Diseño de Tuberias

FENOMENOS DE TRANSPORTE Y MECANICA DE FLUIDOS – ASPECTOS TEORICOS 35
Capítulo tomado del libro clásico Fenómenos de Transporte “Transport Phenomena” R. Byron Bird, Warren E.
Stewart y Edwin N. Lighfoot, publicado en el año 1960 en N. York por John Wiley and Sons Inc.
VELOCITY DISTRIBUTIONS IN LAMINAR FLOW
In this chapter we show how one may calculate the laminar velocity profiles for some flow systems of simple
geometry. These calculations make use of the definition of viscosity and the concept of a momentum balance.
Actually, a knowledge of the complete velocity distributions is not usually needed in engineering problems.
Rather, we need to know the maximum velocity, the average velocity, or the shear stress at a surface these
quantities can be obtained easily once the velocity profiles are known.
In the first section we make a few general remarks about differential momentum balances. Then, in
subsequent sections, we work out in detail several classical examples of viscous flow patterns. These
example, should be thoroughly understood, inasmuch as we shall have frequent occasion to refer to them in
subsequent chapters. The reader may feel that these system, are too simple to be of engineering interest; it is
certainly true that they represent highly idealized situations, but the results find considerable use in the
development of numerous topics in engineering fluid mechanics.
The systems studied in this chapter are so arranged that the reader is gradually introduced to various factors
that are considered in the solution of viscous flow patterns. In § 2.2 the falling film problem illustrates the role of
gravity forces and the use of cartesian coordinates; it is also shown how the solution is obtained when viscosity
may be a function of position. In § 2.3 the flow in a circular tube illustrates the role of pressure and gravity
forces and the use of cylindrical coordinates; it is also shown how non-Newtonian flow problems are handled.
In § 2.4 the flow in a cylindrical annulus emphasizes the role played by the boundary conditions in obtaining
the final solution. In § 2.5 the question of boundary conditions is pursued further in the discussion of the flow of
two adjacent immiscible fluids. Finally, in § 2.6, the flow around a sphere is discussed briefly in order to
illustrate a problem in spherical coordinates and also to indicate how both normal and tangential forces are
handled.
The methods and problems given in this chapter apply to steady-state flow only. By "steady state" one
means that the conditions at each point in the stream do not change with time. That is, a photograph of the
flow system at time t looks exactly like a photograph taken at some later time, t + ∆ t.
§ 2.1 SHELL MOMENTUM BALANCES: BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
The problems discussed in §§ 2.2 through 2.5 are approached by setting up momentum balances over a thin
"shell" of fluid. For the steady-state flow, the momentum balance is
  rate of  sum of forces 

rate of  
 − + =0 (2.1-1)
momentum in momentum out  acting on system
Momentum may enter the system by momentum transfer according to the Newtonian (or non-Newtonian)
expression for the momentum flux. Momentum may also enter by virtue of the over-all fluid motion. The forces
we are concerned with are pressure forces (acting on surfaces) and gravity forces (acting on the volume as a
whole).
The momentum balance in Eq. 2.1-1 is easy to apply only when the streamlines of the system are straight lines
(i.e., in rectilinear flow). Use it in solving simple steady-state viscous flow problems.
Universidad Mayor – Dr. Carlos Martínez Pavez - Marzo 2002

Generally, the procedure for setting up and solving viscous flow problems is as follows: first we write a
momentum balance of the form of Eq. 2.1-1 for a shell of finite thickness; then we let this thickness approach
zero and make use of the mathematical definition of the first derivative to obtain she corresponding differential
equation describing the momentum flux distribution. At this juncture one may insert the appropriate Newtonian
or non-Newtonian expression for the momentum flux to obtain a differential equation for the velocity
distribution.

The integration of these two differential equations yields, respectively, the momentum flux and velocity
distributions for the system. This information can then be used to calculate various other quantities, such as
average velocity, maximum velocity, volume rate of flow, pressure drop, and forces on boundaries.
In the integrations mentioned above, several constants of integration appear, which are evaluated by the use
of "boundary conditions," that is, statements of physical facts at specified values of the independent variable.
The following are the most used boundary conditions:
a. At solid-fluid interfaces the fluid velocity equals the velocity with which the surface itself is moving; that is,
the fluid is assumed to cling to any solid surfaces with which it is in contact.
b. At liquid-gas interfaces the momentum flux (hence the velocity gradient) in the liquid phase is very nearly
zero and can be assumed to be zero in most calculations.
c. At liquid-liquid interfaces the momentum flux perpendicular to the interface, and the velocity, are
continuous across the interface. (In the notation of § A.5, v and [τ ⋅ n] are continuous.)
All three types of boundary conditions are encountered in the sections that follow.
In this section we have endeavored to present some general rules for solving elementary viscous flow
problems. We now proceed to illustrate the application of these rules to a number of simple flow systems.
§ 2.2 FLOW OF A FALLING FILM
As our first example, we consider the flow of a fluid along an inclined flat surface, as shown in Fig. 2.2-1.
Such films have been studied in connection with wetted-wall towers, evaporation and gas absorption
experiments, and application of coatings to paper rolls. We consider the viscosity and density of the fluid to be
constant. We focus our attention on a region of length L, sufficiently far from the ends of the wall that the
entrance and exit disturbances are not included in L, that is, in this region the velocity component vz does not
depend on z.
We begin by setting up a z-momentum balance over a system of thickness ∆x, bounded by the planes z = 0
and z = L, and extending a distance W in the y-direction. (See Fig. 2.2-2.) The various components of the
momentum balance are then
rate of z-
momentum in
across surface (LW)(τxz)x (2.2-1)
at x
rate of z-
momentum out
across surface (LW)(τxz)x+∆x (2.2-2)
at x + ∆x
rate of z-
momentum in
across surface (W ∆xvz)(ρvz)z=0 (2.2-3)
at z = 0
rate of z-
momentum out
across surface (W ∆xvz)(ρvz)z=L (2.2-4)
at z = L

gravity force
acting on fluid (LW∆x)(ρg cos β ) (2.2-5)
Note that we always take the "in" and "out" directions in the direction of the positive x- and z-axes (in this
problem these happen to coincide with the direction of momentum transport). The notation x+∆x means
"evaluated at x + ∆x .”
When these terms are substituted into the momentum balance of Eq.2.2-1, we get
LW τxzx - LW τxzx+∆x + W ∆xρv2zz=0 - W ∆xρv2zz=L + LW ∆x ρg cos β = 0 (2.2-6)
Because vz is the same at z = 0 as it is at z = L for each value of x, the third and fourth terms just cancel one
another. We now divide Eq. 2.2-6 by L W ∆x and take the limit as ∆x approaches zero:
 τ xz −τ xz 
 x + ∆x x = ρg cos β (2.2-7)
lim  ∆x 
∆x →0
 
The quantity on the left side may be recognized as the definition of the first derivative of τxz with respect to x.
Therefore, Eq. 2.2-7 may be rewritten as
d
τ xz = ρg cos β (2.2-8)
dx
This is the differential equation for the momentum flux τxz . It my be integrated to give
τ xz = ρgx cos β + C1 (2.2-9)
The constant of integration may be evaluated by making use of the boundary condition at the liquid-gas
interface (see § 2.1):
B.C. 1: at x = 0, τxz = 0 (2.2-10)
Substitution of this boundary condition into Eq. 2.2-9 reveals that C1 = 0. Hence the momentum-flux distribution
is
τ xz = ρgx ⋅ cos β (2.2-11)

as shown in Fig. 2.2-2.
If the fluid is Newtonian, then we know that the momentum flux is related to the velocity gradient according to
dvz
τ xz = −µ (2.2-12)
dx
Substitution of this expression for τxz into Eq. 2.2-11 gives the following differential equation for the velocity
distribution:
dv z  ρg cos β 
= −   x (2.2-13)
dx  µ 

This equation is easily integrated to give
 ρg cos β  2
v z = −   x + C2
 (2.2-14 )
 2µ 
The constant of integration is evaluated by using the boundary condition
B.C. 2: at x = δ, vz = 0 (2.2-15)
Substitution of this boundary condition into Eq. 2.2-14 shows that C2 = (ρg cos β / 2µ)δ2. Therefore, the velocity
distribution is
ρg δ 2 cosβ  x 
2
vz =  1 −    (2.2-16)
2µ   δ  
Hence the velocity profile is parabolic. (See Fig. 2.2-2.)

Once the velocity profile has been found, a number of quantities may be calculated:
(i) The maximum velocity vz,max is clearly the velocity at x = 0; that is
ρg δ 2 cos β
v z,max = (2.2-17)
2µ
(ii) The average velocity 〈vz〉 over a cross section of the film is obtained by the following calculation:
W δ
v z =
∫0 ∫0 v z dx dy
W δ
∫0 ∫0 dx dy
1 δ
=
δ ∫ 0 v z dx
2
ρgδ cos β 1 x
2
x
=
2µ ∫ 1 −  
  
0 δ
 d 
  δ 
ρg δ 2 cos β
= (2.2-18)
3µ
(iii) The volume rate of flow Q is obtained from the average velocity or by integration of the velocity
distribution:

3
W δ ρg W δ cos β
Q =
∫0 ∫0 v z dx dy = W δ v z =
3µ
(2.2-19)
(iv) The film thickness δ may be given in terms of the average velocity, the volume rate of flow, or the mass
rate of flow per unit width of wall
(Γ = ρ δ 〈vz〉):
3µ vz 3µ Q 3µ Γ
δ = = 3 = 3 (2.2-20)
ρ g cos β ρ g W cos β 2
ρ g cos β
(v) The z-component of the force F of the fluid on the surface is given by integrating the momentum flux over
the fluid-solid interface:
L W
Fz = ∫ 0 ∫ 0 τ xz x =δ dy dz
L W dv z
= ∫0 ∫0 −µ
dx
z=δ dy dz
 ρg δ cos β 
= (LW )( −µ ) − 
 µ 
= ρg δ LW cos β (2.2-21)
This is clearly just the z-component of the weight of the entire fluid in the film. The foregoing analytical results
are valid only when the film is falling in laminar flow with straight streamlines. For the slow flow of thin viscous
films, these conditions are satisfied. It has been found experimentally that as the film velocity 〈vz〉 increases, as
the thickness of the film δ increases, and as the kinematic viscosity v = µ /ρ decreases, the nature of the flow
gradually changes; in this gradual change three more or less distinct stable type, of flow can be observed: (a)
laminar flow with straight streamlines, (b) laminar flow with rippling, and (c) turbulent flow. Quantitative
information concerning the type of flow that can be expected under a given set of physical conditions seems to
be only fragmentary. For vertical walls, the following information may be given:1,2
laminar flow without rippling Re < 4 to 25

Iaminar flow with rippling 4 to 25 < Re < 1000 to 2000
turbulent flow Re > 1000 to 2000
in which Re = 4δ 〈vz〉ρ/µ = 4 Γ /µ is the Reynolds number for this system. Why this dimensionless
group is used as a criterion for flow patterns is discussed further in subsequent chapters.

Example 2.2-1. Calculation of Film Velocity
An oil has a kinematic viscosity of 2 x 10-4 m2 sec-1 and a density of 0.8 X 103 kg m-3. What should the mass
rate of flow of this film down a vertical wall be in order to have a film thickness of 2.5 mm?
Solution. According to Eq. 2.2-20, the mass rate of flow per unit width of wall is (all numerical values given in
mks units)
Γ =
3
δ ρ g
=
(2 .5 • 10 ) (0 .8 • 10 )(9 .80 )
−3 3 3
3v 3 (2 • 10 ) −4
This is the desired result if and only if the flow is indeed laminar. To ascertain the nature of the flow, we
calculate a Reynolds number based on the mass rate of flow just found:
4Γ 4Γ 4(0.204 )
Re = = = = 5. 1 (dimensionless)
µ ρv (
0.8 • 10 3 2 • 10 − 4 )( )
This Reynolds number is below the observed upper limit for laminar flow stated above, and therefore the
calculated value of Γ is valid.
Example 2.2-2. Falling Film with Variable Viscosity
Rework the falling film problem for the situation in which the viscosity depends upon position in the following
manner:
µ = µ0 e -α ( x / δ ) (2.2-22)
in which µ0 is the viscosity at the surface of the film and α is a constant that tells how rapidly µ changes a x
increases. Such a variation arises in the flow of condensate down a wall with a linear temperature gradient
through the film. Show
how the results of this problem simplify to the results already obtained for the special limit that α = 0 (film of
constant viscosity).
Solution. The setting up of the momentum balance and the calculation of the momentum flux distribution in
Eq. 2.2-11 proceeds as before. Then, substituting Newton’s law (with the variable viscosity of Eq. 2.2-22) in
Eq. 2.2-11 gives
dv z
− µ 0 e −α ( x / δ ) = ρ gx cos β (2.2-23)
dx
1
T.K. Sherwood and R. L. Pigford, Absortion and Extraction McGraw-Hill, New York (1952), p.265.
2
S.S. Grimley ,trans. Inst. Chem. Engrs. (London), 23,228-235 (1948).

This differential equation can be integrated, and use of the boundary condition in Eq. 2.2-15 allows for the
evaluation of the integration constant. The velocity profile is then
ρgδ 2 cos β  α  1 1  αx / δ  x 1 
vz = e  − 2  − e  − 2  (2.2-24)
µ0  α α   αδ α  
In order to get the velocity for a constant-viscosity film, we put α equal to zero in Eq. 2.2-24. When we do this,
we find we get into difficulty mathematically. The difficulty is met by expanding exp α and exp (αx/δ) in a Taylor
series:
2  α2 α3  1 1   αx α 2 x 2  x 
(v z )α=0 = ρgδ cos β
lim 1 + α +
α →0 
+ + ......  − 2  − 1 +
 
+ + .... 

1
− 2 
µ0 2 ! 3 !  α α   δ 2 !δ 2
 αδ α  

ρgδ 2 cos β  1 1  1 x
2
1 x3 
= lim  + α + ...  −  + α + ...  
µ0 α →0  2
 3  2 δ
2
3δ 3
 
ρgδ 2 cos β   x  
2
= 1 −    (2.2-25)
2µ 0   δ  
which is in agreement with Eq. 2.2-16.
From Eq. 2.2-24 it may be shown that the average velocity is
ρgδ 2 cos β  α  1 2 2  2 
〈v z 〉 = e  − 2 + 3  − 3  (2.2-26)
µ0  α α α  α 
The reader may verify that this result simplifies to Eq. 2.2-18 when α = 0.
§ 2.3 FLOW THROUGH A CIRCULAR TUBE
The flow of fluids in circular tubes is encountered frequently in physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering.
The laminar flow of fluids in circular tubes may be analysed by means of the momentum balance described in
§ 2.1. The only new feature introduced here is the use of cylindrical coordinates, which are the natural
coordinates to describe positions in a circular pipe.
We consider then the steady laminar flow of a fluid of constant density ρ in a "very long" tube of length L and
radius R; we specify that the tube be "very long" because we want to assume that there are no "end effects";
that is, we ignore the fact that at the tube entrance and exit the flow will not necessarily be parallel everywhere
to the tube surface.

Fig. 2.3-1. Cylindrical shell of fluid over which momentum balance is made to get the velocity profile and the Hagen-Poiseuille formula
for the volume rate of flow.
We select as our system a cylindrical shell of thickness ∆r and length L (am Fig. 2.3-1), and we begin by listing
the various contributions to the momentum balance in the is-direction:
rate of
momentum in
across cylindrical ( 2π r Lτrz)r (2.3-1)
surface at r
rate of
momentum out (2.3-2)
across cylindrical ( 2π r Lτrz)r+∆r
surface at r + ∆r
rate of
momentum in (2.3-3)
across annular (2π r∆r vz)(ρvz)z=0
surface at z = 0

rate of
momentum out (2π r∆r vz)(ρvz)z=L (2.3-4)
across annular
surface at z = L
gravity force
acting on cylindrical (2π r∆r L)ρg (2.3-5)
shell
pressure force
acting on annular (2π r∆r)p0 (2.3-6)
surface at z = 0
pressure force
acting on annular (2πr∆r)pL (2.3-7)
surface at z = L
Note once again that we take "in” and "out” to be in the positive direction of the axes.
We now add up the contributions to the momentum balance:
(2πrLτ rz ) r − (2πrLτ rz ) r + ∆r + (2πr∆rρv 2z ) z=0 − (2πr∆rρv 2z ) z=L + 2πr∆rLρg + 2πr∆r (p 0 − pL ) = 0 (2.3-8)
Because the fluid is assumed to be incompressible, νz is the same at z = 0 and z = L, hence the third and
fourth terms cancel one another. We now divide Eq. 2.3-8 by 2πL ∆r and take the limit as ∆r goes to zero; this
gives
 (rτ )
 rz r +∆r − (rτrz )

r   ρ 0 − pL 
lim   =  + ρg r (2.3-9)
∆r →0
 ∆r   L 
 
The expression on the left side is the definition of the first derivative. Hence Eq. 2.3-9 may be written as
d
(rτrz ) =  P 0 − PL 
 r (2.3-10)
dr  L 
in which1 P = p - ρ gz. Eq. 2.3-10 may be integrated to give:
 P − PL  C
τ rz =  0  r + 1 (2.3-11)
 2L  r
The constant C1 must be zero if the momentum flux is not to be infinite a r = 0. Hence the momentum flux,
distribution is
 P − PL 
τ rz =  0  r (2.3-12)
 2L 
The quantity P represents the combined effect of static pressure and gravitational force. To allow for other flow orientations, P may
1
be defined more generally as P = p + ρgh, where h is the distance upward (that is, in the direction opposed to gravity) from any
chosen reference plane.

This distribution is shown in Fig. 2.3-2.
Fig.2.3-2. Momentum flux and velocity distributions in flow in cylindrical tubes.
Newton's law of viscosity for this situation is
dv z
τ rz = −µ (2.3-13)
dr
Substitution of this relation into Eq. 2.3-12 then gives the following differential equation for the velocity:
dv z  P − PL 
= − 0  r (2.3-14)
dr  2µ L 
 

Integration of this gives
 P − PL  2
v z = − 0  r + C2 (2.3-15)
 4µ L 
 
2
Because of the boundary condition that νz be zero at r = R, the constant C2 has the value ( P 0 – P L)R /4µL.
Hence the velocity distribution is
=
(P 0 − PL ) R 2   r  
1−
2
vz     (2.3-16)
4µ L   R  
This result tells us that the velocity distribution for laminar, incompressible flow in a tube is parabolic. (See Fig.
2.3-2.)
Once the velocity profile has been established, various derived quantities are easily calculated:
(i) The maximum velocity νz,max occurs at r = 0 and has the value
vz =
(P0 − PL ) R 2 (2.3-17)
4µ L
(ii) The average velocity 〈νz〉 is calculated by summing up all the velocities over a cross section and then
dividing by the cross-sectional area:
2π R
〈v z 〉=
∫ 0 ∫0
v z r dr dθ
=
(P 0 − PL ) R
2
(2.3-18)
2π R 8µ L
∫ 0 ∫ 0 r dr dθ
The details of the integration are left to the reader. Note that 〈νz〉 = ½ νz,max.
(iii) The volume rate of flow Q is the product of area and average velocity; thus
π(P 0 − PL ) R 4
Q= (2.3-19)
8µ L
This rather famous result is called the Hagen-Poiseuille2 law in honour of the two scientists3,4 credited with its
formulation. It gives the relationship between the volume rate of flow and the forces causing the flow-the forces
associated with the pressure drop and the gravitational acceleration.
(iv) The z-component of the force of the fluid on the wetted surface of the pipe, Fz, is just the momentum flux
integrated over the wetted area:
2
Pronounce Poiseuille as “Pwah-zǿ-yuh," in which ǿ is roughly the same as the “oo” in the American pronunciation, of
"book”.
3
G. Hagen, Ann. Phys. Chem., 46, 423-442 (1839).
4
J. L. Poiseuille, Compte Rendus, 11, 961 and 1041 (1840); 12, 112 (1841).

( 
) dv 
Fz = 2π RL  − µ z 
dr 
r =R = π R 2 (P 0 − P L )

= πR 2 (P 0 − P L ) + πR 2Lρg (2.3-20)
This result is not surprisingall it says is that the net force acting downstream on the cylinder of fluid by
virtue of the pressure difference and gravitational acceleration is just counterbalanced by the viscous force Fz,
which tends to resist the fluid motion.
The results of this section are valid only for values of Reynolds numbers less than about 2100, for which the
flow is laminar. For this system, it is customary to define the Reynolds number by Re = D〈νz〉ρ/µ, where D = 2R
is the tube diameter.
We may now summarize all the assumptions that are implied in the development of the Hagen-Poiseuille
law:
a. The flow is laminar Re less than about 2100.
b. The density ρ is constant ("incompressible flow").
c. The flow is independent of time ("steady state")the corresponding unsteady-state problem is discussed
in § 4.1.
d. The fluid is Newtonianthat is, τ rz = −µ(dv z dr ).
e. End effects are neglectedactually an "entrance length" (beyond the tube entrance) on the order of Le =
0.035D Re is required for build-up to the parabolic profiles; if the section of pipe of interest includes the
entrance region, a correction must be applied5. The fractional correction introduced in either ∆ P or Q never
exceeds Le/L if L > Le.
f. The fluid behaves as a continuumthis assumption is valid except for very dilute gases or very narrow
capillary tubes, in which the molecular mean free path is comparable to the tube diameter (“slip flow" regime)
or much greater than the tube diameter ("Knudsen flow" or "free molecule flow" regime)6.
g. There is no slip at the wallthis is an excellent assumption for pure fluids under the conditions assumed in
(f).
5
J. H. Perry, Chemical Engineers Handbook, McGraw-Hill New York (1950), Third Edition,pp.388-389. W.M.Kays and
A.L. London, Compact Heat Exchangers, McGraw-Hill, New York (1958) p.49.
6
M. Knudsen, The Kinetic Theory of Gases, Methuen, London (1934), E.H. Kennard, Kinetic Theory of Gases,
McGraw-Hill, New York (1938), G, N. Pattersent, Molecular Flow of Gases, Wiley, New York (1956),

Example 2.3-1. Determination of Viscosity from Capillary Flow Data
Glycerine (CH2OH-CHOH-CH2OH) at 26.5 ° C is flowing through a horizontal tube 1 ft long and 0.1 in. inside
diameter. For a pressure drop of 40 psi, the flow rate is 0.00398 ft3 min-1. The density of glycerine at 26.5° C
is 1.261 g cm-3. From the flow data, find the viscosity of glycerine in centipoises. (Measurement of flow in
circular tubes is one of the common methods for determining viscosity; such devices are referred to as
“capillary viscometers").
Solution. From the Hagen-Poiseuille law (Eq. 2.3-19)
π ∆ pR 4
µ =
8 QL
lb   dyne cm −2   4
 1 ft 
π 40 f2   6.8947 × 10 4  0 . 05 in. × 
 in.   lb f in.−2   12 in. 
=

8  0.00398 ft 3 min −1 ×
1 min 
60 sec 
 1 ft ( )

= 4.92 g cm −1 sec −1 = 492 cp (2.3-21)
We must now check to he sure that the flow is laminar. The Reynolds number for this flow is
D〈 v z 〉 ρ 4 Q ρ
Re = =
µ π Dµ
(0.00398 ft 3 min −1 ) (2.54 )3  1 min  

cm in. −1 × 12 in.ft −1 
g 
  1.261 3 
4  60 sec   cm 
=
π (0.1 in. × 2.54 cm in. −1 ) (4.92 g cm −1 sec −1 )
= 2.41 (dimensionless) (2.3-22)
Hence the flow is indeed laminar. Furthermore, the entrance length Le is
L e = 0.035D Re = (0.035 )(0.1 12 )(2.41)

= 0.0007 ft
Hence entrance effects are not important, and the value of viscosity given above has been calculated properly.
Example 2.3-2. Bingham Flow in a Circular Tube
A fluid that is very nearly described by the Bingham model (see Eq. 1.2-2) is flowing through a vertical tube
as the result of a pressure gradient and/or gravitational acceleration. The radius and length of the tube are R
and L, respectively. It is desired to obtain a relation between the volume rate of flow Q and the combined
pressure and gravity forces acting on the fluid.

Solution. The momentum flux distribution for flow of any kind of fluid through, circular tube is given by Eq.
2.3-12. According to Fig. 1.2-1, for Bingham fluid the velocity gradient is zero when the momentum flux is less
than the value τ0. Hence one expects a "plug flow" region in the central part of the tube, as sketched in Fig.
2.3-3. Outside the plug-flow region the momentum flux and the velocity
Fig. 2.3-3. Flow of a Bingham fluid in a circular tube.
gradient are related according to Eq. 1.2-2a. Substitution of the cylindrical coordinate version of Eq. 1.2-2a.
into Eq.2.3-12 gives
dv z  P 0 − P L 
τ0 − µ0 =   r (2.3-23)
dr  2L 
This separable first-order differential equation may be integrated to give
 P − PL  2 τ0
v z = − 0  r + r + C2 (2.3-24)
 4µ 0 L  µ0

The constant C2 is evaluated by making use of the boundary condition that νz = 0 at r = R. Then the velocity
distribution became finally
>
=
(P 0 − PL ) R 2   r  2  τ 0 R   r 
1− − 1− r > r0
v       (2.3-25)
µ 0 
z
4µ 0L   R    R 
<
=
(P0 − PL ) R 2  r0 
1−
2
r < r0
v z   (2.3-26)
4µ 0L  R
Here r0 is the radius of the plug-flow region, defined by τ 0 = (P 0 − P L ) r0 2L . Equation 2.3-26 is obtained by
setting , r = r0 in Eq. 2.3-25 and simplifying. The volume rate of flow may be calculated from
2π R
Q =
∫ ∫
0 0
v z r dr d θ
(2.3-27)
r0 < R >
= 2π ∫ 0 v z r dr + 2π∫ r 0
v z r dr
The expressions for νz< and νz> may be inserted and the integrals evaluated. Less algebra is required,
however, if one integrates the first expression for Q by parts:
1 2 R
1 R  dv  2 
Q = 2π  r v z
 2 0
−
2 ∫0  z  r dr 
 dr  
(2.3-28)
The quantity r 2 v z is zero at both limits, and in the integral the lower limit may be replaced by r0 because
dv z dr = 0 for r < r0 . Hence the volume rate of flow is
∫ r (− dv z )
R 2
>
Q=π dr r dr
0
R  P − PL  τ  2
=π ∫r0
 0
 2µ 0L

 r − 0  r dr
 µ0 

(2.3-29)
(P 0 − P L ) ⋅ R
By performing the integration and using the symbol τR for the momentum flux at the wall, , one
2L
obtains when
τR > τ0 :
π(P 0 − PL ) R  3  τ 0
4 4
 1  τ0 
Q= 1 −   +    (2.3-30)
8µ 0L  4  τR  3  τR  
 
which is know as the Buckingham-Reiner Equation7,8,9 . When τ0 is zero. The Bingham model reduces to the
Newtonian model and Eq.2.3-30 reduces appropriately to the Hagen-Pouiseille equation.
7
E Buckingham, Proc. ASTM, 21,1154-1161 (1921).
8
M. Reiner, Deformation and Flow, Lewis. London (1949).
9
M. Reiner, "Phenomenological Macrorheology," Chapter 2 in Rheology, F. R Eirich (Ed.). Academic Press, New York (1956). Vol. 1,
p. 45.

§ 2.4 FLOW THROUGH AN ANNULUS
Let us now consider another viscous flow problem in cylindrical coordinates, but one for which the
boundary conditions are different. An incompressible fluid is flowing in steady state in the annular region
between two coaxial circular cylinders of radio R and κ R. (See Fig. 2.4-1.) We begin by setting up
Fig. 14-1. Upward flow through a cylindrical annulus.
a momentum balance over a thin cylindrical shell and arrive at the same differential equation that we obtained
before for tube flow (see Eq. 2.3-10):
d
(rτ rz ) =  P 0 − P L  r (2.4-1)
dr  L 
Note that for this problem P = p + ρgz , inasmuch as the pressure and gravity forces are acting in opposite
directions (that is, z is the same as h in fn. 1 on p. 45). This may be integrated as before (see Eq. 2.3-11) to
give
 P0 − P L  C
τ rz =   r+ 1 (2.4-2)
 2L  r

The constant C1 cannot be determined immediately, since we have no information on the momentum flux at
either of the fixed surfaces r = κR or r = R . The most we can say is that there will be a maximum in the
velocity curve at some (as yet unknown) plane r = λR at which the momentum flux will be zero. If we utilize
this statement, C1 may be replaced by − (P 0 − PL ) (λR )2 2L , with the result that Eq. 2.4-2 then becomes
(P 0 − PL ) R  r  2  R 
τ rz =   − λ   (2.4-3)
2L  R   r 
Note that λ is still an unknown constant of integration. The only reason for replacing C1 by λ is that we know
the physical significance of λ.
We now substitute Newton's law of viscosity τ rz = −µ(dv z dr ) into Eq. 24-3 to obtain a differential
equation for νz:
dv z (P − PL ) R  r  − λ2  R 
=− 0     (2.4-4)
dr 2µL  R   r 
Integration with respect to r then gives
(P 0 − PL ) R 2  r  2 r  
vz = −   − 2λ2 ln  + C 2  (2.4-5)
4µL  R  R 
We now evaluate the two constant of integration λ and C2 by using the following two boundary conditions:
B.C. 1: at r = κR , vz = 0 (2.4-6)
B.C. 2: at r =R , vz = 0 (2.4-7)
Substitution of these boundary conditions into Eq. 2.4-5 gives two simultaneous equations:
(P − PL ) R 2 2 ( )
0=− 0 κ − 2λ2 ln κ + C 2 (2.4-8)
4µL
(P 0 − PL ) R 2
0=− (1 + C 2 ) (2.4-9)
4µL
Therefore the constants C 2 and λ are given by

1− κ2
C 2 = −1 2λ2 = (2.4-10,11)
ln(1 κ )
Substitution of these values into Eqs. 2.4-3 and 2.4-5 then gives, respectively, the momentum flux distribution1
and the velocity distribution for steady, incompressible flow in an annulus:
(P 0 − PL ) R  r   1 − κ 2  R 
τ rz =   −   (2.4-12)
 R   2 ln(1 κ )  r 
2L 
(P 0 − PL ) R 2  r
2
 1 − κ 2   r 
vz = 1 −   +   ln  (2.4-13)
 ln(1/ κ )   R 
4µL 
  R 

Note that when κ goes to zero these results reduce to the corresponding results for flow in circular tubes. (See
Eqs. 2.3-12 and 2.3-16.) The reader should make it a habit to check analytical results in this way to ascertain
whether they describe "limiting cases" properly.
Once we have the momentum flux and velocity distributions, it is straightforward to get other information of
interest:
(i) The maximum velocity is

(P 0 − PL ) R 2   1 − κ 2 
 
 1 − κ 2  
 
v z,max = v z = 1
  − 1 − ln 2 ln(1 κ )   (2.4-14)
  2 ln(1 κ )  
r = λR
4µL 
  
(ii) The average velocity is
2π R
〈v z 〉=
∫ 0 ∫ κR
v z rdrdθ
=
(P0 − PL ) R  1 − κ 1 − κ 
2 4
−
2
(2.4-15)
2π R 8µL  2 ln(1 κ ) 
 1− κ
∫ 0 ∫ κR rdrdθ 
(iii) The volume rate of flow is
π(P 0 − P L ) R 4 
) ( )
2

2
(
Q = πR 1 − κ 〈 v z 〉 = 2
8µL
) 
4
1− κ −
1− κ2
ln(1 κ )
( 

(2.4-16)
 
(iv) The force exerted by the fluid on the solid is obtained by summing the forces acting on the inner cylinder
and outer cylinder, respectively:
Fz = − τrz r = κR ⋅ 2πκRL + τrz r =R ⋅ 2πRL
(
= πR 2 1 − κ 2 )(P 0 − PL ) (2.4-17)
The reader should verify and interpret these results as an exercise.
The foregoing simplify to the formulas for flow through circular tubes in the limit as κ → 0 . Also they go
smoothly over to the formulas for flow in plane slits in the limit as κ becomes very nearly 1. The limiting
processes needed to obtain the latter are discussed in problems 2.F (for the volume rate of flow) and 2.P (for
the velocity profiles).
The solution given above is valid only for laminar flow. The laminar turbulent transition occurs in the
neighbourhood of Re = 2000, where the Reynolds number is defined as Re = 2R(1 − κ )〈 v z 〉 ρ / µ . Actually,
before the transition the stable laminar flow appears to exhibit a sinuous motion.2
1
The momentum flux distribution is not given by Eq. 2.4-12 for non-Newtonian flow. See problem 2.Q.
2
R.S. Prengle and R.R. Rothfus, Ind. Eng. Chem.,47.379-386 (1955).
§2.5 ADJACENT FLOW OF TWO IMMISCIBLE FLUIDS1
Thus far we have considered flow situations with solid-fluid and liquid-gas boundaries. We now give one
example of a flow problem with a liquid-liquid boundary. (See Fig. 2.5-1.)
Fig. 2.5-1. Flow of two immiscible fluid between two flat plates influence of a pressure gradient.
Two immiscible incompressible fluids are flowing in the z-direction in a horizontal thin slit of length L and
width W under the influence of a pressure gradient. The fluid rates are so adjusted that the slit is half filled with
Fluid II (the more dense phase) and half filled with Fluid II (the less dense phase). It is desired to analyze the
system in terms of the distribution of velocity and momentum flux.
A differential momentum balance leads to the following differential equation for τxz:
dτ xz ρ 0 − ρ L
= (2.5-1)
dx L
1
The adjacent flow of turbulent and a Iaminar layer has been studied by T.J. Hanratty and J.M. Engen, A.I.Ch.E. Journal,
3, 299-304 (1957). Annular gas-liquid flow in tubes has been discussed by A. D. K. Laird, Trans. ASME 76, 1005-1010
(1954), and S. Calvert and B. Williams, A.I.Ck.E. Journal, 1, 78-86 (1955).

This equation is obtained for either phase I or phase II. Integration of Eq. 2.5-1 gives for the two regions
I  p − pL 
τ xz =  0  x + C1I (2.5-2)
 L 
II  p − pL 
τ xz =  0  x + C1II (2.5-3)
 L 
We may immediately make use of one of the boundary conditions, namely, that the momentum transport is
continuous through the interface between the two fluids:
I II
B.C. 1: at x=0 τ xz = τ xz (2.5-4)
This tells us that C1I = C1II ; hence we drop the superscript and call the integration constant simply C1.
If Newton's law of viscosity is substituted into Eq. 2.5-2 and 2.5-3, we then get
I
dv z I  p − pL 
−µ =  0  x + C1 (2.5-5)
dx  L 
II
dv z
II  p − pL 
−µ =  0  x + C1 (2.5-6)
dx  L 
Integration of these equations gives
I (p 0 − p L )x 2 C1 I
vz = − I
− I
x + C2 (2.5-7)
2µ L µ
II (p 0 − p L )x 2 C1 II
vz = − II
− II
x + C2 (2.5-8)
2µ L µ
We now have three integration constants to determine by using these three additional boundary conditions:
I II
B.C. 2: at x = O, vz = vz (2.5-9)
I
B.C. 3: at x = − b, vz = 0 (2.5-10)
II
B.C. 4: at x = + b, vz = 0 (2.5-11)
The mathematical statement of these boundary conditions is then
B.C. 2: C2I = C2II (2.5-12)
B.C. 3: 0=−
(p 0 − p L ) ⋅ b 2
+
C1b
+ C2
I
(2.5-13)
2µ LI
µ I
B.C. 4: 0=−
(p0 − pL ) ⋅ b 2
+
C1b
+ C2
II
(2.5-14)
2µ L II
µ II


Flow of two immiscible fluids between two flat plates under the influence of a pressure gradient

2.A1 Determination of Capillary Radius by Flow Measurements
One method of determining the radius of a capillary tube is to measure the rate of flow of a viscous fluid
through the tube. Find the radius of a capillary from the following flow data:
Length of capillary = 50.02 cm

Kinematic viscosity of fluid = 4.03 × 10-5 m2 sec-1
Density of fluid = 0.9552 × 103 Kg m-3
Pressure drop across (horizontal) capillary tube = 2.997 ×105 newtons m-2
= 4.766 atm
Mass rate of flow through tube = 2.997 x 10-3 kg sec-1
What is a major drawback to this method? Suggest some other means for determining the radii of capillary
tubes.
Answer: 0.7512 mm
2.B1 Volume Rate of Flow Through an Annulus
A horizontal annulus is 27 ft long. The outside radius of the inner cylinder is 0.495 in.; the inside radius of
the outer cylinder is 1.1 in. A 60 per cent aqueous solution of sucrose (C12 H22 O11) is to be pumped through
the annulus at 20 0C. At this temperature the fluid density ρ is 80.3 lb ft-3 and its viscosity is 136.8 lbm ft-1 hr-1.
What is the volume rate of flow when the impressed pressure drop is 5.39 psi?
Answer: 0.108 ft 3 sec-1
2.C1 Loss of Catalyst Particles in a Stack Gas
a. Estimate the maximum diameter of a microspherical catalyst that could be lost in the stack gas of a fluid
cracking unit under the following conditions:
Gas velocity at axis of stack = 1.0 ft sec-1 (vertically upward)

Gas viscosity = 0.026 cp
Gas density = 0.045 lb ft-2
Density of single catalyst particle = 1.2 gm cm-3
Express the result in microns (1 micron = 10-6 m ).

b. It is permissible to use Stokes’s law in (a)?
Answer: Dmax = 110 microns; Re = 0.93

2.D2 Flow of Falling FilmAlternate Derivations
a. Perform the derivation of the velocity profile and the average velocity by placing the center of coordinates
in such a way that x is measured away from the wall (that is x = 0 is at the wall, x = δ is at the edge of the film).
Show that the velocity distribution is then given by
( ) [
v z = ρgδ 2 µ cos β (x δ ) − 21 (x δ )
2
] (2.D-1)
and that the average velocity is that given In Eq. 2.2-18. Show how one can got the velocity distribution in Eq.
2.D-1 from that in Eq. 2.2-16.
b. In each of the problems in this chapter we have followed the following procedure: (i) derive a first-order
equation for the momentum flux, (ii) integrate this equation, (iii) insert Newton's law into the result to get a first-
order equations for the velocity, (iv) integrate the latter to get the velocity distribution. An alternative procedure
is (i) derive a first-order equation for the momentum flux, (ii) insert Newton's law into this equation to get a
second-order differential equation for the velocity, (iii) integrate the latter to get the velocity distribution. Apply
this alternative procedure by substituting Eq. 2.2-12 into Eq. 2.2-8 and continuing as directed until the velocity
distribution has been obtained.
2.E2 Laminar Flow in a Narrow Slit
A viscous fluid is in laminar flow in a slit formed by two parallel walls a distance 2B apart. Make a differential
momentum balance and obtain the expressions for the distributions of momentum flux and velocity (see Fig.
2.E):
 P − PL 
τ xz =  0 ⋅x (2.E-1)
 L 
vz =
(P 0 − PL ) ⋅ B 2 1 −  x  2 
    (2.E-2)
2µL   B  
in which P = p + ρgh = p − ρgz . What is the ratio of average to maximum velocity in the slit? Obtain the analog
of the Hagen-Poiseuille law for the slit.
(P0 − PL )
3
2 2 B W
Answer: 〈 v z 〉 = 3
v z,max ; Q =
3 µL
2.F2 Interrelation of Slit and Annulus Formulas
When an annulus is very thin, it may to a good approximation be considered as a thin slit. Then the results of
Problem 2.E can be applied. For example, the volume rate of flow in an annulus with outer wall of radius R and
inner wall of radius (1− ∈)R , where ∈ is small, may be obtained from Problem 2.E by setting 2B equal to ∈R
and W equal to 2πR and thereby obtaining
π(P 0 − P L ) R 4 ∈3
Q= (2.F-1)
6µL

Show that this same result may be obtained from Eq. 2.4-16 by setting κ equal to 1− ∈ everywhere in the
formula and expanding the expression for Q in power of ε . This operation involves using the Taylor series
ln(1− ∈) = − ∈ − 21 ∈2 − 31 ∈3 − 41 ∈4 −... (2.F-2)
and than performing a long division. The first term in the resulting series will be Eq. 2.F-1.
(Hint: In the derivation use the first four terms of the Taylor series in Eq. 2.F-2.)

2.G2 Laminar Flow of Falling Film on Outside of a Circular Tube
In a gas absorption experiment a viscous fluid flows upward through a small circular tube and then downward
on the outside. (See Fig. 2.G.) Set up a momentum balance over a shell of thickness ∆r in the film, as shown in
the figure. Note that the “Momentum in" and “Momentum out” arrows are always taken in the positive r-
direction in setting up the balance, even though in this case the momentum turns out to be flowing in the
negative r-direction.
a. Show that the velocity distribution in the falling film (neglecting end effects) is
ρgR 2   r   r 
2
vz = 1 −   + 2a 2 ln  (2.G-1)
4µ   R   R 
b. Obtain an expression for the volume rate of flow in the film.
c. Show that the result in (b) simplified to Eq. 2.2-19 if the film thickness is very small.

Fig. 2.G. Velocity distributions and momentum balance for falling film on outside of a circular tube.
2.H2 Non-Newtonian Flow in a Tube
a. Derive the analog of the Hagen-Poiseuille formula for the Ostwald-de Waele (powerlaw) model. In making
the derivation, one must first get rid of the absolute value sign. Because in tube flow dv z / dr is everywhere
negative the power law for this problem becomes
n −1 n −1 n
dv dv z dv  − dv z   dv 
τ rz = −m z = m− z   = m z  (2.H-1)
dr dr dr  dr   dr 
Explain carefully the manipulations in Eq. 2.H-1.

b. Derive an expression for the volume rate of flow through a tube for an Ellis fluid (see Eq.1.2-5):
dv z α −1
− = ϕ 0 τ rz + ϕ τ rz τ rz (2.H-2)
dr
2.I2 Flow of a Bingham Fluid from a Circular Tube1
A vertical tube is filled with a Bingham fluid and a plate is held over the lower end. (See Fig. 2.I) When the
plate is removed, the fluid may or may not flow out of the tube by gravity. Explain this and establish a criterion
for flow in such an experiment.
Fis. 2.1. Flow of a Bingham Fluid from a circular tube
1
Suggest by Prof. H. Kramers, Technische Hogeschool (Delft).

2.J2 Annular Flow with Inner Cylinder Moving Axially
Consider the system pictured in Fig. 2.J, in which that cylindrical rod is being moved with a velocity V. The
rod and the cylinder are coaxial. Find the steady-state velocity
distribution and the volume rate of flow. Problem of this kind arise in describing the performance of
wire-coating dies.2
v ln(r R ) πR 2 V  1 − κ 2 2
Answer: z = ; Q=  − 2 κ 
V ln κ 2  ln(1/ κ ) 

2.K2 Non-Newtonian Film Flow
Derive a formula for the thickness of a film of a Bingham fluid falling down a vertical flat surface at a rate Γ (g
sec-1 per unit width of wall).
2.L3 Analysis of Capillary Flowmeter
Determine the rate of flow (in lbm hr-1) through the capillary flowmeter shown in Fig. 2.L. The fluid flowing in
the inclined tube is water at 20 0C, and the manometer fluid is carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) with density 1.594
gm cm-3. The capillary diameter is 0.010 in. (Note that measurements of H and L are sufficient to calculate the
flow rate; that is, θ need not be measured. Why?)


TABLE A : APPROXIMATE PROPERTIES OF SOME GASES
Specific Weight ω at Gas, Constant R Kinematic Viscosity υ

Gas 3 Adiabatic Exponent k 2
68ºF, 1 atm, lb/ft ft/ºRankine at 68ºF, 1 atm, ft /sec
Air 0.0752 53.3 1.40 16.0 x 10-5

Ammonia 0.0448 89.5 1.32 16.5
Carbon dioxide 0.1146 34.9 1.30 9.1
Methane 0.0416 96.8 1.32 19.3
Nitrogen 0.0726 55.1 1.40 17.1
Oxygen 0.0830 48.3 1.40 17.1
Sulfur dioxide 0.1695 23.6 1.26 5.6 x 10-5
TABLE B : SOME PROPERTIES OF AIR AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Temperature Density ρ Specific Weight γ Kinematic Viscosity υ Dynamic Viscosity µ

3 3 2 2
ºF slug/ft lb/ft ft /sec lb sec/ft
0 0.00268 0.0862 12.6 x 10-5 3.28 X 10-7

20 0.00257 0.0827 13.6 3.50
40 0.00247 0.0794 14.6 3.62
60 0.00237 0.0763 15.8 3.74
68 0.00233 0.0752 16.0 3.75
80 0.00228 0.0735 16.9 3.85
100 0.00220 0.0709 18.0 3.96
120 0.00215 0.0684 18.9 x 10-5 4.07 x 10-7
TABLE C : MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER AT ATM OSPHERIC PRESSURE
Temp. Density Specific Weight γ . Dynamic

Surface Tension
Vapor
Elastic Modulus
ºF 3 3 Viscosity Pressure 2
slug/ft lb/ft 2 lb/ft 2 lb/in
lb sec/ft lb/in abs.
32 1.94 62.4 3.75 x 10-5 0.00518 0.08 287000

40 1.94 62.4 3.24 0.00514 0.12 296000
50 1.94 62.4 2.74 0.00508 0.17 305000
60 1.94 62.4 2.36 0.00504 0.26 313000
70 1.94 62.3 2.04 0.00497 0.36 319000
80 1.93 62.2 1.80 0.00492 0.51 325000
90 1.93 62.1 1.59 0.00486 0.70 329000
100 1.93 62.0 1.42 0.00479 0.96 331000
120 1.92 61.7 1.17 x 10-5 0.00466 1.70 332000

TABLE D: SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND KINEMATIC VISCOSITY OF CERTAIN LIQUIDS

-5
(Kinematic Viscosity = tabular value x 10 )
Water** Commercial Solvent Carbon tetrachloride Medium Lubricating Oil

Temp. Spec. Kin.Visc Spec. Kin.Visc Spec. Kin.Visc Spec. Kin.Visc
2 2 2 2
ºF Grav. ft /sec Grav. ft /sec Grav. ft /sec Grav. ft /sec
40 1.000 1.664 0.768 1.61 1.621 0.810 0.905 477

50 1.000 1.410 0.725 1.48 1.608 0.750 0.900 280
60 0.999 1.217 0.721 1.37 1.595 0.700 0.896 188
70 0.998 1.059 0.717 1.26 1.582 0.650 0.891 125
80 0.997 0.930 0.713 1.17 1.569 0.607 0.888 94
90 0.995 0.826 0.709 1.10 1.555 0.560 0.885 69
100 0.993 0.739 0.705 1.03 1.542 0.530 0.882 49.2
110 0.991 0.667 0.702 0.96 1.520 0.500 0.874 37.5
120 0.990 0.610 0.886 29.3
150 0.998 0.475 0.865 16.1
Dust-Proofing Oil* Medium Fuel Oil* Heavy Fuel Oil* Regular Gasoline*
Temp. Spec. Kin.Visc Spec. Kin.Visc Spec. Kin.Visc Spec. Kin.Visc
2 2 2 2
ºF Grav. ft /sec Grav. ft /sec Grav. ft /sec Grav. ft /sec
40 0.917 80.9 0.865 6.55 0.918 444 0.738 0.810

50 0.913 56.5 0.861 5.55 0.915 312 0.733 0.765
60 0.909 40.8 0.858 4.75 0.912 221 0.728 0.730
70 0.905 30.6 0.854 4.12 0.908 157 0.724 0.690
80 0.902 23.4 0.851 3.65 0.905 114 0.719 0.660
90 0.898 18.5 0.847 3.19 0.902 83.6 0.715 0.630
100 0.894 14.9 0.843 2.78 0.899 62.7 0.710 0.600
110 0.890 12.2 0.840 2.27 0.895 48.0 0.706 0.570
Some Other Liquids
Liquid and temperature Spec. Kin. Visc.

Grav. ft2/sec
Turpentine at 68ºF 0.862 1.86

Linseed oil at 86ºF 0.925 38.60
Ethyl alcohol at 68ºF 0.789 1.65
Benzene at 68ºF 0.879 0.802
Glycerin at 68ºF 1.262 711
Castor oil at 68ºF 0.960 1110
Light machinery oil at 62ºF 0.907 147
*Kessler & Lenz, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

**ASCE Manual 25

(a) (b)
Quantity Symbol F-L-T M-L-T
(a) Area A in ft2 A L2 L2

(b) Volume v in ft3 v L3 L3
(c) Velocity V in ft/sec V LT-1 LT-1
(d) Acceleration α or g in ft/sec2 α-g L T-2 LT-2
(e) Angular velocity w in de rad/sec w T-1 T-1
(f) Force F in lb F F MLT-2
(g) Mass M in lb sec2/ft M FT2 L-1 M
(h) Specific weight ω in lb/ft3 ω FT-8 ML-2T-2
(i) Density ρ in lb sec2/ft4 ρ FT2L-4 ML-3
(j) pressure p in lb/ft2 p FL-2 ML-1 T-2
(k) Absolute viscosity µ in lb sec/ft2 µ F T L-2 ML-1 T-2
(1) Kinematic viscosity ν in ft2/sec ν L2 T-1 L2T-1
(m) Modulus of elasticity E in lb/ft2 E FL-2 M L-1 T-2
(n) Power P in ft lb/sec P F L T-1 ML2T-3
(o) Torque T in ft lb T FL ML2T-2
(P) Rate of flow Q in ft3/sec Q L3 T-1 L3 T-1
(q) Shearing stress T in lb/ft2 T FL-1 ML-1T-3
(r) Surface tension σ in Ib/ft σ FL-1 MT-2
(s) Weight W in lb W F MLT-2
(t) Weight rate of flow W in lb/sec W FT-1 MLT-3

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FENOMENOS DE TRANSPORTE Y MECANICA DE FLUIDOS – ASPECTOS TEORICOS 35

VELOCITY DISTRIBUTIONS IN LAMINAR FLOW

§ 2.1 SHELL MOMENTUM BALANCES: BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

  rate of  sum of forces 

Universidad Mayor – Dr. Carlos Martínez Pavez - Marzo 2002

Universidad Mayor – Dr. Carlos Martínez Pavez - Marzo 2002

§ 2.2 FLOW OF A FALLING FILM

Universidad Mayor – Dr. Carlos Martínez Pavez - Marzo 2002

LW τxzx - LW τxzx+∆x + W ∆xρv2zz=0 - W ∆xρv2zz=L + LW ∆x ρg cos β = 0 (2.2-6)

τ xz = ρgx cos β + C1 (2.2-9)

B.C. 1: at x = 0, τxz = 0 (2.2-10)

τ xz = ρgx ⋅ cos β (2.2-11)

Universidad Mayor – Dr. Carlos Martínez Pavez - Marzo 2002

This equation is easily integrated to give

The constant of integration is evaluated by using the boundary condition

Hence the velocity profile is parabolic. (See Fig. 2.2-2.)

(i) The maximum velocity vz,max is clearly the velocity at x = 0; that is

Universidad Mayor – Dr. Carlos Martínez Pavez - Marzo 2002

laminar flow without rippling Re < 4 to 25

Universidad Mayor – Dr. Carlos Martínez Pavez - Marzo 2002

Example 2.2-1. Calculation of Film Velocity

Example 2.2-2. Falling Film with Variable Viscosity

Universidad Mayor – Dr. Carlos Martínez Pavez - Marzo 2002

which is in agreement with Eq. 2.2-16.

From Eq. 2.2-24 it may be shown that the average velocity is

§ 2.3 FLOW THROUGH A CIRCULAR TUBE

Universidad Mayor – Dr. Carlos Martínez Pavez - Marzo 2002

Universidad Mayor – Dr. Carlos Martínez Pavez - Marzo 2002

(2πrLτ rz ) r − (2πrLτ rz ) r + ∆r + (2πr∆rρv 2z ) z=0 − (2πr∆rρv 2z ) z=L + 2πr∆rLρg + 2πr∆r (p 0 − pL ) = 0 (2.3-8)

Universidad Mayor – Dr. Carlos Martínez Pavez - Marzo 2002

Fig.2.3-2. Momentum flux and velocity distributions in flow in cylindrical tubes.

Newton's law of viscosity for this situation is

Universidad Mayor – Dr. Carlos Martínez Pavez - Marzo 2002

Universidad Mayor – Dr. Carlos Martínez Pavez - Marzo 2002

a. The flow is laminar Re less than about 2100.

b. The density ρ is constant ("incompressible flow").

d. The fluid is Newtonianthat is, τ rz = −µ(dv z dr ).

Universidad Mayor – Dr. Carlos Martínez Pavez - Marzo 2002

Solution. From the Hagen-Poiseuille law (Eq. 2.3-19)

(0.00398 ft 3 min −1 ) (2.54 )3  1 min  

Hence the flow is indeed laminar. Furthermore, the entrance length Le is

L e = 0.035D Re = (0.035 )(0.1 12 )(2.41)

Example 2.3-2. Bingham Flow in a Circular Tube

Universidad Mayor – Dr. Carlos Martínez Pavez - Marzo 2002

Fig. 2.3-3. Flow of a Bingham fluid in a circular tube.

This separable first-order differential equation may be integrated to give

Universidad Mayor – Dr. Carlos Martínez Pavez - Marzo 2002

Universidad Mayor – Dr. Carlos Martínez Pavez - Marzo 2002

§ 2.4 FLOW THROUGH AN ANNULUS

Fig. 14-1. Upward flow through a cylindrical annulus.

Universidad Mayor – Dr. Carlos Martínez Pavez - Marzo 2002

Integration with respect to r then gives

Therefore the constants C 2 and λ are given by

Universidad Mayor – Dr. Carlos Martínez Pavez - Marzo 2002

(i) The maximum velocity is

(ii) The average velocity is

(iii) The volume rate of flow is

Fz = − τrz r = κR ⋅ 2πκRL + τrz r =R ⋅ 2πRL