriate for the duration of
the remaining performance obligations; or
(ii) By using qualitative information.
As a practical expedient, an entity need not disclose the information in Paragraph 120 for a
performance obligation if either of the following conditions is met:
(a) The performance obligation is part of a contract that has an original expected duration of one year
or less; or
(b) The entity recognises revenue from the satisfaction of the performance obligation in accordance
with Paragraph B16.
IFRS 15:121 An entity need not disclose the information in Paragraph 120 for a performance obligation if either of
the following conditions is met:
(a) The performance obligation is part of a contract that has an original expected duration of one year
or less; or
(b) The entity recognises revenue from the satisfaction of the performance obligation in accordance
with Paragraph B16.
IFRS 15:122 An entity shall explain qualitatively whether it is applying the practical expedient in Paragraph 121 and
whether any consideration from contracts with customers is not included in the transaction price and,
therefore, not included in the information disclosed in accordance with Paragraph 120. For example, an
estimate of the transaction price would not include any estimated amounts of variable consideration
that are constrained (see Paragraphs 56-58).
IFRS 15:C6 For any of the practical expedients in Paragraph C5 that an entity uses, the entity shall apply that
expedient consistently to all contracts within all reporting periods presented. In addition, the entity
shall disclose all of the following information:
(a) The expedients that have been used; and
(b) To the extent reasonably possible, a qualitative assessment of the estimated effect of applying each
of those expedients.
Remaining performance Obligations

The vast majority of the Group’s contracts are for the delivery of goods within the next 12 months for which the practical
expedient in Paragraph 121(a) of IFRS 15 applies. However, certain design contracts and contracts for the delivery of foods
have been entered into for which both:
–– The original contractual period was greater than 12 months; and
–– The Group’s right to consideration does not correspond directly with the performance.
In addition, sales of extended warranties for periods of greater than one year and material rights relating to discounts on
future contracts do not meet these conditions.
The amount of revenue that will be recognised in future periods on these contracts when those remaining performance
obligations will be satisfied is analysed as follows:
2018 2019 2020-2022 Total

At 31 December 2018
CU’000 CU’000 CU’000 CU’000
Design Contracts 2,106 2,106 - 4,212

Delivery of goods 6,240 12,595 - 18,835
Extended warranties 1,289 2,578 3,867 7,734
Material rights - - 4,500 4,500
9,635 17,279 8,367 35,281
Variable consideration relating to volume rebates has been constrained in estimating contract revenue in order that it is
highly probable that there will not be a future reversal in the amount of revenue recognised when the amount of volume
rebates has been determined. Therefore, the above amounts do not include the amounts of such variable consideration that
has been constrained.
The Group has applied the exemption in Paragraph C5(d) of the transitional rules in IFRS 15 and therefore has not disclosed
the amount of revenue that will be recognised in future periods for the comparative period.
The effect of applying the other transitional reliefs in IFRS 15 (as set out in the accounting policy above) are as follows…
[Provide qualitative explanation as appropriate to the entity’s circumstances. Depending on the nature of its operations,
the impact of taking these exemptions might not be material.]
Disclosures applicable only to entities not applying IFRS 15 on a fully retrospective basis
IFRS 15:C7A For entities applying IFRS 15 on a cumulative catch-up basis in accordance with IFRS 15:C3(b) and which
uses the practical expedient relating to contract modifications in C5(c) disclose the information required
by IFRS 15:C6.
[The expedient related to modifications can be applied from start of current period or start of earliest
comparative period presented].
IFRS 15:C8 For entities applying IFRS 15 on a cumulative catch-up basis in accordance with IFRS 15:C3(b), disclose:
(a) The amount by which each financial statement line item is affected in the current reporting period
by the application of this standard as compared to IAS 11, IAS 18 and reported interpretations that
were in effect before the change; and
(b) An explanation of the reasons for significant changes identified in C8(a).
Disclosures applicable only to entities not applying IFRS 15 on a fully retrospective basis
The Group has taken advantage of the relief in IFRS 15 to reflect the aggregate effect of all modifications that occur before
1 January 2018 [1 January 2017].
Had IFRS 15 not been adopted in the year to 31 December 2018 then it would have reported the following amounts by
applying IAS 18 Revenue, IAS 11 Construction Contracts and related Interpretations:
As reported on IFRS 15 basis Effect As would have been reported

CU’000 CU’000 CU’000
Revenue 175,278 14,215 189,493

Tax (2,782) (548) (2,234)
Contract assets/Accrued Income 367 149 516
Contract liabilities/Deferred Income (213) 23 (190)
APPENDIX 2
COMPARISON OF IFRS 15 AND TOPIC 606
As mentioned in Section 1. ‘Introduction’, in IFRS 15 Revenue from Contracts with Customers and Topic 606, issued in
May 2014, the boards achieved their goal of reaching the same conclusions on all significant requirements for the accounting
for revenue from contracts with customers.
However, there are some minor differences in the standards as issued in May 2014:
(a) Collectability threshold
While under IFRS the term ‘probable’ means ‘more likely than not’, under US GAAP it means ‘likely’. Although there is a
difference in the wording, it is designed so that the accounting outcome will be the same.
(b) Interim disclosure requirements
Interim disclosures requirements under IAS 34 include only disaggregated revenue. Under US GAAP, disclosures on
disaggregated revenue, contract balances, and remaining performance obligations are required.
(c) Early application and effective date
IFRS 15 is applicable for annual periods beginning on or after 1 January 2018 with early application permitted. On the
other hand, Topic 606 is applicable for annual periods beginning after 15 December 2017 for public business entities
and certain not-for-profit entities with earlier adoption permitted (but only for annual periods beginning on or after
15 December 2016). A one year deferral is available for all other entities.
(d) Impairment loss reversal
Under US GAAP the reversal of previously impaired contract acquisition and contract fulfilment costs for a change in
facts and circumstances is prohibited. Under IFRS the reversal is required but it is limited to the carrying amount, net of
amortisation, that would have been determined if no impairment loss had been recognised.
(e) Non-public entity requirements
US GAAP permits some relief on disclosures for entities other than public business entities and certain not-for-profit
entities. This relief is not applicable under IFRS.
(f) Scope
–– Insurance contracts
Topic 606 excludes from its scope insurance contracts for entities that apply current US insurance industry guidance.
However it does not exclude insurance contracts issued by entities that do not follow the insurance industry guidance.
IFRS 15 excludes from its scope all insurance contracts within the scope of IFRS 4 Insurance Contracts.
–– Guarantees
Topic 606 excludes guarantees from its scope. IFRS 15 does not specifically exclude guarantees from its scope,
however it does exclude financial instruments and (as noted above) insurance contracts within the scope of IFRS 4
Insurance Contracts, which would include financial guarantee contracts.
–– Credit card fees
US GAAP has specific guidance on the accounting for credit card fees. Under IFRS an entity has to determine first
whether these fees are within the scope of IFRS 9 Financial Instruments. If not, IFRS 15 would be applicable.
–– Gaming transactions
US GAAP has specific guidance on the accounting for gaming transactions. Under IFRS fixed-odds wagering, such as
sports betting contracts, are considered to be derivative contracts and thus are not within the scope of IFRS 15.
(g) Illustrative examples

Illustrative examples accompany but are not part of IFRS 15 and therefore they are not authoritative. In contrast, the
illustrative examples in Topic 606 are part of the standard and thus authoritative.
Additionally, the IASB’s Clarifications to IFRS 15 differ in certain respects from the amendments to Topic 606 issued by
the FASB.
The differences arisen after the issue of IASB’s clarification are the following:
(h) Revenue recognition for contracts with customers that do not meet the Step 1 criteria
The FASB decided to amend Topic 606 to add an event in which an entity recognises any consideration received as
revenue when:
i. The entity has transferred control of the goods or services to which the consideration received relates;
ii. The entity has stopped transferring additional goods or services and has no obligation to transfer additional goods or
services; and
iii. The consideration received from the customer is non-refundable. The IASB did not make a similar amendment.
However, this should not result in a significant difference in outcomes.
(i) Promised goods or services that are immaterial within the context of the contract
The FASB decided to amend the Standard to clarify that an entity is not required to assess whether promised goods or
services are performance obligations if they are immaterial within the context of the contract with the customer. The
IASB did not make a similar amendment. However, this should not result in a significant difference in outcomes.
(j) Shipping and handling activities
In accordance with amendment made to Topic 606, an entity is permitted (as an accounting policy choice) to account for
shipping and handling activities that occur after the customer has obtained control of a good as fulfilment activities. The
IASB did not make a similar amendment, meaning that under IFRS it will be necessary to assess whether shipping and
handling that occur after a customer has obtained control of a good is a distinct performance obligation.
(k) Presentation of sales taxes
FASB decided to permit entities an accounting policy choice to exclude from the measurement of the transaction price all
taxes assessed by a governmental authority that are both imposed on and concurrent with a specific revenue-producing
transaction and collected from customers (for example: sales taxes, use taxes, VAT etc.). The IASB decided not to provide
a similar accounting policy choice in IFRS 15, and so under IFRS it will be necessary for an entity to assess whether it is
acting as principal or agent with regard to sales taxes collected.
(l) Non-cash consideration
The FASB decided to amend the Standard to require non-cash consideration to be measured at its fair value at contract
inception. It was also specified that the constraint on variable consideration applies only to variability in the fair value
of the non-cash consideration that arises for reasons other than the form of the consideration. The IASB did not make
similar amendments.
(m) Licensing
–– Determining the nature of the entity’s promise in granting a license of intellectual property:
The FASB decided to amend the criteria to determine the nature of a license by requiring an entity to classify the
intellectual property underlying the license as functional or symbolic based on whether the intellectual property has
significant stand-alone functionality. A license to functional intellectual property is considered a right to use, while a
license to symbolic intellectual property is considered a right to access the underlying intellectual property. The IASB
did not amend the criteria in IFRS 15 to distinguish between functional and symbolic intellectual property. Under IFRS,
a license provides a right to access if all of the following criteria are met:
–– The entity will undertake activities that significantly affect the intellectual property;
–– The rights granted by the license directly expose the customer to any positive or negative effects of the entity’s
activities; and
–– Those activities do not result in the transfer of a good or service to the customer as those activities occur.
Differences in outcome will arise due to the different criteria.
–– Contractual restrictions in a license and the identification of performance obligations:
Topic 606 was amended to clarify that the requirements about contractual restrictions of the nature described in
Paragraph B62 do not replace the requirement for the entity to identify the number of licenses promised in the
contract. The IASB did not make similar amendments to IFRS 15. However, this should not result in a significant
difference in outcomes.
–– Renewals of licenses of intellectual property:
The FASB included an additional example in the Standard to specify that an entity would not generally recognise
revenue from the transfer of a license renewal until the beginning of the license renewal period. The IASB did not make
similar amendments, and so differences in the timing of revenue recognition may arise.
–– When to consider the nature of an entity’s promise in granting a license:
Unlike the IASB, the FASB decided to make amendments that explicitly state that an entity considers the nature of its
promise in granting a license when applying the general revenue recognition model to a single performance obligation
that includes a license and other goods or services.
(n) Completed contracts
The definition of a completed contract in Topic 606 was amended. A completed contract is a contract for which all (or
substantially all) of the revenue was recognised in accordance with the previous revenue standards. The IASB did not
make a similar amendment.
On the other hand, the IASB added a practical expedient to allow an entity applying IFRS 15 in accordance with
Paragraph C3(a) not to restate contracts that are completed contracts at the beginning of the earliest period presented.
The FASB did not provide this practical expedient.
(o) Date of application of the contract modifications practical expedient

For entities applying Topic 606, for the equivalent guidance to Paragraph C3(b) of IFRS 15, the FASB decided that the
entity should apply the practical expedient at the date of initial application. However, the IASB decided that an entity
may apply the practical expedient either:
(a) At the beginning of the earliest period presented; or
(b) At the date of initial application.
(p) In-substance sales of intellectual property
The exception for sales and usage based royalties does not apply to outright sales of intellectual property. The basis to
conclusions to Topic 606 states that an entity should not determine whether a license to intellectual property is an ‘in
substance sale’ of that intellectual property in deciding whether or not the royalties exception applies. The wording in the
basis to conclusions of IFRS 15 is not as explicit, meaning that certain sales and usage based arrangements for intellectual
property may be accounted for as in substance sales under IFRS.
APPENDIX 3
COMPARISON OF IFRS 15 AND CURRENT REVENUE
STANDARDS
IAS 18 Revenue bases revenue recognition around an analysis of the transfer of risks and rewards. In contrast, under
IFRS 15 Revenue from Contracts with Customers revenue is recognised by a vendor when control over the goods or services is
transferred to the customer.
There are other differences between the current (IAS 18, IAS 11 Construction Contracts, IFRIC 13 Customer Loyalty
Programmes, IFRIC 15 Agreements for the Construction of Real Estate, IFRIC 18 Transfers of Assets from Customers, SIC 31
Barter Transactions Involving Advertising Services) and the new revenue standard regarding scope, disclosures in financial
statements and the presentation of assets and liabilities related to contracts.
The table below sets out a summary of the main differences between the new standard and current revenue standards:
Scope –– Scope exemptions

The new standard does not include scope exemptions regarding changes in the
fair value of biological assets, the initial recognition of agricultural produce, the
extraction of mineral ores and changes in the value of other current assets.
Nevertheless, these items are out of the scope of IFRS 15 because they do not
arise from contracts with customers.
–– Dividends
IFRS 15 does not include guidance on the accounting for dividend income.
Instead, guidance that is consistent with existing requirements has been
incorporated into the financial instruments standards.
–– Financial services fees
Illustrative examples addressing financial services fees have been transferred to
the financial instruments standards.
Step 1: Identify the contract –– Combination of contracts

IAS 11 requires an entity to consider combining a group of contracts as a single
contract when the contracts are performed concurrently or in a continuous
sequence. IFRS 15 states that contracts are combined when the goods or services
promised in the contract are a single performance obligation.
Step 2: Identify separate –– Separate components in the contract

performance obligations (POs)
Unlike current standards, IFRS 15 introduces comprehensive guidance on
in the contract
identifying separate components. This might result in combining or separating
goods or services more frequently than currently.
Step 3: Determine the –– Variable consideration

transaction price after
Under current IFRS an entity recognises revenue only if it can estimate
contract inception
the amount reliably (uncertainty over the outcome may preclude revenue
recognition). In IFRS 15 the constraint sets a ceiling (limiting rather than
precluding revenue recognition).
–– Advance payments
Current IFRS does not consider whether an entity adjusts consideration for a
financing component when payment is received in advance. IFRS 15 requires an
adjustment to be made for significant financing components.
–– Non-cash consideration measurement
Under current IFRS, when the fair value of the goods or services received cannot
be measured reliably, the revenue is measured at the fair value of the goods
given up. Under the new standard, the entity measures the transaction price
at the stand-alone selling price of the goods or services transferred if it cannot
reasonably estimate the fair value of the non-cash consideration.
Additionally, the threshold for using the fair value of the non-cash consideration
as the measurement basis is that the entity can ‘reliably measure’ (current IFRS)
the fair value, rather than ‘reasonably estimate’ the amount (IFRS 15).
–– Barter transactions
SIC 31 sets out guidance to be applied for barter transactions involving
advertising services. IFRS 15 does not contain any specific guidance on the
accounting for barter transactions. Thus, the general principles for measuring
consideration apply.
–– Transfer of assets from customers
IFRIC 18 contains guidance on transfers of property, plant and equipment
received from customers. IFRS 15 does not contain specific guidance. If an entity
recognises revenue on the transfer it applies the general requirements in IFRS 15
and measures revenue at the fair value of the item transferred to the customer.
–– Customer incentives
Customer incentives include cash incentives, discounts, volume rebates, free
or discounted goods or services, customer loyalty programmes, loyalty cards
and vouchers. Other than IFRIC 13 which covers customer loyalty programmes,
existing IFRSs contain limited guidance for these transactions. The new standard
is designed to reduce diversity in practice with specific accounting requirements
(reduction in revenue, expense, separate deliverable).
Step 4: Allocate the –– Allocation of consideration

transaction price to the POs
IFRS 15 introduces detailed guidance applicable to all contracts with customers.
Current standards do not contain any guidance in this respect, except for several
recent interpretations (service concession arrangements, customer loyalty
programs, agreements for the sale of real estate).
–– Observable inputs
The new standard emphasises the use of available market inputs when allocating
the transaction price to performance obligations.
–– Residual approach
Unlike current guidance, IFRS 15 requires specific conditions to be met for an
entity to use the residual approach when there are multiple deliverables that are
accounted for separately.
–– Discounts
Specific guidance has been introduced by the new revenue standard regarding
how discounts must be allocated. Discounts are allocated proportionately to all
performance obligations in a contract, unless there is observable evidence that
the discount relates to only one or more, but not all, performance obligations
in the contract. The proportionate allocation of discounts links to the allocation
of the transaction price to performance obligations on the basis of stand-alone
selling prices.
–– Variable consideration allocation
There is no specific guidance in current IFRS. In contrast, IFRS 15 provides
specific guidance on variable consideration together with a constraint on
revenue recognition and an exception for some sales- or usage-based royalties.
Additionally, the new standard requires alternative approaches in specific
circumstances.
–– Reallocation of revenue
Unlike in the current standards, if some of the performance obligations to which
the transaction price was initially allocated have already been satisfied when
the change in transaction price takes place, then this can result in a cumulative
adjustment to the amount of revenue recognised to date (including revenue on
completed performance obligations).
Step 5: Recognise revenue when –– Risk and reward approach versus transfer of control
each PO is satisfied
Under IAS 18 revenue is recognised when the entity has transferred to the
buyer the significant risks and rewards of ownership. Under an IFRS 15 approach
revenue is recognised when control of goods or services is transferred to the
customer.
–– Over time recognition
IFRS 15 introduces new criteria to determine when revenue should be recognised
over time. Thus, some contracts that are currently accounted for under the
percentage-of-completion method may now require revenue to be recognised
on contract completion. However, for other contracts over-time recognition may
be required under the new model.
Under current IFRS revenue is recognised over time if:
a) The contract is a construction contract in the scope of IAS 11; or
b) The contract is for the sales of goods and the conditions for revenue
recognition are met progressively; or
c) The contract is for the rendering of services.
–– Real estate arrangements
The new standard replaces IFRIC 15. The difficulty in determining when control
of real estate is transferred to the customer makes this area challenging in
practice, particularly for certain multi-unit residential developments.
–– Stage of completion
Under IAS 11 an entity is required to use a method for estimating the stage
of completion of work that reliably measures the work performed. When
determining the amount of revenue to be recognised in accordance with IFRS 15
an output measure is the most faithful depiction of an entity’s performance
because it directly measures the value of the good or services transferred to
the customer. An input method would be appropriate if it would be less costly
and would provide a reasonable basis for measuring progress. The new standard
includes additional guidance that notes that if an entity’s performance has
produced a material amount of work in progress or finished goods that are
controlled by the customer, then output methods (units-of-delivery or units-of-
production) may not be appropriate.
–– Uninstalled materials
Under IAS 11 materials that have not yet been installed are often (but not
always) excluded from contract costs when determining the stage of completion
of a contract. Recognising revenue on uninstalled materials at a zero percent
profit margin under IFRS 15 may result in changes to an entity’s profit
recognition profile.
Step 5: Recognise revenue when –– Outcome estimation at early stages

each PO is satisfied
IAS 11 states that if it is probable that the total contract costs will exceed the
(continued) total contract revenue, then any expected excess is recognised as an expense
immediately. However, IFRS 15 does not include guidance on the accounting for
losses. Therefore, IAS 37 is applicable in those cases in order to assess whether
the contract is onerous and to measure the provision, if necessary.
–– Repurchase arrangements
Current IFRSs are focused on the transfer of risk and rewards of ownership to the
buyer. IFRS 15 includes specific guidance and focuses on whether the entity has
transferred control of a good or service.
–– Bill and hold
To recognise revenue on a bill and hold basis under current IFRS the vendor is
required to apply its usual payment terms. Another condition under current IFRS
is that it has to be probable that the delivery will be made. This is not explicitly
stated in the new standard. However, if it is not probable that the delivery will
be made, then it is possible that the contract will not exist for the purpose of
applying the requirements of the new standard, or that the reason for the bill
and hold arrangement will be deemed not to be substantive.
Factors that are taken into consideration under current standard to determine
whether risks and rewards have been transferred are, for example, if the entity
pays for the cost of storage, shipment or insurance on the goods. As mentioned
before, IFRS 15 is focused on transfer of control, therefore these factors are
not as relevant under the new standard. Under IFRS 15 for a customer to have
obtained control of a product in a bill-and-hold arrangement all the following
criteria must be met:
a) The reason for the arrangement must be substantive;
b) The product must be identified separately as belonging to the customer; and
c) The entity cannot have the ability to use the product or to direct it to another
customer.
–– Customer’s acceptance
Under IAS 18 revenue from goods that are shipped subject to customer’s
acceptance is recognised when the customer accepts the delivery. Under the
new standard revenue may be recognised if customer acceptance is a formality
that does not affect the determination of whether control of a good or service
has been transferred.
Contract costs –– Costs to obtain a contract

Current IFRSs do not include specific guidance on the accounting for the costs
to obtain a contract with a customer. In fact, it is only in limited circumstances
that direct and incremental recoverable costs to obtain an identifiable contract
may qualify for recognition as an intangible asset (IAS 38). For contracts within
the scope of IAS 11, costs related directly to the contract with the customer and
incurred in securing it are included as part of the contract costs only if following
criteria are met: they can be separately identified, reliably measured and it is
probable that the contract will be obtained. Under IFRS 15 incremental costs of
obtaining a contract are those costs incurred in obtaining a contract that would
not have been incurred had that individual contract not been obtained. This is
restrictive, as any ongoing costs of operating the business will be expensed as
incurred.
–– Costs to fulfil a contract
The new guidance on costs to fulfil a contract will be relevant for contracts that
are currently being accounted for using the percentage of completion method.
IFRS 15 requires an entity to capitalise the costs of fulfilling an anticipated
contract if certain conditions are met. This is similar to the notion in IAS 11 that
costs incurred before a contract is obtained are recognised as contract costs if it
is ‘probable’ that the contract will be obtained.
Contract modifications –– Contract modifications

The specific guidance in IAS 11 regarding the accounting for claims and variations
in a construction contract does not exist in the new standard. Under IFRS 15
claims and variations in construction contracts are accounted for according to
the general (and more prescriptive) guidance on contract modifications. The
application of the requirements for variable consideration to some contract
modifications may change the timing of revenue recognition from claims and
variations.
Licensing –– License of IP and other components in a contract

Under current guidance a transaction involving a transfer of rights to IP is subject
to the general guidance on combining and segmenting contracts and identifying
separate components within a contract. The new standard is more detailed in
the identification of distinct goods or services and will reduce the inconsistency
in practice.
–– Pattern of revenue recognition
Under IAS 18 license fees and royalties are recognised based on the substance of
the agreement.
Revenue related to fees and royalties are recognised:
a) Over the life of the agreement on a straight line basis; or
b) When the conditions for the sale of a good are met. This is the approach
when the entity assigns rights for fixed consideration and has no remaining
obligations to perform and the licensee is able to exploit the rights freely.
Although this approach is similar to over time and point in time recognition
under IFRS 15, it is possible that revenue recognition will be accelerated or
deferred compared with IAS 18.
–– Substance of the agreement
Under current IFRSs entities may consider that, by analogy, an appropriate
accounting policy for licenses is the guidance on leases. In contrast, IFRS 15
contains specific guidance for licenses.
–– Contingent license fee or royalty
Under IAS 18 if a license fee or royalty is contingent on a future event, revenue is
recognised only if it is probable that the fee or royalty will be received (normally,
when the future event occurs). Although the sales or usage based royalty
exception in IFRS 15 may not lead to significant changes in practice, the new
standard prohibits the recognition of a sales or usage based royalty until the sale
or usage occurs, even if the sale or usage is probable.
Sales outside the –– Sale or transfer of an item of property, plant and equipment, intangible
entity’s ordinary activities asset or investment property
a) Timing of derecognition: the date of disposal of these types of assets is
currently determined by the guidance in IAS 18 regarding the conditions for
recognising a sale of goods, i.e. a risk and reward test must be applied. The
new control based model may result in a change in the date of disposal if risks
and rewards are transferred at a different date from control (for example,
when variable payments exist). The new model based on control might have
an effect in the real estate industry.
b) Gain or loss on disposal:
–– IAS 18: the consideration received or receivable is measured at fair value;
–– IFRS 15: the guidance on the transaction price is applied, including variable
consideration and the constraint. This may result in a decrease in any gain
recognised initially, particularly if the constraint applies.
Other issues –– Warranties

A contract with a customer may contain a warranty clause. The accounting
approach might be different under the new standard.
a) IAS 18: a ‘standard’ warranty clause does not result in the entity retaining
significant risks and therefore does not preclude revenue recognition at the
date of the sale of the product. The entity typically recognises a warranty
provision in accordance with IAS 37 for the best estimate of the costs to be
incurred for repairing or replacing the defective products. On the other hand,
an ‘abnormal’ warranty obligation could indicate that the significant risks and
rewards of ownership have not been transferred to the customer and that
revenue should be deferred.
b) IFRS 15: the new standard does not contemplate that a warranty clause
would preclude the recognition of all of the revenue linked to the sale of the
product. However, a warranty that goes beyond assurance that a good or
service complies with agreed upon specifications is accounted for as separate
components and revenue is deferred.
–– Agent or principal
Although the concept of principal and agent is already contemplated in the
current standard, the move from a risk and reward model to a transfer of control
based model implies that the indicators to assess whether and entity is acting as
principal or agent may be different.
Under IAS 18 an entity is a principal in the transaction when it has exposure
to the significant risks and rewards associated with the sale of goods or the
rendering of services.
Other issues –– Customer loyalty programs

(continued) Under current IFRS an entity can choose the method to allocate the
consideration between the sales transaction and the award credits. The residual
method to estimate the stand-alone selling price of award credits is widely
applied. Under IFRS 15 the residual approach can be applied but only in certain
cases.
–– Breakage
Although it is not explicitly dealt with in IAS 18, it is common to recognise
revenue for breakage if the amount is non-refundable and the likelihood of the
customer requiring the entity to fulfil its performance obligation is remote. The
new standard might imply changes in the timing of revenue recognition.
–– Non-refundable upfront fees
Under current IFRS any initial or entrance fee may be recognised as revenue
when there is no significant uncertainty over its collection and the entity has no
further obligation to perform any continuing services (according to the timing,
nature and value of the benefits provided).
Under IFRS 15 an entity needs to assess whether a non-refundable up-front fee
relates to a specific good or service transferred to the customer and recognise
revenue in a way that reflects properly how the control is transferred. This may
result in the deferral of revenue recognition.
–– Onerous contracts
Under current guidance onerous contracts are within the scope of the following
standards:
a) IAS 37: a provision must be recognised when the unavoidable costs of
meeting the obligations under a contract exceed the economic benefits to be
received.
b) IAS 11: expected losses on construction contracts have to be recognised
immediately.
IFRS 15 does not contain specific guidance on onerous contracts and therefore
the guidance on IAS 11 regarding expected losses on construction contracts has
been withdrawn. Instead, onerous contracts are dealt with wholly in IAS 37.
Presentation –– Consistent presentation approach

Under current IFRS there is some diversity in practice when presenting assets
and liabilities related to contracts with customers where the percentage of
completion method is being applied. Amounts due to or from customers is
presented in different ways (assets, liabilities, deferred income, payments
received in advance or in account).
IFRS 15 contains a single, more systematic approach to presentation in the
statement of financial position and does not distinguish between different types
of contracts with customers.
–– Disclosures
The IFRS 15 disclosures requirements are significantly more extensive than under
current standards.
CONTACT
For further information about how BDO can assist you and your organisation,
please get in touch with one of our key contacts listed below.
Alternatively, please visit
www.bdointernational.com/Services/Audit/IFRS/IFRS Country Leaders
where you can find full lists of regional and country contacts.
EUROPE
Anne Catherine Farlay France annecatherine.farlay@bdo.fr
Jens Freiberg Germany jens.freiberg@bdo.de
Teresa Morahan Ireland tmorahan@bdo.ie
Ehud Greenberg Israel ehudg@bdo.co.il
Roald Beumer Netherlands roald.beumer@bdo.nl
Reidar Jensen Norway reidar.jensen@bdo.no
Maria Sukonkina Russia m.sukonkina@bdo.ru
David Cabalaeiro Spain david.cabaleiro@bdo.es
René Krügel Switzerland rene.kruegel@bdo.ch
Brian Creighton United Kingdom brian.creighton@bdo.co.uk
ASIA PACIFIC
Wayne Basford Australia wayne.basford@bdo.com.au
Aletta Boshoff Australia aletta.boshoff@bdo.com.au
Zheng Xian Hong China zheng.xianhong@bdo.com.cn
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Keyur Dave India keyurdave@bdo.in
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LATIN AMERICA
Marcelo Canetti Argentina mcanetti@bdoargentina.com
Luis Pierrend Peru lpierrend@bdo.com.pe
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NORTH AMERICA & CARIBBEAN

Armand Capisciolto Canada acapisciolto@bdo.ca
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MIDDLE EAST
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SUB SAHARAN AFRICA

Nigel Griffith South Africa ngriffith@bdo.co.za
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IFRS in Practice 2018 IFRS15

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IFRS IN PRACTICE 2018

IFRS 15 Revenue from Contracts with Customers

Convergence with US GAAP

2. OVERVIEW OF IFRS 15’S REQUIREMENTS

The application of the core principle in IFRS 15 is carried out in five steps:

Figure 1: Five-step approach

Apply the requirements of other IFRSs to Apply the requirements of IFRS 15 to

Figure 2: Scope of IFRS 15

4. THE ‘FIVE STEP’ APPROACH

(i) Termination (ii) Continuation

Figure 3: Accounting for contract modifications

Example – sale of a product

Scenario A – the price of each of the additional units is CU 75

Contract enforceability and termination clauses

4.2. Step Two – Identify separate performance obligations in the contract

Is the promise to transfer a good or service separate from the other

The good or service is ‘distinct’

Figure 4: Distinct goods or services

Example 2 – construction of a wall

Example 3 – construction of a building

Example 5 – equipment and consumables

Identifying promised goods or services (Agenda Paper 12; January 2015)

Combining a good or service with other promised goods or services

Implicit promises in a contract

4.3. Step Three – Determine the transaction price of the contract

Variable consideration – most likely amount

Constraining estimates of variable consideration

Scenario 1 – the vendor’s estimate of variable consideration is not constrained

Scenario 2 – the vendor’s estimate of variable consideration is constrained

Interaction between IFRS 15 and IAS 2

When should costs associated with inventories be recognised?

Sales- and usage-based royalties

The existence of a significant financing component in the contract

The accounting entries required are as follows:

Over the two year construction period:

At the date of transfer of the machine to the customer:

Consideration payable to a customer

BDO comment (continued)

TRG discussions (continued)

TRG discussions (continued)

4.4. Step Four – Allocate the transaction price to the performance obligations

Allocating the transaction price based on the stand-alone selling price

Allocation of variable consideration

4.5. Step Five – Recognise revenue when each performance obligation is satisfied

Performance obligations satisfied over time

Example – Shipping Company

(ii) The vendor creates or enhances an asset controlled by the customer

Enforceable right to payment for performance completed to date

supplier once the goods arrive at the buyer’s receiving dock.

Measuring progress toward complete satisfaction of a performance obligation

Revenue recognition at a point in time

Incremental costs of obtaining a contract

Costs to fulfil a contract

Scenario 2 (looking at subsequent commission)

5.2. Changes in the transaction price after contract inception

Change in price arising from contract modification

Change in contract price arising from re-estimation of variable consideration

5.3. Sale with a right of return

5.5. Principal vs. agent

Taxes (Agenda Paper 2; July 2014 and Clarifications to IFRS 15)