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Theses and Dissertations

Spring 2016

A practical introduction to just intonation through

string quartet playing
Timothy James Cuffman
University of Iowa

Copyright 2016 Tim Cuffman

This dissertation is available at Iowa Research Online: https://ir.uiowa.edu/etd/3065

Recommended Citation
Cuffman, Timothy James. "A practical introduction to just intonation through string quartet playing." DMA (Doctor of Musical Arts)
thesis, University of Iowa, 2016.
https://doi.org/10.17077/etd.bvwmxy9h

Follow this and additional works at: https://ir.uiowa.edu/etd

Part of the Music Commons

 A PRACTICAL INTRODUCTION

TO JUST INTONATION

THROUGH STRING QUARTET PLAYING

by

Timothy James Cuffman

An essay submitted in partial

fulfillment of the requirements for
the Doctor of Musical Arts
in Music degree in the
Graduate College of
the University of Iowa

May 2016

Essay Supervisor: Associate Professor Scott Conklin

 Graduate College
The University of Iowa
Iowa City, Iowa

CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL
_______________________

D.M.A. ESSAY

_________

This is to certify that the D.M.A. essay of

Timothy James Cuffman

has been approved by the Examining Committee

for the essay requirement for the Doctor
of Musical Arts in Music degree
at the May 2016 graduation

Essay committee: ______________________

Scott Conklin, Essay Supervisor

______________________
William LaRue Jones

______________________
Gregory Hand

______________________
Anthony Arnone

______________________
Katherine Wolfe
 PUBLIC ABSTRACT

Intonation is one of the most important issues facing performers of string

quartets. Often, string students learn to play in tune strictly in terms of their own melodic

line. To play in tune in a string quartet requires an understanding of the underlying

harmony and how intonation can be fluid and flexible in an ensemble. This paper offers

students an introduction to harmonic intonation and provides exercises to put this

knowledge into practice. The text begins with instruction and exercises related to perfect

intervals, which form the basis for intonation. Next, consonant intervals are discussed

along with exercises for practicing and ear training. Chords are constructed and

practiced upon the basis of this interval practice. Student quartets are then asked to

play excerpts from the repertoire presented as harmonic reductions and as originally

written in order to connect the theoretical knowledge to the string quartet repertoire.

Finally, chorales by J.S. Bach arranged for string quartet are provided for continuing

practice of intonation in tonal harmony. The aim of this essay is to provide students with

a solid foundation and practical application of basic principles of just intonation in

quartet playing.

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF EXAMPLES……………...…………………………………………………………...iv

CHAPTER

1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………….1

2. LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………………………….4

3. PERFECT INTERVALS…………………………………………………………...14

4. CONSONANT INTERVALS………………………………………………………26

5. CHORDS……………………………………………………………………………37

6. HARMONIC PROGRESSIONS………………………………………………….41

7. CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………..73

BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………………………………………...…..75

iii
 LIST OF EXAMPLES

Example

1. Scale in Octaves and Unisons..…………………………………………………..….17

2. Mozart String Quartet No. 16 in E-Flat Major, K. 428…………………………..….18

3. Mozart String Quartet No. 20 in D major, K. 499……………………………...…...19

4. Beethoven String Quartet in F Major, Op. 18 No. 1………………………………..19

5. Beethoven Op. 133 Grosse Fugue………………………………………………..…20

6. Scale in Fifths…………………………………………………………………………..22

7. Chant in Fifths……………………………………………………………………..…...23

8. Scale in Fourths……………………………………………………………………..…24

9. Chant in Fourths……………………………………………………………………….25

10. Narrow Half Steps in Melodic Intonation…………………………………………...27

11. Two Different E’s……………………..………………………………………………..28

12. Adjustment for Just Intonation………………… ………………………………..….29

13. D Major Scale in Thirds…………………………………………………………........33

14. E-Flat Major Scale in Thirds………………………………………………………….34

15. A Major Scale in Sixths………………………………………………………………..35

16. B-Flat Major Scale in Sixths…………………………………………………………..36

17. D Major Scale in Triads…………………………………………………………….....38

18. F Major Scale in Triads………………………………………………………………..39

19. E Major Scale in First Inversion Triads…………………………………………...…40

20. V-I Progression……………………………………………………………………..….42

iv
21. V7-I Progression…………………………………………………………………….....43

22. Harmonic Reduction of Mozart String Quartet in C Major K. 157,1-4……………44

23. Mozart String Quartet in C Major K. 157,1-4…………………….………………….46

24. IV-V7-I Progression……………………………………………………………………47

25. Harmonic Reduction of Mozart String Quartet No. 4 in C Major, K. 157,13-21…49

26. Mozart String Quartet No. 4 in C Major, K. 157,13-21………..…………………...51

27. Mendelssohn String Quartet No. 2 in A Major, Op. 13, 1-4………….……………54

28. ii6-V7-I Progression…………………………………………………………………...55

29. Harmonic Reduction of Mozart String Quartet No. 4 in C Major, K. 157,42-46…56

30. Mozart String Quartet No. 4 in C Major, K. 157,42-46…………………………….58

31. Harmonic Reduction Mozart String Quartet No. 4 in C Major, K. 157, 1-52…….60

32. Aus meines Herzens Grunde by J.S. Bach…………………………………………68

33. Christus, der ist mein Leben by J.S. Bach……………………………………….…70

34. Der Her ist mein getreuer Hirt by J.S. Bach………………………………………...72

v
 1

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Intonation is one of the most important issues facing performers of string

quartets. In order for a string quartet to play in tune, it is necessary that each player

have an understanding of how his or her individual part functions in the greater

harmonic structure of the work. A sensitive awareness of the harmonic design of a piece

can also inform decisions related to phrasing and expression. String players often learn

to play in tune by thinking linearly. That is, they hear and adjust their intonation based

exclusively on the intervals in their own melodic line. Melodic intonation is a valuable

skill to cultivate, but playing in a string quartet requires each player to listen and adjust

vertically with an understanding of how intonation can change within the context of the

harmony. When music students learn harmony in a theory class, it is done separately

from one’s instrument and this knowledge too often evades practical application. Often,

even advanced students are not aware of the way that intonation differs from playing

melodically to harmonically. In addition, the string quartet configuration lacks the

extensive access to etude and method books that exist for individual instruments.

Chamber music is frequently taught primarily through the repertoire.

This approach offers solutions to these potential shortcomings by providing a

resource by which string quartets can approach tonal harmony and intonation in a

methodical way. The following process will be of most benefit to students who have

studied music theory in some capacity. Students beginning the study of the following

materials should have a firm grasp on the concepts of intervals, triads, and Roman

numeral analysis. In terms of technical proficiency, string players embarking on these

studies should be experienced enough to begin playing the standard quartet repertoire
 2

from the classical era. Groups will also get the most out of these exercises with the help

of a coach to guide their progress. The exercises included in this process of studying

intonation should be used at the beginning of rehearsal as a warmup before working on

repertoire.

In terms of instruction, the following will give groups a basic introduction to the

principles of just intonation as well as exercises for how to tune chords and standard

progressions. The intent is to provide developing string quartets with the fundamentals

of playing in tune. It is the aim of this project that students can build on this foundation

and later become aware of the many artistic choices to be made with intonation. It also

will provide valuable exercises that quartets at any level may utilize to warm-up or

practice their group intonation.

The most vital prerequisite for students embarking on this study is for each

member of the group to have a humble and flexible attitude. It is important to keep in

mind that good intonation is challenging and no one is perfect. Pablo Casals was known

to say that he could never play a C major scale in tune on the first try each day, but had

to come back to it fresh. 1 It is necessary to have patience with oneself and fellow group

members. Frustration and tension are the enemies of technique and will adversely

affect intonation. The following pages will demonstrate that intonation in a string quartet

is fluid and changing by its nature. A quartet could spend hours trying to tune a single

passage. At some point, this painstaking work will become counterproductive. Instead, a

quartet might establish a manageable set time for working on intonation at the

1
John Holt, Never Too Late: My Musical Life Story (Boston: Da Capo Press, 1981), 199.
 3

beginning of rehearsal. 2 This can serve as a warm-up and open the ears of each player

to vertical listening. Improvement will come over time, provided that each player is

listening and adjusting.

The subjects discussed in this essay will begin with an examination of the

existing literature on string quartet pedagogy as related to intonation. Following the

literature review, the practical portion of the essay will commence with a discussion on

tuning intervals. The third section will include exercises for tuning chords and the final

portion will be devoted to harmonic progressions. Each topic will be presented in two

parts. First, there will be practical guidance on applying knowledge of intonation to the

instrument. Next, there will be musical exercises to put the theoretical information into

practice. Musical examples will include simple distillations of harmonic concepts

arranged for string quartet as well as excerpts from the string quartet repertoire. Initially,

these repertoire examples will be presented as simple harmonic reductions. The final

step will be to perform the example from the repertoire as it was originally composed. In

this way, each new theoretical concept progresses from an abstract idea to a practical

example in a simple and graded manner.

2
Irving Fink and Cynthia Merriell. String Quartet Playing (New Jersey: Paganiniana Publications, 1985),
83.
 4

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

Many books exist that provide rich historical background and theoretical analysis

of the string quartet repertoire. These texts are helpful for a developing string quartet to

study, but they will not be discussed here. Only books that offer instruction regarding

intonation in playing quartets will be examined. By exploring these texts, the need for

further literature related to the practical cultivation of intonation in string quartet playing

will be demonstrated.

Herter Norton’s The Art of String Quartet Playing: Practice, Technique and

Interpretation offers instruction under seven broad categories which include Style and

the String Quartet, Ensemble, Rehearsing, Tempo and Tempo Modifications, Phrasing,

Dynamics, and Color and Texture. Most relevant to this project are the four pages that

address intonation and tuning open strings in the chapter titled Color and Texture.

Norton begins writing about the central problem of playing string quartets in tune

by stating:

The string player, making his own tones as he goes along, tempers his own
scale. The quartet player, then, has to think of the just intonation of his tones, not
in diatonic relation or in relation to each other on his own instrument only, but in
terms of the constant, self-engendered process of modulation as it is distributed
among the four instruments. In other words, their purity is determined by
modulatory relationships. He thinks of F as low when downward-resolving
seventh in a dominant seventh in C or in a diminished interval; as high when it is
leading tone to G-flat or if in augmented interval. 3

Norton then offers several excerpts from the quartet repertoire that exemplify this

flexibility of intonation. Herter Norton goes on to emphasize the importance of the

3
Herter Norton, The Art of String Quartet Playing: Practice, Technique, and Interpretation (New York:
Simon and Schuster, 1962), 176.
 5

quality of tone to intonation. She states that a “forced tone” will tend to make the pitch

rise. Her solution to this is for the players to place their fingers on the string with the

more fleshy, pad-like part of their fingers to produce a “more soft, flexible tone.”4

According to Norton, open strings should be avoided because they are inexpressive and

cannot be tempered. 5 Balance is also of utmost importance to Norton. She refers to this

as “proportionate strength.” 6 In terms of how to practice intonation, only one paragraph

is offered to suggest practicing in pairs and then adding voices one at a time. 7 If an

individual player is having trouble, she suggests having one player play a drone while

the struggling player plays his passage slowly until it is “clean and clear.” 8

In terms of tuning the open string, Norton suggests that each player take an A,

one at a time, from whichever player has a “good A.” Once everyone has tuned the

fifths of their open strings, she suggests that the players should check their open strings

with each other by playing C’s together, G’s together, and so on for each string. Norton

stresses the need to tune softly. 9

Chamber Music: Notes for Players by James Christensen is written as a

repertoire guide for amateur players to explore new pieces. Christensen’s text provides

historical background as well as a brief introduction to a wide variety of works. Of note

to this project are Christensen’s practical rules for playing chamber music found in the

introduction of his book. In his seventh rule on tuning, Christensen states that he thinks

4
Herter Norton, The Art of String Quartet Playing: Practice, Technique, and Interpretation (New York:
Simon and Schuster, 1962), 177.
5
Ibid.,178.
6
Ibid.
7
Ibid.
8
Ibid.
9
Ibid.,179.
 6

there is only one way to tune: The cello should provide the reference point and give the

A. He insists on that for two reasons. One, the cello has longer strings and changes

pitch more slowly. Secondly, “the registration places its voice at the bottom of the

harmony so its intonation naturally serves to cue the intonation of the other players.” 10

Christensen’s method involves the cello tuning first with the D and G as well as the G

and C pairs of adjacent strings making “tight” fifths. When this has been done, the other

musicians should separately match the cello’s open A, D, and G strings. Next, the viola

matches their C string with cello. Lastly, Christensen suggests violins should separately

tune their E strings to the cello’s A string. 11 If the fifths of the open strings are tuned

purely, as string players usually do, the result will be that the E will sound high in

comparison to the low open C’s and G’s in the quartet. This phenomenon is why

Christensen espouses tuning the C and G strings slightly higher to create tight fifths and

then matching the open E’s to those lower strings. Beyond the tuning of the open

strings, this book does not offer instruction on playing in tune.

The majority of Atholl Page’s Playing String Quartets is devoted to introducing

repertoire. Historical background and musical description is provided for many pieces

from the standard repertoire. However, Page briefly discusses the topic of intonation in

his first chapter dedicated to technique. He emphasizes the need for both a “good ear

and accurate mechanical use of the fingers, neither of which is sufficient by itself but

both of which help the other and can be improved.” 12 Page stresses the need to be

vigilant with intonation and never satisfied. He writes that the “ear becomes more acute

10
James Christensen, Chamber Music: Notes for Players (United Kingdom: Distinctive Publishing, 1992),
4.
11
Ibid.
12
Athol Page, Playing String Quartets (Wellesley, Massachusetts: Branden Publishing, 1980), 10.
 7

through careful listening and is helped by the practicing of double stopping.” 13 He then

stresses the need for the cultivation of both the aural and tactile senses for playing in

tune. Beyond individuals playing in tune, Page writes that each player needs to be

constantly listening and adjusting to the other players. 14 On a practical note, he

suggests playing softly and slowly to listen for intonation. Much like James Christensen,

Page places the most importance on the cello’s role in intonation. He states that the

cello should anchor the intonation and “without being heavy, always play firm.” 15 At the

beginning of rehearsal, Page suggests playing music that is simple and familiar together

before moving onto something new or more difficult. In performance, Page dubiously

suggests playing with a wide vibrato to cover up a “doubtful patch.”16

The Art of Quartet Playing by David Blum includes transcriptions of interviews the

author conducted with the Guarneri String Quartet. This quartet was comprised of

Arnold Steinhardt as first violinist, John Dalley as second violinist, Michael Tree as

violist, and David Soyer on cello. The interviews explore a wide variety of topics

including intonation and tuning. On the topic of tuning the open strings, Soyer says that

they had Michael Tree, the violist, provide the A because he used steel strings, which

stay in tune better than the gut strings the others played on. 17 Arnold Steinhardt also

stated that they always tuned separately. 18 In agreement with what James Christensen

espoused in his book, the cello and viola play their C’s at the same time to make certain

13
Ibid.,11.
14
Athol Page, Playing String Quartets (Wellesley, Massachusetts: Branden Publishing, 1980), 11.
15
Ibid.
16
Ibid.
17
David Blum, The Art of Quartet Playing (New York: Random House, 2013), 26.
18
Ibid.
 8

they are identical. 19 The Guarneri String Quartet also advocated tuning the G and C

strings higher to create better intonation for the group. 20

On the subject of expressive intonation, Steinhardt speaks of having to balance

the linear and the vertical. When he states this, he is referencing both melodic and

harmonic factors. 21 He lists octaves, fourths, and fifths as harmonic “anchors” that need

to be exact. 22 Steinhardt states that he is mentally aware of every point in the piece

where he is playing as part of a perfect interval. 23 By contrast, he says that seconds,

thirds, sixths, and sevenths are “fair game” and can be manipulated based on melodic

considerations. These intervals being “fair game” includes raising the leading tone or

playing with close semitones. 24 John Dalley, the second violinist, brings up examples of

times when the intonation needs to be very neutral without raised leading tones. He

further states that they may use different types of intonation at various points in a single

piece. 25 Michael Tree speaks about the importance of being aware of a player who has

repeated notes and the need to adjust to that player. 26 The cellist, David Soyer, speaks

about how his role in the bass has a critical harmonic role. However, Soyer says that

the cello line needs to have a “life of its own” and he does shape his line using

expressive intonation. 27

19
Ibid., 27.
20
Ibid.
21
David Blum, The Art of Quartet Playing (New York: Random House, 2013), 28.
22
Ibid.
23
Ibid.
24
Ibid., 30.
25
Ibid., 31.
26
Ibid., 32.
27
Ibid.
 9

In contrast to Herter Norton’s advice about avoiding open strings, the Guarneri

String Quartet did use open strings regularly. Michael Tree stated that, “playing in lower

positions can help towards a clearer and cleaner sound throughout the whole quartet.” 28

John Dalley states that, “There are three main reasons for using open strings: for ease,

for clarity, and for emphasis when needed.”29 However, Dalley does offer caution with

using open strings. If a quartet is playing in the key of D or A, then the open strings will

fall on the tonic or dominant and the intonation will not be an issue. He goes on to say,

“But an open A string in F major, where it is the third degree of the scale, may tend to

sound slightly flat.”30 When asked how the quartet practices intonation, Steinhardt

responded that they would play quietly and at a slow tempo. If this suggestion does not

fix the problem, they will play the passage in pairs with the other members of the quartet

listening and offering feedback. 31

String Quartet Playing by Irving Fink and Cynthia Merriell also includes

conversations with the Guarneri String Quartet. The beginning of the book includes

interviews about the role of the instruments with each member of the quartet

individually. The bulk of the book is devoted to both an explanation of and examples of

what the authors call “red-line analysis”, which is a method of score study used to plan

balance and expression. Related to the development of intonation is the portion of the

book under the heading “Warming up”. The authors suggest choosing a simple, short,

and chorale-like passage from the repertoire. They suggest playing this type of passage

with the first violin leading and everyone playing pianissimo while all try to play with the

28
Ibid.,43.
29
David Blum, The Art of Quartet Playing (New York: Random House, 2013), 43.
30
Ibid.,33.
31
Ibid.,34.
 10

same tone and perfect intonation. Next, the second violin should lead and the group

chooses a different way to play it, contrasting the pianissimo style from the first time.

Third, the viola would lead and the group would play in an entirely new way such as

starting softly and crescendoing through the passage. When an exercise of this type is

completed, Fink and Merriell then suggest moving on to repertoire. 32

Abram Loft’s How to Succeed in an Ensemble offers advice for players involved

in all types of ensembles. The book discusses a wide variety of topics including

biographical information about Loft’s own experience, rehearsal and musical advice, as

well as guidance for the business side of a successful ensemble. On the subject of

intonation, Loft stresses the importance of intonation and the need for individual players

to prepare his or her part in advance. He goes on to say that players should take

responsibility and avoid blaming others for intonation problems, as poor intonation can

become a serious problem for an ensemble if it is allowed to persist. 33

Linda Susanne Blanche created a series of etudes for string quartet in her

dissertation Selected Etudes for the Development of String Quartet Technique: An

Annotated Compilation. This series of etudes is designed to develop technique in six

different areas including dynamics, intonation, timing in music, tone color, ensemble,

and articulation. In the chapter on intonation, Blanche claims that this topic is the most

common deficiency among groups and requires instant adjustment from all players to

fix. 34 The first etude is taken from Jeno Lener’s now out of print The Technique of String

32
Irving Fink and Cynthia Merriell, String Quartet Playing (New Jersey: Paganiniana Publications, 1985),
83.
33
Abram Loft, How to Succeed in an Ensemble: Reflections on a Life in Chamber Music (Montclair, New
Jersey: Amadeus Press, 2003), 183.
34
Linda Susanne Blanche, Selected Etudes for the Development of String Quartet Technique: An
Annotated Compilation (dissertation, Columbia University Teachers College, 1997), 31.
 11

Quartet Playing and consists of every player starting on their lowest C and playing a two

octave C major scale in whole notes. 35 The second intonation etude is similar to the first

except the viola and first violin begin on E, rather than C, to create a C major scale in

octaves and thirds. 36 Blanche further suggests playing scales in sixths, fourths, and

fifths. 37 As guidelines for the intonation in these scales, Blanche offers that octaves and

unisons should agree, leading tones should be high, and that fourths and fifths must be

tempered to fit within octave. 38

Blanche then presents a list of ways to practice difficult intonation spots collected

from chamber coaches she surveyed. These suggestions include playing slowly and

softly, as problems and pitch will be heard more easily with uniform tone color. 39

Building chords from the bass up is another instruction presented. The subsequent

suggestion is to have one player sustain the dominant pitch of a passage while the

other members tune their perfect intervals. Another piece of advice is to analyze each

chord by quality and then start by tuning the perfect intervals. Beginning in pairs and

then adding a voice one by one is also suggested, as well as practicing intonation. 40

The remaining etudes in this chapter continue to offer versions of scales in different

intervals. Finally, there is an eleven bar harmonic reduction from a Brahms quartet. 41.

The Cambridge Companion to the String Quartet, edited by Robin Stowell,

contains chapters by various authors on a range of topics related to string quartets. In

35
Ibid.,32.
36
Linda Susanne Blanche, Selected Etudes for the Development of String Quartet Technique: An
Annotated Compilation (dissertation, Columbia University Teachers College, 1997), 33.
37
Ibid.,34.
38
Ibid.,34.
39
Ibid.
40
Ibid.,35.
41
Ibid.,41.
 12

this collection, David Waterman has written a chapter entitled Playing Quartets: A View

from the Inside, which briefly addresses the topic of intonation. Waterman states that

the most important factor for good quartet intonation is for all four players to individually

play well in tune, but this is not all that is necessary. He states that even with four

players who play well in tune, good intonation in a quartet remains difficult because of

the possibilities of expressive intonation. 42 Waterman states that the key for good

ensemble intonation is that everyone be aware of his or her function in the harmony. 43

In terms of practicing intonation, he suggests practicing unison scales or unison

passages from the repertoire with a designated leader that everyone adjusts to. He

further suggests practicing standard harmonic progressions or to work on difficult

harmonic progressions from the repertoire. 44 Waterman suggests practicing tough

intonation spots by playing slowly and not stopping to fix every note, but rather

observing and allowing the intonation to gradually correct itself. In doing this type of

practice, he cautions that all the members of the group should still play musically with all

of the expression and dynamics of the piece when performed at speed. 45 Waterman

writes extensively about how differences in tone color, bow speed, vibrato, and the

balance of a chord can change the perception of intonation. Thus, the blend of the

ensemble is vital to sounding in tune. 46 In terms of tuning the instruments, he suggests

one player taking an A from a tuning fork and then giving that A to each player. He

advocates for the G and C strings to be tuned high and the violins’ E strings to be tuned

42
David Waterman, “Playing Quartets: A View from the Inside,” in The Cambridge Companion to the
String Quartet, ed. Robin Stowell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 110.
43
Ibid.,111.
44
Ibid.
45
Ibid.
46
Ibid.,112.
 13

as low as possible. However, he also stresses the importance of being able to play in

tune when the strings are out of tune. 47

The literature examined to this point shares several similarities in approach.

Many authors have pointed to the importance of perfect intervals, blending sound, and

building chords from the bottom. Most authors are also in agreement that there needs to

be a balance of melodic and harmonic considerations when tuning. It can be concluded

from the above texts that conscious decisions need to be made in regard to string

quartet intonation. Good group intonation depends on the constant listening and

flexibility of each player to adjust. While these resources offer valuable advice and

insight into playing in tune in a quartet setting, the relatively small amount written about

intonation seems slightly incongruous when compared to other topics covered. It seems

many elements regarding intonation are taken for granted. Further materials that could

enhance the string quartet pedagogy literature are methods for student groups to learn

how to develop the intonation of their ensemble. In terms of etudes and exercises, tools

are needed beyond scales. Intonation, by nature, can be mundane to work on.

Exercises and arrangements that have greater musical variety than scales could help

maintain students interest while working on playing in tune. Additionally, articles and

books are needed that apply theoretical knowledge and ear training to their chamber

music playing. In this way, students will cultivate the ability to make informed choices

about the many challenges a string quartet faces related to intonation.

47
David Waterman, “Playing Quartets: A View from the Inside,” in The Cambridge Companion to the
String Quartet, ed. Robin Stowell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003),113.
 14

CHAPTER 3: PERFECT INTERVALS

When a pitch is sounded, the string is vibrating at a certain frequency. An open A

string, for example, is often tuned to 440 oscillations per second. When two pitches are

played simultaneously, the interval that is created will have a certain ratio between the

pair of notes. The laws of nature determine whether these pitches are in tune. A single

music note is actually a whole field of pitches called the harmonic series. The note

perceived is the fundamental of a complex series of pitches. This could be understood

by envisioning a string on an instrument. When the string is plucked or bowed, the

entire length of the string vibrates. However, the string is also vibrating at many different

divisions of the string. For example, a sounding open string is also vibrating at half of

the string length. For this reason, lightly touching halfway up a string produces a

harmonic that sounds an octave above the open string. Since the fundamental pitch is

the first harmonic in the series, the octave above the fundamental is designated as the

second harmonic in the overtone series. When pitches are tuned precisely in

accordance with the ratios of harmonic series, they will be referred to as tuned purely.

The interval of a unison is the result of two pitches sounding a note of identical

frequency. As a result, the ratio of a unison interval is 1:1. To play an octave above a

given pitch requires a string to vibrate at twice the speed of the lower note. Thus, the

ratio of an octave is 2:1. Perfect intervals have the simplest ratios between notes. A

perfect fifth is the third harmonic above a fundamental pitch and has a ratio of 3:2.

Similarly, the interval of a perfect fourth, the inversion of a perfect fifth, also has a quite

simple ratio of 4:3. These low integers represent relatively uncomplicated ratios in

comparison to other intervals. Because of the simplicity of these ratios, there is no

 15

margin for error in terms of the intonation. A perfect interval played even slightly out of

tune will be more immediately noticeable than other intervals. With this in mind, it is

often wise to practice tuning the perfect intervals first when working on a passage for

intonation. It is these intervals that form the basis for all intonation.

Knowledge of these ratios is important from a theoretical standpoint and can

provide helpful background information for musicians. In reality, it is doubtful that most

string players are calculating these mathematical ratios while performing music. What is

most useful, of course, is how the interval sounds. To this end, a musician can focus on

developing their ability to hear beats. Beats can be detected when an interval is out of

tune. Many string players already do this type of listening and adjusting when tuning

open strings. For example, a string player tuning an open A tuned at 438 Hz will hear 2

beats against a reference pitch that is vibrating at 440 Hz. 48 When tuning open strings

together in perfect fifths, the lower string’s third harmonic will be the same as the upper

note’s second harmonic. If these pitches are out of tune, a player will hear beats in the

sound. As the beats slow down, the perfect fifth is closer and closer to being a purely in

tune fifth.

String players can continue to cultivate their ability to hear beats between

intervals through the following exercises. It is useful to begin with the octave and unison

because they are the most basic intervals. As a quartet, choose a scale to play in

octaves and unison. Exercise 1 involves a scale in C major with each player beginning

on a C. It is advisable to tune octaves in ensemble or solo playing by playing the lower

48
Michael Kimber, “Intonation: What Your Teachers Never Told You,” Michael Kimber’s Viola Homepage,
accessed March 22, 2016, http://m_kimber.tripod.com/intonation_untold.pdf, 5.
 16

note louder than the higher note. When two players are playing in octaves, keep in mind

that the person playing the upper note is playing the second harmonic of the lower pitch.

If the octave is in tune, there should be no beats and the sound will be very resonant, as

the upper octave will be reinforcing the lower note’s second harmonic.

● Play with full sound to better hear discrepancies in pitch.

● Blend and match bow speed, tone color, and dynamic as much as possible.

● Play without vibrato.

● Focus on listening and adjusting.

● Designate a leader. Repeat several times with a different person leading. It is

important that a leader be chosen not only to lead the ensemble, but also to be

the one that the other members adjust pitch to. There can be no progress if

everyone is adjusting. Similarly, a conscious choice regarding who to match will

need to be made for passages in the repertoire. This decision will depend on

many factors to be discussed later.

● Pick a different dynamic or tone color for the group to blend on each repetition.

● Perform the exercise on different scales and keys.

● Practice the exercise by rearranging the voicing so players change their role.

● Practice the same exercise with two octaves scales.

 17

Example 1: Scale in Octaves and Unisons

Composers often write music for string quartet that requires the ensemble to play

in octaves and unisons. Because of the need for purity of the perfect interval, these

passages are often notorious spots for intonation trouble. The following are excerpts

from the quartet repertoire that use the quartet in octaves and unisons. Practice them

the following way:

● First, slowly with one person leading in the same way the scales were practiced

previously.

● Next, play the excerpts still slowly but in a consistent tempo.

● Gradually increase speed until the passage can be played in tune at the

indicated tempo.

● Observe the aural qualities of these passages. Try to define how the quality of

sound differs when there is harmony.

 18

The following passage is excerpted from the opening four bars of the first

movement, marked Allegro non troppo. The cello and viola are in unison and the violins

are in unison one octave above.

Example 2: Mozart String Quartet No. 16 in E Flat Major, K. 428

The next example is an excerpt from the opening four bars of the first movement

of Mozart’s String Quartet No. 20 in D Major, K. 499, marked Allegretto. As in the

previous example, the violins are in unison one octave above the unison cello and viola.
 19

Example 3: Mozart String Quartet No. 20 in D major, K. 499

This example is from the opening bars of Beethoven’s first movement marked

Allegro con brio. The voicing and doubling is identical to the Mozart examples.

Example 4: Beethoven String Quartet in F Major, Op. 18 No. 1

 20

The final example of unison and octave playing is from the opening measures of

Beethoven’s Grosse Fugue. This offers many challenges to successful intonation

because of the various accidentals.

Example 5: Beethoven Op. 133 Grosse Fugue

 21

The next set of examples provides scales in perfect fifths. While the cello and

second violin play a C major scale, the viola and first violin play a G major scale

simultaneously. This insures that an interval of a perfect fifth will always be present.

Here are some things to keep in mind while playing this scale:

● Play slowly without vibrato.

● Be aware that two pairs of players will be playing in octaves. As is always the

case with octaves, the player playing the lower octave should play slightly

stronger.

● As in the example of tuning open strings, be aware that a perfect fifth is the third

harmonic above the fundamental. With this in mind, the person playing a fifth

above the bass can play softer and focus on blending and eliminating beats.

● Because the inversion of a perfect fifth is a perfect fourth, notice that a string of

perfect fourths is created between the viola and the second violin.
 22

● Try practicing first by isolating the pairs of players in octaves and then adding the

fifth.

● Practice the scale in different keys and with different voicings.

Example 6: Scale in Fifths

The next exercises involve a tune similar to what would be found in Gregorian

Chant presented with parallel perfect fifths.

● The rhythm is not clearly defined, so assign a leader and follow that player in

terms of duration, tone, intonation, and dynamic.

● In terms of intonation, focus on eliminating the beats and producing the most

possible resonance without vibrato.

 23

Example 7: Chant in Fifths

The following presents a scale in perfect fourths as an exercise. In this example,

the cello and second violin are playing a C major scale. In order to play all perfect

fourths, the viola and first violin should play an F major scale simultaneously. When

playing the perfect fourth scale, keep in mind the following:

● Play without vibrato.

● Be aware that two pairs of players are each playing in octaves with each other. In

this particular example, the first violin and viola are in octaves. As is always the

case with octaves, the lower octave should be played slightly louder than the

upper octave. Try practicing by isolating the octaves in first.

● The inversion of fourths will create a fifth; as a result, a row of parallel fifths is

found between the second violin and viola in this voicing.

 24

Example 8: Scale in Fourths

The following is an additional example of a chant. This time it is presented in

fourths.

● Assign a leader to follow in rhythm, tone, dynamic, and intonation.

● Focus on eliminating beats and finding the most resonance in this chant.

● Blend the sound as much as possible through matching bow speed and

articulation. Pick a player to lead the sound in this way.

● Practice without vibrato and then implement it. When adding vibrato, take special

care that everyone is matching speed and width. Assign a leader to follow.
 25

Example 9: Chant in Fourths

 26

CHAPTER 4: CONSONANT INTERVALS

Unfortunately, tuning intervals purely in accordance with the harmonic series

poses problems in music. To illustrate some of the intrinsic problems with tuning, the

fifths and octaves of a piano can be examined. As discussed earlier, the upper note in

an octave is vibrating at twice the speed of the lower note. In the 3/2 ratio of the perfect

fifth, the upper note is vibrating at 1.5 times the speed of the lower. There are seven C’s

on a piano. By starting at the lowest and multiplying it by two seven times, the highest C

should have 4,224 vibrations per second. In that space of seven octaves, there are 12

perfect fifths. Multiplying the bottom C 12 times by 1.5 results in a pitch that has 4,281

vibrations per second. 49 The resulting difference of 57 vibrations is an extremely

significant gap. On the piano, these pitches are the same key. Piano tuners solve the

problem illustrated above by purposefully tuning the instrument in a way that enables a

keyboardist to approximately play all keys and tonalities in tune. One example of the

necessary alterations is that fifths are made slightly narrower in equal temperament

than what is purely in tune. Because string instruments do not have fixed pitches as a

piano, members of a string quartet can play more in tune than equal temperament by

listening and adjusting. 50

When string players learn to play and are thinking mostly about their own

horizontal line, they play in what is known as melodic or Pythagorean intonation. This

tuning system is based upon perfect intervals being purely in tune. As a result of the

perfect fifths in the scale being tuned in accordance with the harmonic series, the whole

49
Charles B. Richter, The Musical Comma (Iowa City, Iowa: The University of Iowa, 1972), 2.
50
Michael Kimber, “Intonation: What Your Teacher Never Told You,” Michael Kimber’s Viola Homepage
accessed March 22, 2016, http://m_kimber.tripod.com/intonation_untold.pdf, 8.
 27

steps in the scale are slightly wide and the diatonic half steps are narrow. A diatonic half

step is any semi-tone that has a different note name. For example, string players tend to

play with high leading tones and also tend to exaggerate the difference between major

and minor. To be specific, a diatonic half step in Pythagorean intonation is 4/9 of a

whole step, but a chromatic half step, such as an E to an E flat, is 5/9 of a whole step.

Using Pythagorean intonation in the key of G major in the example below, the

semitones between B and C and between F# and G would be slightly more narrow than

in equal temperament and narrower than chromatic half steps.

Example 10: Narrow Half Steps in Melodic Intonation

This type of tuning works well in a melodic line and most string players play in

this manner. However, as in the example of the C’s on the piano, there are problems

created when perfect intervals are all purely in tune. In Pythagorean intonation, the

intervals that suffer are the thirds and sixths, or consonant intervals. The wide whole

steps and narrow diatonic half steps that are employed in melodic intonation result in

major thirds and sixths that are too wide and minor thirds and sixths that are too narrow.

These intervals are determined to be out of tune in comparison to the harmonic series.

These problems with consonant intervals are unnoticed when this type of tuning is used

in a melodic line. Where they become apparent is in harmony. Consonant intervals that

suffer due to purely tuned perfect intervals are central to the issue of intonation in string
 28

quartet playing, as illustrated by the following experiment. Have one of the violinists play

an E on the D string with the open A string to create a perfect fourth that is purely in

tune with no beats. Without moving the finger, play the same E with the open G string to

create a major sixth. With the perfect fifths of the open strings purely in tune and the E

in tune as a perfect fourth with the A string, maintaining the same finger position creates

a major sixth that sounds too wide when paired with open G. In the same way that

perfect intervals have simple ratios, thirds and sixths will sound more pleasing to the ear

when their ratio is as simple as possible. The ratio between this E and the open G when

using the E that is in tune with the perfect interval of the A string creates a ratio that is

quite complex: 27/16. If it is lowered to become purely in tune with the G, it becomes a

ratio of 5/3. Of course, using the E that is in tune with the open G will make the perfect

interval relationship between that E and the open A out of tune. 51

Example 11: Two Different E’s

E ≠ E

Just intonation offers a solution to the impurities created in consonant intervals

when the perfect intervals are purely tuned. In the just intonation system, purity of the

perfect intervals is maintained while the consonant intervals are corrected vertically. The

51
Marc Sabat, “On Ben Johnston’s Notation and the Performance Practice of Extended Just Intonation,”
Marc Sabat: Music and Writings, accessed March 22, 2016, http://www.marcsabat.com/pdfs/EJItext.pdf,
1.
 29

type of adjustment made in just intonation can be viewed by returning to the previous

demonstration with the unequal E’s. In this scenario, the E would need to be lowered to

sound in tune with the open G string. The distance by which the E needs to be lowered

is known as the syntonic comma and is the size of approximately 1/9 the distance of a

whole step in equal temperament. 52 The E lowered to be in tune in accordance with just

intonation can be referred to as E-. Note that minor sixths and minor thirds need to be

played slightly higher than in equal temperament or melodic intonation. For the

remainder of this paper, pitches raised or lowered by the syntonic comma will be given

a plus or minus depending on the direction of adjustment.

Example 12: Adjustment for Just Intonation

E E-

It is important for a string quartet player to note that it is possible to be in tune in

terms of equal temperament or melodic intonation, but out of tune in the context of the

group. These problems are inherent in our tonal system and are not the fault of any

musician. For each pitch, there is a wide array of possible placements of the finger

depending on the context. 53 Thus, being flexible and willing to adjust is more important

52
Charles B. Richter, The Musical Comma (Iowa City, Iowa: The University of Iowa, 1972), 1.
53
Michael Kimber, “Intonation: What Your Teacher Never Told You,” Michael Kimber’s Viola Homepage
accessed March 22, 2016, http://m_kimber.tripod.com/intonation_untold.pdf, 8.
 30

than being correct in the string quartet setting. Every player needs to be constantly

listening and adjusting for the group to sound in tune.

Another demonstration that could be helpful to hear and feel the size of the

comma adjustment is for a string player to start a D major scale on the A string with a D

that matches the open D string. When the player gets to the F sharp that sounds correct

in the context of the linear scale, the player should play the F sharp as a double stop

with the open D. It is likely that this F sharp from the scale will sound too high with the

open D. At this point, the player should lower the F sharp until it sounds in tune with the

open D. The amount of adjustment is the syntonic comma. With this information in mind,

it can be helpful for string quartet players to practice individually against an appropriate

fixed pitch. This drone could be provided by an adjacent open string or an electronic

device. Practicing in this way may help simulate tuning to other players rather than

adjusting through melodic intonation.

As a way of practicing adjustments via the syntonic comma, the following

presents multiple scales in thirds. In each example, notice that the major thirds are

lowered and the minor thirds are raised. However, an exception to this is when the third

of a chord is a note that corresponds to an open string of any of the instruments. That

is, when C, G, D, A, or E is the third, the bottom will adjust to be purely in tune with the

third. This should be done even if the third is played with a stopped finger instead of an

open string. The reason for this is that string instruments sound best when pitches are

vibrating sympathetically with the open strings. 54 Tuning in relation to the open strings

shows how closely intonation and tone production are related. The correlation between

54
Simon Fischer, Basics, (London:Peters Edition Ltd., 1997), 7
 31

tone and intonation can be demonstrated both visually and aurally by playing a D on the

G string that is the same pitch as the open D string. If the stopped D on the G string is

vibrating sympathetically with the open D, the open string can be seen vibrating even

though it is not being played. More importantly, this phenomenon can also be heard.

When the stopped D is in tune with the D string, the instrument will ring because of the

vibration of the open D. 55 As a string quartet is comprised of string instruments that

share many of the same open strings, the most resonant tone will be achieved if the

members are playing pitches that are in tune with the group’s open strings.

When correcting thirds and sixths to be tuned in accordance with the principles

of just intonation, it may be observed that the sharps are lowered and flats are raised.

This is contrary to how string players normally play in melodic intonation and may feel

counterintuitive. 56 String players using melodic intonation play sharps higher and flats

lower. Playing in this manner works well in the context of a melodic line. However,

within the system of just intonation, each pitch has a wide variety of possibilities based

on the harmonic context. 57 For the purposes of simplicity and consistency, this paper

will advocate for adjusting based on the pitches of the open strings, which will result in

lowering the sharps and raising the flats. A, E, and B will sometimes be lowered, while

F, C, and G will sometimes be raised. 58

● As with the perfect intervals, blend with the bass and try to eliminate the beats.

55
Ibid.
56
Marc Sabat, “On Ben Johnston’s Notation and the Performance Practice of Extended Just Intonation,”
Marc Sabat: Music and Writings, accessed March 22, 2016, http://www.marcsabat.com/pdfs/EJItext.pdf,
5.
57
Ibid.
58
Michael Kimber, “Intonation: What Your Teacher Never Told You,” Michael Kimber’s Viola Homepage
accessed March 22, 2016, http://m_kimber.tripod.com/intonation_untold.pdf, 4.
 32

● In the case of the plus and minus adjustment for the syntonic comma, the

distance needed to be adjusted is relatively small, simply 1/9 of a whole step.

The important thing is the awareness that your note may need to be placed

slightly higher or lower than you expect. Careful listening should guide the

adjustments most of all.

● In these examples, each player will play in the same key, so the quality of the

third will change. The text in the score indicates the quality of the third at the

bottom. If an adjustment by a syntonic comma needs to be made, it will be

indicated in the score by a plus or a minus depending on whether an adjustment

is needed for the interval.

● Each player should be listening and adjusting to the bass.

● If an upper voice player has a note that corresponds to an open string, the

cellist’s part will indicate the direction to be changed. This alteration is done

relative to where the pitch would be placed in melodic intonation or equal

temperament. In the instance that it is the cello adjusting by the comma, the

upper player’s part will indicate only the quality of interval in relation to the cello.

For example, in the third note of the scale, the cellist plays an F# that is called

F#-, to be adjusted to a purely tuned minor third below the A of the violist and first

violin that should correspond to their open strings. In that case, the two players

playing the A only have an indication that they are a minor third of the cello.

● If no plus or minus is present, a player should try to place the note in terms of

where it corresponds and rings with the open strings.

● Perfect fifths and octaves above the cello will be denoted by an 8 or a 5.

 33

● Practice using the same strategies outlined in the perfect interval scales.

● The following example provides an example of each chord being justly in tune.

However, a quartet may decide to use a mixture of just and melodic intonation.

For example, with everyone tuning to the cello, the cellist could decide to play a

scale that is in melodic intonation. That is, with an F sharp and C sharp that are

not adjusted downward by a comma. Finding the right balance of melodic and

harmonic intonation is a common issue for string quartets at every level. When

first practicing the example, play the scale attempting to play exclusively in just

intonation as an exercise to identify what is purely in tune harmonically.

Example 13: D Major Scale in Thirds

 34

Example 14: E flat Scale in Thirds

The next exercises involve scales in sixths in both a sharp and a flat key. As with

the thirds, major sixths will be lowered and minor sixths will be raised by the syntonic

comma. If the upper note corresponds to an open string, the lower note will be altered.

● Perform these exercises in the same way as the exercises in thirds.

 35

Example 15: A Major Scale in 6ths

In the next example, an A, despite corresponding to an open string, will be

lowered as the upper note of a major sixth. This is done because the lower note, C, also

corresponds to an open string. When two open strings are present, the bottom note will

take precedence. Later, when tuning chords, the root will take priority, followed by the

fifth when two notes correspond with open strings. As a result of this, in addition to

sharps being lowered and flats being raised, A, E, and B can sometimes be lowered by

a syntonic comma and F, C, and G can sometimes be raised by a syntonic comma.

 36

Example 16: B Flat Major Scale in Sixths

 37

CHAPTER 5: CHORDS

After a group has a strong foundation playing perfect and consonant intervals, it

is possible to start building triads with the same strategies. In the example below, the

cellist plays a D major scale and is thus always playing the root of the chord, which

makes each one of these chords a root position chord. The violist plays a D major scale

starting and ending on F# and thus is always playing the third of the chord. In this

particular example, the second violinist always plays the fifth of the chord beginning and

ending on A. The first violinist doubles the root by playing a D major scale. The following

scale has indications of the Roman numeral analysis below the score. In addition, a

marking below each part indicates whether or not the note will be adjusted by the

syntonic comma.

● Play through this scale once with just the root and the person doubling the root

playing. The interval should be a perfect octave on every note of the scale.

● Next, add the player who is playing the fifth of the chord. This player should tune

to the bass. When these three players are playing, each interval quality will be

perfect, until the diminished chord built on the seventh scale degree. On this

seventh chord, the fifth will be a dissonant tritone above the root rather than a

perfect fifth.

● Once the perfect intervals are in tune, the quartet can add the player playing the

third of the chord in the scale. The person playing the third will have to adjust by

lowering and raising the notes of his or her scale depending on whether the

quality of the chord is major or minor.

 38

● Switch roles within the group so that each player gets a chance to play every part

of the chord.

● Follow the strategies and rules detailed regarding previous scales.

● The third will be adjusting, except in cases where the third is the only note that

corresponds to an open string.

Example 17: D Major Scale in Triads

 39

Example 18: F Major Scale in Triads

The next exercise involves playing a scale in chords that are all in first inversion,

which means that the third is in the bass. First inversion triads include the intervals of a

third and sixth above the bass. In this particular example, the root of the chord is

doubled. The exercise could also be practiced with the bass being doubled. Switch the

chord members among parts and try in different keys.

● First inversion triads require the cellist to perform more alterations by comma

than the root position scale. How does the third being in the bass change the

experience of tuning for the group?

● Discuss how the musical character and expressive qualities of first inversion

chords differ from root position triads.

 40

Example 19: E Major Scale in First Inversion Triads

 41

CHAPTER 6: HARMONIC PROGRESSIONS

It can be helpful to practice harmonic progressions as a quartet because they will

form much of the harmonic vocabulary for tonal music. Below are some standard

harmonic progressions beginning with the most simple and basic.

V-I

This is a simple perfect authentic cadence. It is called a perfect authentic

cadence, or PAC, because of the sol to do motion in the bass as well as the ti to do

motion in the top voice. This creates a very strong cadence and is usually reserved for

important musical arrivals. These chords could be arranged in many different voicings.

In this example, it is important to notice that the cello and the viola play the root in the

first chord. These pitches should match as a perfect octave with the second violinist

creating the perfect fifth above the root. The cello will form a perfect fifth below the viola

and the first violin will serve as both a perfect fourth above the viola and an octave

above the cello.

● Practice with perfect intervals first before adding the thirds of the chords.

● Transpose into different keys.

 42

Example 20: V-I Progression

Composers will often add a minor 7th to the V chord to create a dominant

seventh chord. There are several options of where to place the seventh of the chord.

For the purposes of the exercises in this method, it is suggested to not adjust the

seventh by a comma, but to play it where it would be using melodic intonation. As

always, it is the ear that will ultimately guide where the seventh should go.

● Tune the triad first and then add the seventh. How does tuning this progression

feel different with the addition of the minor seventh?

 43

Example 21: V7-1 Progression

The same V-I progression displayed above can be seen in the opening measures

of the first movement of Mozart’s String Quartet No. 4 in C major, K. 147. In the first two

measures, this progression is played in reverse and then in the order just practiced

above in the subsequent two measures. The violin’s melodic line is included above the

reduction. The reason for this line is to help the quartet orient themselves to where the

melody is in relation to the harmony.

● Before playing the reduction with instruments, take a moment for each player to

look over the analysis and mentally review their harmonic role. As in the above

progressions, the viola repeats the same note and the cello remains on the root

of the chord. The perfect intervals between these two voices will be critical to the
 44

intonation of these measures. The first two beats contain no third. Observe how

the feeling changes when the third is added. Similarly, on the third beat of the

third measure the first violin moves to the seventh of the dominant chord. How

can the addition of the minor seventh inform musical phrasing?

● Play together several times and listen to how each part relates to the others.

● Shape the progression dynamically and play as musically and expressively as

possible.

Example 22: Harmonic Reduction of Mozart String Quartet in C Major K. 157, mm.

1-4

After becoming comfortable with the harmonic reduction, a quartet can then play

the opening four bars as originally written.

 45

● The group should try to maintain an awareness of the underlying harmony when

rhythm is added.

● A firm grasp of the harmonic structure can instruct the string quartet in terms of

the expression. It was discussed in the previous reduction how focusing on the

tension and release of harmonies can direct the shaping of a phrase. When

playing all of the notes, pay special attention to the non-chord tones. Notes that

do not fit within the chord of the underlying harmony can provide opportunities for

expressive moments. These will be denoted simply with an n. In particular,

measures two and four have non-chord tones on the downbeat in both violin

parts. Play the excerpt as written and listen for how these pitches can be

emphasized before resolving to a note that belongs to the chord.

● This passage was originally practiced in reduction using just intonation. When

adding all of the notes, it can be observed that the first violin has some moments

where melodic intonation might be appropriate. For example, the half steps

between the E’s and F’s in the first violin part may sound best as a close diatonic

half step characteristic of melodic intonation. Try the passage while attempting to

recreate the just intonation practiced in the reduction. Then experiment with the

first violin using closer half steps of melodic intonation. Does the group have a

preference between the two ways?

 46

Example 23: Mozart String Quartet in C Major K. 157, mm. 1-4

 47

IV-V7-I

The IV-V7-I progression is extremely prevalent in tonal music. After practicing the

IV-V7-I for intonation and blend, experiment with altering the F for the V7 chord. Does

retaining the F in the second violin sound in tune as the seventh of the dominant chord?

Is there a preference among the group for whether altering the common tone makes the

chord easier to tune?

Example 24: IV-V7-I Progression

The transition in the exposition of the first movement of Mozart’s String Quartet in

C Major, uses the IV-V7-I progression heavily. Below is the transition of the exposition

until the half cadence preceding the second theme. It appears in harmonic reduction,

with the melody provided above to serve as a guidepost to players.

 48

● A IV chord moving to V7 in a progression can be problematic to intonation

because the fourth scale degree is the root of the IV chord as well as the seventh

of the dominant seventh. Through the previous examples, it has been

demonstrated that a minor seventh should be played in the same way it would in

melodic intonation.

● In addition to intonation practice, the reduction below also provides an

opportunity to discuss harmonic rhythm. The harmony changes incredibly slowly

at first. The chord does not change from the tonic for ten beats. However, in the

fourth and sixth bars, the harmony changes every beat. The acceleration of the

harmonic rhythm should influence the expression of this excerpt. Play through

the excerpt without vibrato and decide, as a quartet, how to shape this example

in light of the harmonic rhythm.

 49

Example 25: Harmonic Reduction of Mozart String Quartet No. 4 in C Major, K.

157, mm. 13-21

 50

● Despite containing many notes, continue to shape the excerpt below utilizing the

harmonic rhythm.

● The labeled notes can serve as intonation anchors for the group when the

sixteenth notes and non-chord tones are complicating the texture.

● With the music moving so quickly, it may not be possible or completely

necessary for every note to be justly in tune. However, practicing the passage as

a reduction first can make the quartet aware of the harmonic motion and help

center the intonation at key moments such as arrivals when every player plays a

longer note value. In these places, the harmonic intonation will be most

important. For example, the downbeats of bars one and two and the final two

bars of the excerpt should be vertically in tune in accordance with the principles

of just intonation.
 51

Example 26: Mozart String Quartet No. 4 in C Major, K. 157, mm. 13-21
 52

The slow introduction to the first movement of Mendelssohn’s second string

quartet is another example of a IV-V7-I progression. Before playing, examine that the

first four chords are in root position. The second violin has a perfect octave above the

root and the viola has a perfect fifth. The second violin then repeats the same note,

while the cello and viola play a perfect fifth below it.

● As the first violin has the third in all but one of the first four chords, begin by

playing these chords without the first violinist. With the exception of the second

violinist’s G sharp in the third chord, perfect intervals will be presented.

● Add the first violin. The thirds of the first violin should be placed lower than in

melodic intonation by the distance of the syntonic comma.

● The final chord of the second bar is the only first inversion chord found in this

excerpt. As such, it is the only chord where the cello makes an adjustment by

comma.
 53

● The downbeat of bar three is a second inversion chord. Tune this chord carefully,

as the fifth in the bass creates a perfect fourth between the cello and the root in

the second violin. In this particular case, the first violin is doubling the bass and is

playing an octave above the cello.

● While practicing this excerpt for intonation, allow the harmonies to influence the

phrasing. Compare the first four chords to the remainder of the excerpt. The first

two bars contain only triads in root position. Although the first two measures

contain all root position triads, the third and fourth bars exhibit chords of different

inversions and a seventh added to the V chord. These harmonically adventurous

chords should influence the group’s phrasing. Also, the added harmonic tension

coincides with the increased rhythmic activity and the rising register of the line.

● Practice this excerpt without vibrato and let the harmonic changes drive the

shaping of the phrase.

● Because this excerpt is quite slow with long note durations, it would be advisable

to play this passage entirely in just intonation. For example, G sharps might not

be placed too high as the leading tone, but adjusted downward to be in tune

harmonically amidst the slow motion of the music.

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Example 27: Mendelssohn String Quartet No. 2 in A Major, Op. 13, mm. 1-4

The ii6-V7-I progression has the same motion in the bass as the IV-V7-I

progression. Unlike the IV-V7-I progression, this progression contains a minor chord. In

contrast to the major sonority, the third of a minor chord must be raised by a syntonic

comma to be justly in tune. 59

● How does the experience of tuning the ii6-V7-I progression differ from tuning the

IV-V7-I progression? Notice that the F in the ii6 chord will be different from the F

in the V7 chord by a comma.

● What is different in terms of the expressive and musical qualities of the

harmonies between the two progressions?

59
Marc Sabat, “On Ben Johnston’s Notation and the Performance Practice of Extended Just Intonation,”
Marc Sabat: Music and Writings, accessed March 22, 2016, http://www.marcsabat.com/pdfs/EJItext.pdf,
5.
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Example 28: ii6-V7-I Progression

The ii6-V7-I progression is present several times in the next example, taken from

the second theme area in the exposition of the first movement of Mozart’s fourth

quartet. At this point in the piece, the music has modulated to G Major.

● Take notice of the several instances where a player must play a B as the major

third of the I chord followed by a C as the minor third of the ii chord. Because of

the function in the chords, just intonation requires that the B be lowered by a

comma and the C be raised by a comma. These adjustments create a wider half

step than a string player may be accustomed to playing.

● After employing practice strategies for intonation and blend, play the reduction as

expressively as possible by allowing the harmonies to determine the shaping of

the phrase.
 56

● Further notice the times when the C needs to be changed from functioning as the

third of a minor chord to being the seventh of a dominant.

Example 29: Harmonic Reduction of Mozart String Quartet No. 4 in C Major, K.

157, mm. 42-46

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When the group is able to play the previous example with pure intonation and

musical direction, the quartet can move on to playing the excerpt as originally

composed in the example below.

● The biggest difference from the reduction is that the first violinist has several

more notes. These non-chord tones can offer opportunities for expression. Notice

how the increased presence of non-chord tones and rhythmic activity coincides

with acceleration of the harmonic rhythm in the other voices. This information

should inform the quartet regarding shaping the passage expressively. The lower

voices should exhibit as much leadership in the direction of the phrase as the first

violin.

● When the passage is played as originally indicated, not every note will be justly in

tune. It may sound best for the sixteenth notes in bar two to contain the close half

steps of melodic intonation. However, when all of the voices line up together, the

group should attempt to play harmonically in tune according to the principles of

just intonation.
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Example 30: Mozart String Quartet No. 4 in C Major, K. 157, mm. 42-46

Thus far, this essay has used three excerpts from Mozart’s fourth string quartet.

Below is a harmonic reduction with harmonic intonation symbols for the exposition.

● Practice in small segments for intonation, blend, and phrasing through the

harmony with everyone looking at the score. After practicing these small portions
 59

in reduction, practice the same section with all of the notes found in the original

while remembering the underlying harmonic structure.

● Transfer the intonation markings from the reduction to the corresponding notes in

each individual part. Players could also write the harmonic analysis into each

part. These markings can serve as helpful reminders of one’s role in the harmony

and intonation as a whole.

● As in the previous examples, practice the reduction with just intonation to get a

sense of the harmonic motion. When adding notes, look for spots when melodic

intonation might be required. Tuning in just intonation will be vitally important at

cadential points and in moments containing notes of longer rhythmic duration.

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Example 31: Harmonic Reduction Mozart String Quartet No. 4 in C Major, K. 157,

Exposition of First Movement

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Bach Chorales

Another helpful tool for quartets to practice intonation are the chorales written by

J.S. Bach. The four instruments of a string quartet can easily play these pieces, written

for four voices. The following example demonstrates one way that a quartet could tune

this chorale.

● Play through the chorale in a moderate tempo, without stopping, and observe the

intonation in a general way.

● Isolate smaller chunks of music for detailed tuning by building the chords through

perfect and then consonant intervals using the strategies detailed earlier.

● Play again in a tempo without stopping to correct individual moments, but

listening and adjusting along the way.

● Play musically and expressively.

● Play with and without vibrato. Assign a leader to determine vibrato speed and

width. Observe how the experience of playing this chorale changes when vibrato

is added.

● Focus on the musical character of the chords and progressions. How does the

harmony influence musical direction and phrasing?

There are times that the intonation suggestions may appear troublesome in the

following chorale, such as when the F Major chorale uses F+ several times. It might

seem incongruous to play the tonic slightly higher in these few chords. This placement

of F would not be appropriate in melodic intonation. However, just intonation makes

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adjustments according to what sounds best in the harmonic moment. 60 With this primary

focus, certain problems can arise. In these instances, quartets would do well to

experiment tuning in several different ways.

Example 32: Aus meines Herzens Grunde by J.S. Bach

60
Michael Kimber, “Intonation: What Your Teacher Never Told You,” Michael Kimber’s Viola Homepage
accessed March 22, 2016, http://m_kimber.tripod.com/intonation_untold.pdf, 9.
69
 70

Example 33: Christus, der ist mein Leben by J.S. Bach

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Example 34: Der Her ist mein getreuer Hirt by J.S. Bach
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CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION

Throughout the preceding chapters, it has been advised to tune each individual

chord using just intonation. Tuning in this way can become problematic in terms of the

horizontal line. In reality, a quartet with great intonation does not perform using just

intonation exclusively. At times, they may decide to use a high leading tone or to use

melodic intonation if they feel the melody would sound best this way. There could be

times when a common tone changes function between two chords. For example, an

issue could arise if a note was a purely tuned fifth of a chord, but then serves the major

third of the next chord. In order for both chords to be tuned justly, the note would need

to be lowered for the second chord. In some cases, this change in the repeated note

may go unnoticed. However, if this pitch were repeated in the melody, this altering of

the repeated pitch could become problematic. Situations where ambiguity exists will be

determined by a quartet’s preference. Ultimately, the ear will be the great arbiter in

these matters because what sounds the best is what matters most. Just intonation is

most important in moments where notes are of longer duration, the harmonic motion is

moving slowly, and at cadential points. It is also helpful to practice reductions using just

intonation for the group to get a sense of the underlying harmonic structure. Learning to

play in tune together is an endless process. This project has attempted to provide some

insight and strategies into solving the challenges of quartet intonation by giving an

introduction into just intonation. It is likely that great quartets are not thinking about

syntonic commas or the ratios of intervals during a performance. However, the more a

quartet is aware of the issues of intonation, the better they can make artistic decisions in

their preparation and performance. It has been the goal of this project to enable student
 74

string quartets to make well-informed choices regarding intonation and to practice

intonation productively.
 75

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