J Food Sci Technol (May 2015) 52(5):2522–2529

DOI 10.1007/s13197-014-1396-5

REVIEW

Functional components and medicinal properties of food: a review

Christian Izuchukwu Abuajah &
Augustine Chima Ogbonna & Chijioke Maduka Osuji

Revised: 23 April 2014 / Accepted: 24 April 2014 / Published online: 16 May 2014
# Association of Food Scientists & Technologists (India) 2014

Abstract Research has proved a relationship between func- Keywords Biomolecules . Foods . Functional . Medicine .
tional components of food, health and well-being. Thus, func- Physiological . Phytochemicals
tional components of food can be effectively applied in the
treatment and prevention of diseases. They act simultaneously
at different or identical target sites with the potential to impart Introduction
physiological benefits and promotion of wellbeing including
reducing the risk of cancer, cardiovascular disease, osteopo- Functional components are non-conventional biomolecules
rosis, inflammation, type II diabetes, and other chronic degen- that occur in food which possess the capacity to modulate
erative diseases, lowering of blood cholesterol, neutralization one or more metabolic processes or pathways in the body,
of reactive oxygen species and charged radicals, anticarcino- resulting to health benefits and promotion of well-being
genic effect, low-glycaemic response, etc. Previously, it was (Swanson 2003). Research has proved a relationship between
thought that functional ingredients such as non-starchy carbo- functional components in food, health and well-being
hydrates including soluble and insoluble dietary fibres, (Shibamoto et al. 2008). Consequently, functional compo-
fucoidan; antioxidants including polyphenols, carotenoids, nents have health-promoting roles at various stages of disease
tocopherols, tocotrienols, phytosterols, isoflavones, control that are associated with multiple progressive steps,
organosulphur compounds; plant sterols and soy from initiation to development. Thus, they can be effectively
phytoestrogens occur only in plant foods (whole grains, fruits, applied in the treatment and prevention of diseases (Wildman
and vegetables) as phytochemicals. However, probiotics, pre- 2001). Hence, in a time when the role of a healthy diet in
biotics, conjugated linolenic acid, long-chain omega-3, −6 and preventing non-communicable diseases is well accepted, the
−9-polyunsaturated fatty acids, and bioactive peptides have borderline between food and medicine is becoming very thin
proved that functional components are equally available in (Pravst 2012).
animal products such as milk, fermented milk products and Functional components include phytochemicals which are
cold-water fish. The way a food is processed affects its func- plant-derived, non-nutritive and biologically active chemicals
tional components. Many processing techniques have been that function in the body to prevent the onset of certain non-
found to lower the concentration of functional components in communicable diseases (Murano 2003). There are over 900
food. Conversely, other techniques were found to increase phytochemicals found in foods. One serving (about 120 g) of
them. Hence, in a time when the role of a healthy diet in a fruit or vegetables may have as many as 100 different
preventing non-communicable diseases is well accepted, the phytochemicals (Srividya et al. 2010). Previously, it was
borderline between food and medicine is becoming very thin. thought that functional components occur predominantly only
in plant foods including whole grains, fruits, and vegetables as
C. I. Abuajah (*) : A. C. Ogbonna
phytochemicals. However, probiotics, conjugated linolenic
Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Uyo, acid, long-chain omega-3, −6 and −9 polyunsaturated fatty
PMB 1017 Uyo, Nigeria acids, and bioactive peptides are equally found in animal
e-mail: izychuks@yahoo.com products such as milk, fermented milk products and cold-
water fish. Table 1 gives some functional components of food,
C. M. Osuji
Department of Food Science and Technology, their biological functions and common sources. Functional
Federal University of Technology, PMB 1526 Owerri, Nigeria components usually occur in multiple forms such as
J Food Sci Technol (May 2015) 52(5):2522–2529 2523

Table 1 Some functional ingredients of food, their sources and potential benefits

Bioactive components Source Potential benefits

Carotenoids
Alpha-carotene/beta-carotene Carrots, Fruits, Vegetables Neutralize free radicals which may cause damage to cells.
Lutein Green vegetables Reduce the risk of muscular degeneration.
Lycopene Tomato products (ketchup, sauces) Reduce the risk of prostate cancer.
Non-starchy polysaccharide
Fucoidan (fucose) Mushrooms (maitake and reshi), Immune modulation; apoptosis of cancer cells; stimulates brain
brown seaweeds. development; anti-clotting effect; lower blood cholesterol levels;
decrease high blood pressure, stabilize blood sugar.
Insoluble dietary fibre Wheat bran Reduces risk of breast or colon cancer.
Soluble dietary fibre (β-Glucans) Oats, barley Reduces risk of cardiovascular disease; protects against heart disease
and some cancers; lower LDL and total cholesterol.
Soluble Fibre Psyllium Reduces risk of cardiovascular disease; protects against heart disease
and some cancers; lower LDL and total cholesterol.
Fatty Acids
Long chain omega-3 Fatty Salmon and other fish oils Reduce risk of cardiovascular disease; improve mental and visual
Acids-DHA/EPA functions.
Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA) Cheese, meat products. Improve body composition; decrease risk of certain cancers.
Phenolics
Anthocyanidins Fruits Neutralize free radicals; reduce risk of cancer.
Catechins Tea Neutralize free radicals; reduce risk of cancer.
Flavonones Citrus Neutralize free radicals; reduce risk of cancer.
Flavones Fruits/vegetables Neutralize free radicals; reduce risk of cancer.
Lignans Flax, rye, vegetables Prevention of cancer; renal failure.
Tannins (proanthocyanidines) Cranberries, cranberry products, Improve urinary tract health; Reduce risk of cardiovascular disease.
cocoa, chocolate
Plant Sterols
Stanol ester Corn, soy, wheat, wood oils Lower blood cholesterol levels by inhibiting cholesterol absorption.
Prebiotics and Probiotics
Fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS); Jerusalem artichokes, shallots, Improve quality of intestinal microflora; gastrointestinal health
onion powder,
Lactobacillus;
Biofidobacterium Yogurt, other dairy products Improve quality of intestinal microflora; gastrointestinal health.
Soy Phytoestrogens
Isoflavones: Daidzein Genistein Soybeans and soy-based foods Menopause symptoms such as hot flashes; protection against heart
disease and some cancers; lowering of LDL and total cholesterol

Adapted from AAFC (2011)

glycosylated, esterified, thiolated, or hydroxylated materials Type: Non-starchy carbohydrates (e.g. dietary fibre
in food. They also have multiple metabolic activities allowing and fucoidan)
for beneficial effects on several diseases and target tissues in
the body (Swanson 2003). This paper, therefore, reviews Basically, these are structural and storage carbohydrates
functional components in food with focus on their types, which are polymers of glucose molecules and other
nature, medicinal properties, functions, sources and effects sugars including galactose, fructose, xylose, arabinose,
of processing on them. etc., but are not starchy in nature (i.e. their sugar units
are not linked by either α [1,4] or α [1,6] glycosidic
bonds). Thus, they are not hydolysable by the human
Functional components of food: an overview digestive enzymes but undergo fermentation by the pro-
biotic microbes in the colon. There are several kinds of
Different types of functional components in food, their medic- non-starchy carbohydrates including dietary fibre and
inal properties, functions and sources are overviewed below. fucoidan.
2524 J Food Sci Technol (May 2015) 52(5):2522–2529

Dietary fibres Dietary fibres (DF), which could be soluble or NF-kB, a naturally occurring substance that regulates anti-
insoluble, are non-starchy polysaccharides and structural com- apoptotic proteins (MSKCC 2011).
ponents of the cell walls of cereals and microorganisms. They Fucoidan have also been shown to stimulate the phagocytic
are the indigestible part of plant foods composed of long action of macrophages and synthesis of several immune cell
straight and branched chains of carbohydrate molecules held types, which increase protection against infection (Akramiene
together by bonds that cannot be hydrolysed by human diges- et al. 2007; Chan et al. 2009; Ahmad et al. 2012b). The
tive enzymes. Chemically, DF are glucose polymers in hetero- nutritional makeup of fucoidan could be likened to that of breast
structural configuration of β (1, 3:1, 4) or β (1, 3:1, 6) bonds. milk which is the most perfect immune-supporting food known.
The water-soluble fibres are mainly β-glucans, gums, pectin, The polysaccharide gives the immune system a big boost by
mucilage and arabinoxylans while the water-insoluble fibres enhancing phagocytosis, the process through which white
are composed of lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose (AACC blood cells attack and destroy pathogens. Fucoidan also in-
2001; Andlauer and Furst 2002; Charalampopoulos et al. creases the number of mature white blood cells that are circu-
2002). lating in the body, thereby bolstering the first line of defence
against infections and diseases (Babal and Gionta 2010).
Fucoidan Fucoidan is a non-starchy and sulphated polysac-
charide. It is a polymer of α (1→3) linked fucose pyranose Sources Foods rich in soluble dietary fibre include apples,
sugar subunits. Fucoidan also has traces of galactose, xylose cranberries, mango, oranges, asparagus, broccoli, carrots, pea-
and glucoronic acid (Becker and Lowe 2003; MSKCC 2011). nuts, walnuts, most legumes, oats, and psyllium while those
Two structural features which distinguish fucose from other rich in insoluble dietary fibre are apples, bananas, berries,
six-carbon sugars present in mammals are the lack of a hy- broccoli, green peppers, spinach, almonds, sesame seeds,
droxyl group on the carbon at the six-position (C-6) and its L- most legumes, brown rice, whole-wheat breads, and cereals.
configuration (Becker and Lowe 2003). Cereals and bacteria are rich sources of β-(1,3:1,4)-glucan (a
DF with strong colloidal properties which is considered as
Functions The long fibrous structures of dietary fibre allow good functional ingredient in foods for its cholesterol-
them to entrap harmful toxins and carcinogens in the diges- lowering and low-glycaemic index functions). The highest
tive tract. Cereal β-glucan, the soluble dietary fibre, has amount of β-(1,3:1,4)-glucan occur in oat (2.2–7.8 %) and
gained special attention for their many health benefits such barley (2.5–11.3 %) bran, aleurone and subaleurone layers
as lowering serum cholesterol. In addition it is attributed to (Charalampopoulos et al. 2002; Havrlentova and Kraic
having a good water retention capacity, gelling ability and 2006). Brown seaweeds and some medicinal mushrooms are
hydro-colloidal forming properties which have influenced high in fucoidan (WineBrenner 2007). In addition, mushroom
their use as substitutes for fat (Izydorczyk and Dexter and yeast’s polysaccharides such as β-(1,3:1,6)-glucan have
2008). Fungi β-glucans, a family of diversified structures been in focus for their antitumor activity and the chemical
found in the cell wall of yeast and molds, modulate immune diversity of these glycans ranges from homopolymers to high-
system by enhancing leucocytes activity that is responsible ly complex heteropolymers. Varieties of sugars such as glu-
for enhancing body defence mechanism. Inulin has success- cose, galactose, mannose, xylose, arabinose, sucrose ribose,
fully replaced fat in dairy products (Duss and Nyberg 2004; glucouronic acid etc. are involved in the formation of such
Chan et al. 2009; Srividya et al. 2010; Havrlentova et al. polysaccharides. Some of the glycans form conjugates with
2011; Ahmad et al. 2012b). Soluble dietary fibre can proteins and peptides with higher potent antitumor activity
dissolve in or absorb water and is effective in binding (Akramiene et al. 2007; Chan et al. 2009; Ali et al. 2009).
toxins and cholesterol in the intestinal tract. Insoluble dietary
fibre, on the other hand, cannot dissolve in water and is Type: Antioxidants, anti-cancerous and immune-modulating
effective in adding faecal bulk and increasing the rate of agents
passage of food through the intestinal tract. Insoluble dietary
fibre also dilutes out potential carcinogens and decreases Antioxidants are groups of compounds which neutralise free
contact of toxins and carcinogens with the intestinal tract radicals and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the cell. A free
and speeds up their passage out of the body (Duss and radical is a carbon or oxygen atom that has an unpaired
Nyberg 2004; Ahmad et al. 2009; Havrlentova et al. 2011; electron and is highly charged and unstable. Free radicals
Ahmad et al. 2012). Similarly, fucoidan inhibits the spread can form in lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates. Examples of
of cancerous cells by preventing the adhesion of tumor cells antioxidants are as follows:
to the extracellular matrix as well as induce apoptosis, or
programmed self-destruction, in human T-cell leukemia vi- Carotenoids (e.g. lycopene, lutein) The carotenoids are lipid-
rus type I (HTLV-1) which causes adult T-cell leukemia. The soluble plant pigments that are either oxygenated or non-
polysaccharide paves way for apoptosis by inactivating oxygenated hydrocarbons containing at least 40 carbons and
J Food Sci Technol (May 2015) 52(5):2522–2529 2525

an extensive conjugated double bond system. Alpha-carotene, Organo-sulphur compounds The organosulfur compounds
beta-carotene, and lycopene are the predominant non-polar are commonly found in cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli,
functional carotenoids and lutein is the primary polar func- cauliflower, and brussel sprouts or allium vegetables (vegeta-
tional carotenoid. Carotenoids can be found esterified to fatty bles in the same class with onions and garlic) such as leeks.
acids or unesterified in plant tissues. Lycopene are the most Organosulfur compounds contain sulfur atoms that are bound
active oxygen neutralizer with potential chemo-preventive to a cyanate group or a carbon atom in a cyclic or non-cyclic
activities. The total carotenoid content of fruits and vegetables configuration. The functional ingredients of foods containing
varies with age and storage (Parker 2000). organosulfur compounds are obtained only after cutting,
chewing, or crushing has disrupted the cells to expose them.
Polyphenols Polyphenols are the most numerous and widely In cruciferous vegetables various isothiocyanates such as sul-
distributed group of functional molecules. Polyphenols are foraphane, phenethyl isothiocyanate, and benzyl isothiocyanate
diverse groups of plant substances that contain one or more are formed from glucosinolyates by the action of myrosinase.
benzene rings and varying number of hydroxyl (OH), carbon- In alliums, allicin is formed from alliin and then rapidly con-
yl (CO), and carboxylic acid (COOH) groups. They common- verted to diallyl sulfide, diallyl disulfide or diallyl trisulfide by
ly exist in conjugated forms with one or more attached sugar the action of allinase. In both cruciferous and allium vegetables,
residues. The most common class of polyphenols is the fla- these hydrolytic breakdown products are the health-promoting
vonoids. Other types of polyphenols include catechins, functional components (Swanson 2003; Anon 2013).
thearubingens, theaflavins, isoflavones, and over 8000 others
(Lobo et al. 2010). The polyphenol content can vary tremen- Functions The primary functions of antioxidants include the
dously between food sources and within foods of the same regulation of the redox potential within a cell and the reduc-
type. The following ranges were reported for total polyphenol tion of potential initiators of cell death and carcinogenesis.
content in some food materials and fruits: barley and millet Hence antioxidants are anti-carcinogenic agents. The redox
(590–1,500 mg/100 g dry matter); oats and corns (8.7– potential refers to the balance of the reducing and oxidizing
30.9 mg/100 g dry matter); fresh onions and leeks (20– reactions that occur within the cell. Redox changes within a
20.25 mg/100 g dry matter), fresh brussel sprouts (6–15 mg/ cell are able to trigger various molecular responses such as
100 g dry matter), blueberries, strawberries, cranberries, and induction of apoptosis (cell death) and activation of signal
raspberries the total polyphenol content is about 37–429 mg/ transduction (the transfer of messages between cells and with-
100 g dry matter (Bravo 1998). in a cell). Therefore, redox regulation of physiological and
pathological processes is important in optimizing health and
Phytosterols Phytosterols are the plant equivalent of choles- disease prevention (Lobo et al. 2010; Kumar 2011).
terol in animals. Their structures are similar. However, the Other functional antioxidant compounds are able to bind to
side-chain in plant sterols contains additional double bonds toxins or carcinogens in the intestinal tract, such as the binding
and methyl and/or ethyl groups. The most common bioactive of N-nitroso compounds by polyphenols in tea, thereby
phytosterols are beta-sitosterol, campesterol, and stigmasterol. preventing their transformation or even absorption. The
A daily non-vegetarian diet contains approximately 250 mg of lipid-lowering mechanism of phytosterol/stanols occurs by
unsaturated phytosterols while a vegetarian diet contains over sequestering cholesterol in the intestinal tract and reducing
500 mg. The saturated derivatives of plant sterols are plant its absorption. Epidemiological and experimental studies sug-
stanols such as sitostanol. (Swanson 2003; Anon 2013). gest that dietary phytosterols may offer protection from most
of the common cancers in western societies such as colon,
Tocopherols and tocotrienols The tocopherols and breast and prostate cancers (Boothe 1978). The possible
tocotrienols are lipid-soluble functional components which mechanism by which phytosterols offer this protection include
contain a phenolic-chromanol ring linked to an isoprenoid its effects on membrane structure, tumor and host cell tissues,
side chain that is either saturated (tocopherols) or unsaturat- signal transduction pathways that regulate tumor growth and
ed (tocotrienols). There are also four primary forms of apoptosis, immune functions of the host and cholesterol me-
tocopherols and tocotrienols, alpha, beta, gamma, and delta tabolism by the host (Akramiene et al. 2007; Chan et al. 2009;
that differ in the number and position of methyl groups on Ahmad et al. 2012b).
the phenolic-chromanol ring. In addition, the tocopherols The structural similarity between several isoflavone metab-
have three asymmetrical carbons at positions two, four, olites and those of estrogens and estradiols suggests the pos-
and eight of the isoprenoid side chain. Consequently, there sibility of estrogen-like biological activities in isoflavones.
are eight isomeric forms of tocopherols, of which RRR-a- Isoflavones or phytoestrogens, however, exhibit antagonist
tocopherol has the greatest bioactivity and is also the most estrogen activity resulting in lower overall exposure to estro-
abundant in human blood and tissues (Lobo et al. 2010; gen in premenopausal women and reducing breast cancer risk
Srividya et al. 2010). (Shimizu et al. 1990; Cassidy et al. 1994; Cassidy et al. 1995).
2526 J Food Sci Technol (May 2015) 52(5):2522–2529

In postmenopausal women, phytoestrogen-rich diets reduce greens, and green beans are good sources of lutein. Lycopene is
the hormone-sensitive increases in plasma cholesterol levels found predominately in tomatoes. Other bioactive components
and bone loss (Potter et al. 1998; Setchell and Cassidy 1999). in tomato are kaempferol or chlorogenic acid, which have anti-
pt?>Similarly, the induction of enzyme systems that detox- mutagenic activities. This suggests that tomato suspension have
ify toxic chemicals including the phase I (e.g. cytochrome a protective effect on colon cancer which is mediated by the
P450 group of oxidases) and phase II (e.g. N-acetyl transfer- modulation of different biological pathways during carcinoge-
ase, glutathione S-transferase, UDP-glucoronyl transferase, nesis (Hardy et al. 2002). Typical dietary sources which are rich
etc.) detoxifying enzymes is thought to reduce one’s suscep- in tocopherol and tocotrienols include vegetable oils, nuts and
tibility to mutagenic effects. Functional food components with the germ portion of grains (Swanson 2003).
antioxidant functions are able to activate phase II detoxifying Among the foods that have been shown to have beneficial
enzymes via the antioxidant responsive element pathway such immuno-modulatory effects are broccoli, garlic, onions, veg-
as the nuclear factor [erythroid-derived 2]-like two also etable oils, almonds, and walnuts (Swanson 2003; Srividya
known as Nrf2 pathway (Mukhtar and Ahmad 2000; Lobo et al. 2010). Similarly, garlic, soy bean, cabbage, ginger,
et al. 2010; Kumar 2011). Organo-sulphur compounds such as licorice root extract (extract of the root of Glycytthiza glabra)
isothiocyanates, in particular sulforaphane, are potent mono- and umbelliferous vegetables (vegetables that grow or pro-
inducers of phase II detoxifying enzymes (Zhang et al. 1994) duce its plant beneath the ground, e.g. carrots) have been
while diallyl sulfides from garlic preparations are inducers of identified as foods and herbs with the highest anticancer
both phases I and II detoxifying enzymes (Yang et al. 2001). activity. Citrus in addition to providing an ample supply of
A primary mechanism for immune-modulation is the multiple vitamin C, folic acid, potassium and soluble fibre contains a
antioxidant capability of polyphenols, tocopherols, carotenoids, host of active phytochemicals (Dzanis 1998).
isothiocyanates, and allyl sulfides, lycopene being the most Green tea enhances humoral and cell-mediated immunity while
active oxygen neutralizer with potential chemo-preventive activ- decreasing the risk of certain cancers and cardio-vascular disease.
ities. Together, these compounds are able to reduce the deleteri- On the other hand, ginseng enhances production of macrophages
ous effects of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and free radicals, and T-cells, natural killer cells and colony forming activity of bone
which cause premature death of immune cells (Brennan et al. marrow (Diplock et al. 1999). Soy bean, garlic, ginger and green
2000). Garlic is found to be a superior phytochemical in the tea which have been suggested, in epidemiological studies, to
reduction of total cholesterol levels (Dureja and Kaushik 2003) reduce the incidence of cancer may do so by inducing pro-
and is also reported to control arterial stiffness by increasing the grammed cell death. Soybean extract has been shown to prevent
good cholesterol: high density lipoprotein (HDL) and decreasing the development of polycystic kidneys (Chang 2000). Turmeric is
the bad cholesterol: low density lipoprotein (LDL). It also in- most potent against skin tumors (Halt 1998).
hibits inducible nitric oxide synthase by reducing the protein and
mRNA and thus promotes vasodilatation of blood vessels. Garlic Type: Probiotics and prebiotics
has strong immunopotential capacity and enhances the natural
killer (NK) activity and proliferation of T- Lymphocytes by Probiotics are the beneficial live microorganisms, which,
delaying the hypersensitivity reaction. when administered in adequate amounts, confer health bene-
Aged garlic extract is found to be a promising immune fits on the host (Iwe 2006), e.g. Lactobacillus (LAB),
modifier with internal body regulatory function, particularly Biofidobacterium, etc.
in the control of sarcoma-180 and lung carcinoma as well as
inhibition of platelet aggregation. Both the oil- and water- Prebiotics Are the non-digestible food ingredients that stimu-
soluble components of garlic extract have shown health ben- late the growth and activity of probiotics in the digestive system
efits. Specifically, its oil extract reduces serious mental disor- in ways claimed to be beneficial to health (Anon 2011). Thus,
der and prevents blood coagulation even in diabetics while its prebiotics are healthy non-digestible food ingredients that make
water extract is effective in cell cycle and viability of HG2 their way through our digestive system and help the beneficial
hepatoma cells (Srividya et al. 2010). Since garlic extract or good bacteria grow and flourish (Jegtvig 2012; Iwe 2006).
reversed oxidant responses it seems likely that it protects
tissues from oxidative damages (Crandell and Duren 2007). Functions Probiotics are believed to protect us in two major
ways. The first is the role that they play in our digestive tract.
Sources Food sources of polyphenols and flavonoids include Our digestive tracts need a healthy balance between the good
vegetables, fruits, cereals, legumes, nuts, tea, wines and other and bad microrganisms. But our lifestyles such as poor food
beverages made with fruits, vegetables and grains (Mandal et choices, emotional stress, and lack of sleep, antibiotic over use,
al. 2009; Srividya et al. 2010). Carrots, squash, sweet potato, other drugs, and environmental influences can shift the balance
and spinach are abundant in both beta-and alpha-carotene and in favour of the bad microrganisms (Kovacs 2012). When the
the dark green leafy vegetables such as kale, spinach, mustard digestive tract is healthy, it filters out and eliminates things that
J Food Sci Technol (May 2015) 52(5):2522–2529 2527

can damage it, such as harmful microbes, toxins, chemicals, is manifested when there is increase in the number and activity
and other waste products. On the flip side, it takes in the things of probiotics. This effect is induced by consuming functional
that our body needs (nutrients from food and water) and absorbs foods that contain prebiotics. The prebiotic definition does not
and helps deliver them to the cells where they are needed. The emphasize a specific microbial group.
idea is not to kill off all of the microbes. Our bodies do have a
need for the bad ones and the good ones. The problem is when Sources Dietary supplements and fermented food products
the balance is shifted to have more bad than good. An imbal- have been advertised as containing beneficial cultures. These
ance has been associated with diarrhoea, urinary tract infec- cultures are what would now be considered probiotics
tions, muscle pain, and fatigue (Kovacs 2012). (Asmahan 2010). Other foods currently claimed to provide
The second major benefit of probiotics is the impact they probiotics are cereal juice, frozen yogurt, granola, candy bars,
have on our immune system. Our immune system is our and cookies. While they may contain probiotics, there is no
protection against pathogens. When it doesn’t function prop- guarantee that they have them in optimal levels. Only the
erly, we can suffer from allergic reactions, autoimmune disor- manufacturer of the product can confirm if there are any
ders (for example, ulcerative colitis, Crohn’s disease, and studies to support his specific claims (Kovacs 2012).
rheumatoid arthritis), and infections (for example, infectious The most common types of prebiotics are non-starchy
diarrhoea, Helicobacter pylori, skin infections, and vaginal carbohydrates such as soluble dietary fibre (e.g. β-glucan,
infections). By maintaining the correct balance from birth, inulin, etc.) and other oligosaccharides such as fructo-
these ailments are prevented (Iwe 2006; Kovacs 2012). Dur- oligosaccharide (fructans), galacto-oligosaccharide, etc. Many
ing delivery through the birth canal, a newborn picks up the of the plants frequently eaten as vegetables - asparagus, garlic,
beneficial bacteria from his/her mother. These good bacteria leek, onion, artichoke – are excellent sources of inulin. β-
are not transmitted when a Caesarean section is performed and glucan and inulin are common in many plants containing
have been shown to be the reason why some infants born by dietary fibre and fructan. Traditional dietary sources of prebi-
Caesarean section have allergies, sub-optimal immune sys- otics also include soybeans, raw oats, unrefined wheat and
tems, and lower levels of gut microflora (Kovacs 2012). unrefined barley. Some of the oligosaccharides that naturally
Some of the specific mechanisms by which probiotics occur in breast milk are believed to play an important role in
exclude undesirable microorganisms include the production the development of a healthy immune system in infants
of inhibitory substances, blocking of adhesion sites, competi- through the prebiotic-probiotic relationship (Anon 2011).
tion for nutrients, degradation of toxin receptors, and stimu-
lation of immunity (Chow 2002). Effect of processing on functional components in food
Prebiotics stimulate the growth of beneficial and healthy
microorganisms (probiotics) in the gut with a resultant in- The way a food is processed affects its functional components.
crease resistance to invading pathogens. This positive impact Some food processing techniques increase the concentration
of prebiotics, in an unaltered form, in the human intestine is of these functional components in food while others reduce it
known as the prebiotic effect. However, such prebiotic effect (Table 2). It has been shown that the length of post-harvest

Table 2 Effect of processing on

the antioxidant content of some S/N Food Type of processing Effect of processing on antioxidant
foods content (%) compared to non-processed food

1. Apple Peeling (−) 33–66 %

2. Carrots Steaming (+) 291 %
3. Carrots Boiling (+) 121–159 %
4. Cucumbers Peeling (−) 50 %
5. Asparagus Steaming (+) 205 %
6. Broccoli Steaming (+) 122–654 %
7. Green cabbage Steaming (+) 448 %
8. Red cabbage Steaming (+) 270 %
9. Green pepper Steaming (+) 467 %
10. Red pepper Steaming (+) 180 %
11. Potatoes Steaming (+) 105–242 %
12. Tomatoes Steaming (+) 112–164 %
13. Spinach Boiling (+) 114–184 %
14. Sweet potatoes Steaming (+) 413
Source Hadvorsen et al. (2006)
2528 J Food Sci Technol (May 2015) 52(5):2522–2529

storage, steam blanching, and thermal processing all influ- References

ence the retention of functional compounds in allium veg-
etables (Howard et al. 1997; Song and Milner 2001). AACC (2001) The definition of dietary fibre. Cereal Foods World, 46:
However, losses of about 30–80 % of bioactive isothiocy- 112–129
anates through heat processing have been reported AAFC (2011) What are functional foods and nutraceuticals? Agric Agri-
Food, Canada. http://www4.agr.gc.ca/AAFC-AAC/display-afficher.
(Howard et al. 1997). In addition, high temperatures
do?id=1171305207040 Accesssed 25 February 2013
(100 °C and above) inactivates key enzymes, myrosinase Ahmad A, Anjum MF, Zahoor T, Nawaz H, Din A (2009)
in cruciferae and allinase in allium vegetables, thereby Physicochemical and functional properties of barley b-glucan as
reducing the amount of functional components. However, affected by different extraction procedures. Int J Food Sci Technol
44:181–187. doi:10.1111/j.13652621.2008.01721.x
temperatures associated with normal cooking have shown
Ahmad A, Munir B, Abrar M, Bashir S, Adnan M, Tabassum T (2012)
little evidence of substantial loss of isothiocyanates. Perspective of β-glucan as functional ingredient for food industry. J
Leaching of glucosinolates and their hydrolysis products Nutr Food Sc 2:133. doi:10.4172/2155-9600.1000133
also results in a reduction in total phytochemical content Akramiene D, Kondrotas A, Didziapetriene J, Kevelaitis E (2007) Effects
of β-glucans on the immune system. Med (Kaunas) 43(8):597–606
following cooking. Research has shown that microwave-
Ali R, Athar M, Abdullah US, Abibi A, Qayyum M (2009) Nutraceuticals
heating garlic for 30–60 s or heating it to a temperature of as natural healers: emerging evidences. Afr J Biotechnol 8(6):891–898
60–100 °C results in significant losses of its anti- Andlauer W, Furst P (2002) Nutraceuticals: a piece of history, present
inflammatory, anticancer, antimicrobial, and anti-oxidative status and outlook. Food Res Int 35:171–176
Anon (2011) Prebiotic (Nutrition). Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopaedia.
activities (Song and Milner 2001).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prebiotic_%28nutrition%29 Accessed
The bioavailability of carotenoids and other lipid- 27 May 2012
soluble functional food components have been shown Anon (2013) Nutrition. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopaedia. http://en.
to improve with processing technique that increase sur- wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutrition Accessed 26 March 2013
Asmahan A (2010) Beneficial role of lactic acid bacteria in food preser-
face area, such as cutting and chopping, as well as heat
vation and human health: a review. Res J Microbiol 5:1213–1221
treatment that breaks down protein and carbohydrate Babal, K and Gionta, R.A. (2010) Seafood Sense. www.
matrix (Stahl and Sies 1992; Parker 2000). The brewing ReadHowYouWant.com Accessed 18 October 2011
of tea leaves, whether black or green, releases 69–85 % Becker, D.J. and Lowe, J.B. (2003). Fucose: Biosynthesis and biological
of their bioactive flavonoids within 3–5 min in hot function in mammals. Glycobiology 13 (7): 41R–53R. doi:10.1093/
glycob/cwg054 DOI:10.1093%2Fglycob%2Fcwg054
water (Trevisanato and Kim 2000). Boothe DM (1978) Nutraceuticals in veterinary medicine. Part- I: defini-
However, drying pre-treatment before boiling was found tion and regulations. Comp Cont Ed 19(11):1248–1255
to reduce cooking time thereby leading to less leaching of Bravo L (1998) Polyphenols: chemistry, dietary sources, metabolism, and
antioxidants in edible Irish seaweed Homanthalia nutritional significance. Nutr Rev 56(11):317–333
Brennan LA, Morris GM, Wasson GR, Hannigan BM, Barnett YA (2000)
elongata. In terms of extract, drying followed by boiling The effect of vitamin C or vitamin E supplementation on basal and
of H. elongata had the most significant effect on phyto- H2O2-induced DNA damage in human lymphocytes. Br J Nutr 84:
chemicals as its total phenolic content increased by 195–202
174 %. However, this processing treatment reduced its Cassidy A, Bingham S, Setchell KDR (1994) Biological effects of
isoflavones present in soy in premenopausal women: implications
anti-microbial activity compared to extracts from fresh for the prevention of breast cancer. Am J Clin Nutr 60(3):30–40
samples (Cox et al. 2011) Table 2 below gives a summary Cassidy A, Bingham S, Setchell KDR (1995) Biological effects of
of the effect of processing on the antioxidant content of isoflavones in young women: importance of the chemical composi-
some foods. tion of soya products. Br J Nutr 74(5):87–90
Chan GCF, Chan WKS, DMY (2009) The effects of β-glucan on human
immune and cancer cells. J Haematol Oncol 2:25. doi:10.1186/
1756-8722-2-25
Chang J (2000) Medicinal herbs: drug or dietary supplements? Biochem
Conclusion Pharmacol 59:211–219
Charalampopoulos D, Wang R, Pandella SS, Web C (2002) Application
of cereals and cereal components in functional foods: a review. Int J
Clearly, functional components in food will play an important Food Microbiol 79:131–141
role in health maintenance in the future as a result of their Chow (2002) Probiotics and prebiotics: a brief overview. J Ren Nutr
medicinal properties. However, the bioavailability of these 12(12):76–86
Cox S, Abass-Ghannam N, Gupta S. (2011) Effects of processing condi-
functional food components and the levels required in humans tions on phytochemical constituents of edible Irish seaweed
are critical factors necessary to optimize health benefits. Cur- Homanthalia elongata. J Food Process Preserv, www.arrow.dit.ie/
rent information in this regard is insufficient and hazy. Con- schfseh/99 Accessed 28 September 2013
sequently, there is need to provide consumers with more Crandell K, Duren S (2007) Nutraceuticals: what are they and they work?
J Biotechnol 34(3):29–36
information to effectively guide them in making wider choices Diplock AT, Aggett PJ, Ashwell M, Borner F, Fern EB, Robertford MB
of diets that contain optimal levels of health-promoting func- (1999) Scientific concepts of functional foods in Europe:
tional food components. concesdocument. Br J Nutr S1:520–527
J Food Sci Technol (May 2015) 52(5):2522–2529 2529

Dureja HD, Kaushik KV (2003) Development of nutraceuticals. Ind J Mukhtar H, Ahmad N (2000) Tea polyphenols: prevention of cancer and
Pharmacol 35:363–372 optimizing health. Am J Clin Nutr 71(1):698S–702S
Duss R, Nyberg L (2004) Oat soluble fibres (β-glucans) as a source for Murano PS (2003) Phytochemicals and phytonutrients in understanding
healthy snack and breakfast foods. Cereal Foods World 49(6):320– food science & technology. Wadsworth, Bemont, pp 51–56
325 Parker RS (2000) Phytochemicals: carotenoids. In: Francis FJ (ed) Wiley
Dzanis DA (1998) Nutraceuticals: food or drug? J Nutr 42(2):430–431 encyclopedia of food science and technology, vol 3, 2nd edn. Wiley,
Hadvorsen BL, Carlsen MH, Phillips KM, Bohn SK, Holte K, Jacobs New York, pp 909–915
DR, Jnr BR (2006) Content of redox active compounds Potter SM, Baum JA, Teng H, Stillman RJ, Shay NF, Erdman JW (1998)
(antioxidants) in foods consumed in the United States. Am J Clin Soy protein and isoflavones: their effects on blood lipids and bone
Nutr 84(1):95–135 density in postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 68(1):325S–379S
Halt M (1998) Moulds and mycotoxin in herb tea and medicinal plants. Pravst, I (2012) Functional Foods in Europe: A Focus on Health Claims.
Eur J Epidemiol 14:269–274 In: B. Valdez (Ed.), Scientific, Health and Social Aspects of the
Hardy G, Hardy I, McElory B (2002) Nutraceuticals, pharmaceutical Food Industry. http://www.intechopen.com/books/scientific-health-
viewpoint: current opinion. Clin Metab Care 5:671–677 and-social-aspects-of-the-food-industry/functional-foods-ineurope-
Havrlentova M, Kraic J (2006) Content of beta-d-glucan in cereal grains. a-focus-on-health-claims Accessed January 25 2013.
J Food Res Nutr 45:97–103 Setchell KDR, Cassidy A (1999) Dietary isoflavones: biological effects
Havrlentova M, Petrulakova Z, Burgarova A, Gago F, Hlinkova A, Sturdik and relevance to human health. J Nutr 129(7):58S–67S
E (2011) Cereal β-glucans and their significance for the preparation of Shibamoto T, Kanazawa K, Shahidi, F (2008) Funct Food Health, ACS
functional foods - a review. Czech J Food Sci 29(1):1–4 Symposium. p. 993. ISBN 978-0-8412-6982-8
Howard LA, Jeffery EH, Wallig MA, Klein BP (1997) Retention of Shimizu H, Ross RK, Bernstein L, Pike MC, Henderson BE (1990)
phytochemicals in fresh and processed broccoli. J Food Sci 62(1): Serum estrogen-levels in postmenopausal womenomparison of
98–104 American whites and Japanese in Japan. Br J Cancer 62(4):51–53
Iwe MO (2006) Current trends in processed foods consumption – Song K, Milner JA (2001) The influence of heating on the anticancer
Emphasis on prebiotics and probiotics. A technical paper presented properties of garlic. J Nutr 131:1054S–1057S
at the quarterly meeting of the south-east chapter of NIFST at Srividya AR, Nagasamy V, Vishnuvarthan VJ (2010) Nutraceutical as
MOUA, Umudike, Abia state, Nigeria on 11 March 2006. medicine: a review. Pharmanest 1(2):132–145
Izydorczyk MS, Dexter JE (2008) Barley β-glucan and arabinoxylans: Stahl W, Sies H (1992) Uptake of lycopene and its geometrical isomers is
molecular structure, physicochemical properties and uses in food greater from heat-processed than from unprocessed tomato juice in
products – A review. Food Res Int 41(2008):850–868 humans. J Nutr 122(2):161–166
Jegtvig S (2012). Prebiotics and probiotics. http://nutrition.about.com/od/ Swanson JE (2003). Bioactive food components. Encycl Food Cult, Gale
therapeuticnutrition1/p/pro_prebiotics.htm Accessed 28 May 2012 Cengage. http://www.enotes.com/bioactive-food-components-
Kovacs, B (2012). Probiotics. http://www.medicinenet.com/probiotics/ reference/bioactive-food-components Accessed 18 November 2012
page4.htm Accessed 27 May 2010 Trevisanato SI, Kim YI (2000) Tea and health. Nutr Rev 58:10
Kumar S (2011) Free radicals and antioxidants: human and food system. Wildman REC (2001) Handb Nutraceuticals Funct Foods (1st ed.). CRC
Adv Appl Sci Res 2(1):129–135 Series. ISBN 0-8493-8734-5.
Lobo V, Patil A, Phatak A, Chandra N (2010) Free radicals, antioxidants WineBrenner J (2007) Fucose or fucoids are the fourth essential sugar.
and functional foods: impact on human health. Pharmacog Rev 4(1): Nutr Health Newsl 2(5):1–3
18–26 Yang CS, Chhabra SK, Hong JY, Smith T (2001) Mechanisms of inhibi-
Mandal S, Yadav S, Yadav S, Nema RK (2009) J Chem Pharm Res 1(1): tion of chemical toxicity and carcinogenesis by diallyl sulfide (DAS)
102–104 and related compounds from garlic. J Nutr 131(1):41S–45S
MSKCC (2011). Fucoidan. Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Centre. Zhang Y, Kensler TW, Cho CG, Posner GH, Talalay P (1994)
http://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/herb/fucoidan Accessed 18 Anticarcinogenic activities of sulforaphane and structurally related
October 2013 synthetic norbornyl isothiocyanates. Proc Natl Acad Sci 91(3):147–15