INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2005, 40 (4), 239–253

Social psychology in India: Social roots

and development
Janak Pandey and Purnima Singh
University of Allahabad, India

A lthough applied practical knowledge of social behaviours can be traced to the rich Indian intellectual
traditions in philosophy, religious texts, social-political treatises and reform movements from the ancient
period, the scientific social psychology in India began in the 1920s mostly as a borrowed discipline from the West.
This article reviews briefly the historical background of psychology as a scientific discipline from the founding of
the first university departments at Calcutta in 1916, Mysore in 1924, and Patna in 1946. Soon after independence
in 1947, the discipline slowly but widely expanded in universities and in research, technology, and management
institutes throughout the country. Some early classical studies on rumour, group influences, and prejudice not
only appeared in the international literature, but also influenced theoretical developments in the West. One
widely cited example is Leon Festinger’s use of Indian rumour transmission research in the development of
cognitive dissonance theory. Later research has been influenced by the social and cultural milieu as well as
national priorities. Dominant thematic areas of research have been identified. These include: attitude, prejudice,
and intergroup relations; social motives and development; social influence processes; poverty, deprivation, and
social justice; environment and behaviour; health beliefs and behaviour; and social values and development. Over
the years social psychology in India has witnessed serious debates regarding the nature of the discipline and
research methodology. These debates have centred on issues related to relevance, indigenization, and cultural
appropriateness of the discipline. Such discussions are aimed at giving social psychology a distinctive look and
making it more ‘‘social’’. Some of these concerns are shared by social psychologists in other countries. Social
psychology is and will be a prolific discipline in India as it fits with the democratic sociopolitical context that
promotes and facilitates the agenda for social research. Some challenges and concerns that would make social
psychology more socially and culturally relevant are discussed.

Q uoique les connaissances pratiques appliquées de comportements sociaux peuvent trouver leur origine dans
les riches traditions intellectuelles indiennes de la philosophie, des textes religieux, des traités
sociopolitiques et des mouvements de réforme de l’Antiquité, la psychologie sociale scientifique en Inde a
débuté au cours des années 1920, surtout comme une discipline empruntée au monde occidental. Cet article fait
une brève revue du contexte historique de la psychologie en tant que discipline scientifique, à partir de la
fondation des premiers départements universitaires à Calcutta en 1916, à Mysore en 1924 et à Patna en 1946. Peu
après l’indépendance en 1947, la discipline s’est lentement mais largement étendue dans les universités et la
recherche, dans la technologie et dans les instituts de gestion à travers le pays. Certaines des premières études
portant sur la rumeur, les influences de groupe et les préjugés ne sont pas seulement apparues dans les écrits
internationaux, mais ont aussi influencé les développements théoriques occidentaux. Un exemple largement cité
est celui de l’utilisation qu’a faite Leon Festinger de la recherche indienne sur la transmission de la rumeur pour
développer la théorie de la dissonance cognitive. Les recherches ultérieures ont été influencées par le milieu social
et culturel tout comme par les priorités nationales. Des thèmes de recherche dominants ont été identifiés, incluant:
les attitudes, les préjugés et les relations intergroupes; les motivations sociales et le développement; les processus
d’influence sociale; la pauvreté, la privation et la justice sociale; l’environnement et le comportement; les
croyances en matière de santé et le comportement et; les valeurs sociales et le développement. À travers les années,
la psychologie sociale en Inde a été témoin de sérieux débats concernant la nature de la discipline et la
méthodologie de recherche. Ces débats étaient centrés sur des questions reliées à la pertinence, à la tendance
indigène et à la justesse culturelle de la discipline. De telles discussions ont permis de donner à la psychologie

Correspondence should be addressed to Professor Janak Pandey, and Dr Purnima Singh, Department of Psychology, University of
Allahabad, Allahabad, 211002, India (E-mail: janakpandey@usa.net and purnima125@hotmail.com).
Preparation of this report was supported by the Centre of Advanced Study, Department of Psychology, Allahabad University,
Allahabad.
# 2005 International Union of Psychological Science
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/pp/00207594.html DOI: 10.1080/00207590444000186
240 PANDEY AND SINGH

sociale un visage distinctif et de la rendre plus «sociale». Certaines de ses préoccupations sont partagées par les
psychologues sociaux dans d’autres pays. La psychologie sociale est et sera une discipline prolifique en Inde étant
donné qu’elle s’accorde avec le contexte sociopolitique démocratique lequel promeut et facilite la mise en place de
la recherche sociale. Des défis et préoccupations qui vont faire de la psychologie sociale un domaine plus
socialement et culturellement pertinent sont discutés.

A pesar de que el conocimiento práctico aplicado de las conductas sociales puede evocar de las ricas
tradiciones intelectuales Indias en la filosofia, los textos religiosos, los tratados sociopolı́ticos y los
movimientos de reforma del periodo antiguo, la psicologı́a social cientı́fica empezó en India en los años veinte,
principalmente como una disciplina tomada prestada del occidente. Este artı́culo reseña brevemente el
antecedente histórico de la psicologı́a como una disciplina cientı́fica desde la fundación de los primeros
departamentos de psicologı́a en las universidades de Calcuta en 1916, Mysore en 1924, y Patna en 1946. Poco
después de la independencia en 1947, lenta pero ampliamente la disciplina se expandió en universidades y en la
investigación, la tecnologı́a, y la administración de institutos en todo el paı́s. Algunos estudios clásicos iniciales
sobre el rumor, las influencias grupales, y el prejuicio no sólo aparecieron en la literatura internacional, sino que
también influyeron en el desarrollo teórico en el occidente. Un ejemplo citado ampliamente por parte de Leon
Festinger de la investigación sobre la transmisión del rumor para el desarrollo de la teorı́a de la disonancia
cognoscitiva. Tanto el medio social y cultural como las prioridades nacionales han influido en la investigación
posterior. Se han identificado áreas de investigación dominantes. Éstas incluyen: actitud, prejuicio y relaciones
intergrupales; motivos sociales y desarrollo; procesos de influencia social; pobreza, marginación y justicia social;
ambiente y comportamiento; creencias sobre la salud y comportamiento; y valores sociales y desarrollo. A lo
largo de los años la psicologı́a social en India ha sido testigo de debates serios respecto a la naturaleza de la
disciplina y la metodologı́a de investigación. Estos debates se han centrado en asuntos relativos a la relevancia,
recuperación de lo autóctono y pertinencia cultural de la disciplina. Tales discusiones tienen como propósito
dotar a la psicologı́a social de una apariencia caracterı́stica y hacerla más ‘social’. Los psicólogos sociales en otros
paı́ses comparten algunas de estas preocupaciones. La psicologı́a social es y será una disciplina prolı́fica en India
conforme se ajusta al contexto sociopolı́tico democrático que promueve y facilita la agenda para la investigación
social. Se discuten algunos retos y preocupaciones que harı́an a la psicologı́a social socialmente y culturalmente
más relevante.

In the Indian intellectual tradition, analyses, philosophers of India and other societies had rich
discourse, and interpretations of social interac- knowledge regarding social behaviour, main-
tions and behaviours may be traced as the focus of stream scientific social psychology originated in
religious texts and philosophy as early as 1500 BC. Western intellectual soil in the latter part of the
Thus, from the Rigvedic times to the present era, nineteenth century and proliferated elsewhere.
examples of analysis of social behaviour can be Research thrived in the US and in western
elucidated. An apt example is Mahatma Gandhi’s European countries, and it was this discipline of
(fondly addressed as the father of the Indian social psychology that was exported worldwide.
nation) insightful understanding of the social, Although Western countries continued to be
collective, and spiritual aspects of the human major contributors to scientific social psychology,
psyche. He advocated for nonviolent resistance, teaching and research of the discipline also became
locally called Satyagrah, and applied it to mobilize rooted in many developing countries. Still only 2
people for political and social emancipation as well to 3% of the total research cited in prominent
as for handling group conflicts in India and South contemporary Euro-American social psychology
Africa (Erikson, 1970). Satyagrah is based on the texts referred to studies conducted in non-Western
philosophy of Ahimsa (nonviolence). This philo- contexts (Smith & Bond, 1994). This citation
sophy, which Gandhi advocated and successfully statistic, however, does not represent the range of
applied during the freedom movement, can be non-Western research due to the ethnocentric
traced back to the period (1200 BC) of the character of mainstream psychology. In the last
Upanishads (Rastogi, 1969) and later became the three decades, social psychology has become a
essence of Buddhism and Jainism. Gandhi is to be popular discipline in many Asian countries. Asian
credited for his understanding of the Indian social psychologists have formed their own profes-
masses and the society, and use of Ahimsa during sional association and have established a journal
the freedom struggle. He was probably ahead of named the Asian Journal of Social Psychology.
the scientific social psychology of his time. This paper reviews the history of social psycho-
Although sociopolitical leaders, thinkers, and logy in India, its evolution over the years, and the
 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY IN INDIA 241

contemporary status and possible future directions Roots of social psychology discipline in
of the discipline. The development of scientific Indian intellectual tradition
social psychology in India has been influenced by a
host of factors, ranging from rich philosophical Multiple forces within the Indian intellectual
traditions to changes in the research priorities tradition have influenced the study of social life
within the discipline itself, along with current and behaviour. The roots of social psychology in
events and societal and national concerns. As an India lie in religion, various sociopolitical treatises,
academic discipline, it has traversed a fairly long popular narratives, commonsense conceptions,
path, having completed nearly eight decades of and the reform movements. India has a vast
existence. This long journey is replete with repertoire of spiritual and religious texts, e.g., the
illustrations of both achievements and crises, Shrutis including the Vedas, the Upanishads, and
which together need to be understood in order to the Smritis, the Puranas, and the Manusmriti, all
have an appreciation for the present status and containing enlightening discourses and insights on
concerns of the discipline. Several extensive various aspects of social life. Although speculative
reviews of social psychology (Dalal & Misra, and intuitive, they certainly are vast storehouses of
2001; D. Sinha, 1981, 1998; J. B. P. Sinha, 1993) knowledge of social thoughts and behaviour.
have been published at successive intervals. These These documents also provide a range of ideas
reviews, four rounds of the ICSSR psychology that may be used to develop a number of social
surveys (Mitra, 1972; Pandey, 1988a, 2000a, 2001; psychological concepts and principles. The eclectic
2004; Pareek, 1980, 1981), and other sources form past of India depicted in epics like the
Mahabharata and the Ramayana contains social,
the basis for this paper.
economic, and political insights relevant for the
present social reality. In Kautilya’s Arthashashtra,
which is a discourse on power and politics, one
PSYCHOLOGY IN INDIA: A BRIEF finds lucid descriptions of political manipulations
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND and intrigues that can certainly enrich under-
standing of contemporary analysis of power and
Psychology as a scientific discipline in the country politics. The Islamic heritage of India provides
is indebted to the colonial rulers and to the insights about human nature and social life. The
leadership of Sir Brojendra Nath Seal, who was idea of brotherhood of man in Islam is an
instrumental in introducing it as a subject in the illustration of community life. Prolific writings of
philosophy department at Calcutta University in several Sufi saints are not only sources of spiritual
the year 1905. In 1916 the first department of bounty but provide valuable insights, e.g., the
psychology was established in Calcutta. Later, in doctrine of sabr (patience), preached by a number
1924, the second department was established at of Sufi saints enables humans to accept all
Mysore University; the third at Patna University tribulations and afflictions as the manifestations
in 1946. of God’s love (Farooqi, 2002). Such insights can
The scientific nature of research was recognized help in the understanding of coping processes in
quite early in India; in 1923, the Indian Science stressful social situations. Kabir the great poet,
Congress Association introduced a separate sec- through his popular Dohas or poetic verses,
tion of psychology. The formation of Indian emphasized equality of human beings and brother-
Psychological Association in 1924 and the pub- hood of mankind. He regarded members of
lication of the first psychology journal, the Indian different groups as ‘‘pots made of the same clay’’
Journal of Psychology, were major landmarks. and hence presented a case for a ‘‘distinction-less’’
After independence in 1947 there was a remark- society. One can draw a long list of practical
able expansion of the discipline, with psychology applications of rich knowledge of social nature of
courses being taught in large numbers of university mankind and find relevance of teachings and
departments. Dalal (2002) observed that though insights of medieval and ancient periods to
this rapid expansion of the discipline was impress- contemporary times.
ive, it was quite unplanned. In spite of this, a Sociopolitical and economic reform movements
few departments became recognized for their in any society are led by great reformers who
research in specific areas, e.g., Allahabad for influence, lead, and change the masses. In the last
social change and development, Utkal for the two centuries Indian society has witnessed a series
study of social disadvantage, and the A. N. Sinha of religious, political, and social reform move-
Institute for the study of social values, motives, ments spearheaded by many; notable amongst
and leadership. them are Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra
242 PANDEY AND SINGH

Vidyasagar, and Swami Vivekanand. Although One of the earliest experimental investigations
not trained as scientific social psychologists, they was on group effects on performance by Sengupta
were great practitioners of social psychology at the and Singh (1926). Although it was modelled on
mass level. Their writings and speeches are another experiments first carried out by Allport and his
valuable storehouse of knowledge. colleagues, it did lay the foundation for experi-
Indian society has been rich in classical folk mental social psychology in India. Another
narratives like Jatak kathas and the Panchtantra, notable early research contribution was conducted
which provide meaningful insights and norms by Prasad (1935, 1950) and D. Sinha (1952) on
regarding various life issues (J. B. P. Sinha, rumour studies. Prasad (1935) examined the
2002). In Jatak kathas a blend of both virtues responses to the devastating earthquake in Bihar
and vices are associated with the mythical char- in 1934. Later, he published a comparative
acters, reflecting the dual nature of human beings. analysis of many earthquake rumours (1950).
The characters in the Panchtantra represent Prasad’s work illustrates the fact that, right from
mundane social behaviour. These folk tales have the beginning, Indian social psychologists had
served as both determinants and explanatory tools focused on group-level variables. Bordia and
of social behaviour. DiFonzo (2002) have recently revisited the
Another source of knowledge about social ‘‘legacy’’ of Prasad and highlighted the signifi-
behaviour is common-sense wisdom. Similar to cance of his work, which has hitherto remained
others, Indian society has a rich repertoire of unrecognized. At a time when mainstream social
social psychological knowledge in the form of psychology was preoccupied with individual-level
ordinary ideas, beliefs, and insights accepted variables, we have an example of an Indian social
as unspoken general principles of social behaviour. psychologist who introduced group and cultural
Aphorisms, sayings, and anecdotes based on variables in the study of rumours. However, the
lay conceptions and common sense embody the emphasis on social and contextual variables was
collective wisdom of people. These are full of not evident in the later researches and only
insights about human nature and interactions. recently has there been a resurgence of emphasis
The real question is why such a fertile indigenous on social and cultural context. Later, D. Sinha
knowledge system, which has withstood the (1952) studied rumours and behaviour of people in
test of time, and which consists of both basic catastrophic situations. These three early studies
principles and applications, has not been utilized were used by Leon Festinger (1957) in the
in the development of scientific social psychology. formulation of his theory of cognitive dissonance.
What has prevented its integration into the science Adinarayan’s (1941) research on colour preju-
of behaviour? It is high time that common- dice published in the British Journal of Psychology
laid the foundation for later work in the area of
sense psychology be reviewed, tested, critically
attitude and prejudice. Group influence on beha-
appraised, and replicated by scientific social
viour has been a concern of Indian social
psychology. Careful analysis and utilization
psychologists since the early period of develop-
in scientific formulations will provide credi-
ment of the discipline. N. P. Mukherjee (1940)
bility to or discredit this informal wisdom and
examined ability differentials in work in group and
knowledge.
isolation situations and Mohsin (1954) analysed
the effects of individual and group frustrations on
Milestones in the development of social problem-solving behaviours. These early, experi-
psychology as a discipline mental, quasi-experimental, and field studies of the
’40s and ’50s paved the way for future research
Social psychological research and publications developments in this area.
began as early as the 1920s. One such landmark Social psychology in India has witnessed
is the publication of the first textbook in social changes in thrust areas as well as research
psychology by Indian social psychologists (R. K. methodology. The trend of unconnected studies
Mukherjee & Sengupta, 1928). This combined and replications of Western findings is part of
effort of Mukherjee, a renowned sociologist the Indian research reality. However, there have
and Sengupta, a Harvard-trained experimental been shifts in the nature of the discipline as well
psychologist, was widely acclaimed. Thus, the as in research themes and methodology. This
beginning of social psychology in India was was partly due to the nature of training of social
interdisciplinary in nature. The extent to which psychologists. In the ’60s and ’70s, a number
this interdisciplinary approach was followed later, of social psychologists returned after their training
however, could be a matter for discussion. in experimental social psychology in Western
 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY IN INDIA 243

universities and they pursued their research social psychology of education, and on applied
programmes in accordance with their training social psychology, covering topics such as devel-
background, in a few cases culminating in excellent opment and change, fertility behaviour, health,
examples of programmatic research. For example, social disadvantage, poverty, and deprivation. The
the National Seminar on Perspectives on third survey recorded significant progress in basic
Experimental Social Psychology in India at and applied social psychological research.
Allahabad in 1979 provided a platform for The ’70s and ’80s witnessed the beginnings of
presentation and discussion of experimental social Doctoral programmes with course work, first at
research, which was published later in book form the Indian Institutes of Technology, especially at
(Pandey, 1981). In the late ’70s and ’80s social Kanpur, and later at the Department of
psychology in the country was in the throes of Psychology, Allahabad. In a limited way, these
serious debates and dialogues concerning experi- proliferated to other institutions in the form of
mental social psychology, the methodological and M Phil programmes (e.g., Delhi, Meerut). These
theoretical challenges faced by the discipline, and programmes provided opportunity for young
its ability to provide solutions to complex social researchers to get quality training at home, leading
problems. Some of these debates moved to the to the advent of a new generation of social
centre stage, shaping the course of the discipline. psychologists, trained in the indigenous context
This was a period when senior social psycholo- and more appreciative of the social reality. They
gists, D. Sinha (1966, 1983) and others, urged have raised a number of issues related to
social psychologists to enter the arena of social methodological artifacts and incompatibility
change and development. Quite unlike some other between social psychological theories and Indian
social sciences, social psychology has been on social reality. Greater emphasis on applied social
the periphery of socioeconomic change and psychology became visible. The National Seminar
development. on Applied Social Psychology in India at Bhopal in
The establishment of the Indian Council of 1987 sought to explore the role of social psychol-
Social Science Research (ICSSR) in 1969 was ogy in the solution of social problems related to
another landmark. The ICSSR started supporting change and development, culminating in publica-
research, training, and publications such as the tion of the book Applied Social Psychology in India
periodical research surveys in psychology and (Misra, 1990).
other social science disciplines. The surveys of
psychological research over the years have criti-
cally reviewed Indian research and examined EXPANSION OF THE DISCIPLINE: DOMINANT
constructs, model building, conceptualization of RESEARCH THEMES
problems, methodological appropriateness, and
the relevance of this research. The first survey The post-Independence era saw the prodigious
(Mitra, 1972) covered the period of research from growth of social psychology in terms of pro-
the beginning in the 1920s to 1969. The first survey grammes, publications, and the recognition of its
included only one chapter on social psychology significance for societal and national development.
(Rath, 1972). The second survey (Pareek, 1980, Social psychological research in India, as else-
1981) covered the research conducted from 1971 to where, has been influenced by the zeitgeist, i.e., the
1976 and identified major thematic dimensions of spirit of the times, as well as the ortgeist, the way
Indian psychology, including eight chapters that the spirit of the times specifically manifests
devoted to various aspects of social behaviour. itself in different places. After becoming indepen-
The contents of these chapters reflect an increased dent in 1947, the challenge of building a developed
emphasis on applied social psychology research modern nation was most salient in the minds of the
covering areas such as communication and influ- nation’s planners and policy makers. Development
ence processes, psychology of work, political became the buzzword. The national concern was
processes, environmental issues, poverty, inequal- socioeconomic reconstruction and overall devel-
ity, population, and dynamics of social change. opment. The government of India established the
The third survey (Pandey, 1988a) covered pub- Planning Commission, which initiated 5-year plans
lications from 1977 to 1982 and one of its three to promote planned development. This national
volumes was exclusively devoted to Basic and concern slowly influenced social psychological
Applied Social Psychology. It contained review research to be relevant for development.
chapters on attitudes and social cognitions, social We have made an attempt to identify some
influence processes, inter-group relations and broad areas that have received greater attention
social tensions, dynamics of rural development, from Indian social psychologists. There are a large
244 PANDEY AND SINGH

number of studies covering varied areas. This of Bengali Hindu and Bengali Muslim respondents
review briefly presents thematic research by way of in India and Bangladesh, linguistic and national
illustration. categorizations over-rode the significance of reli-
gious categorization. On the basis of a series of
studies conducted in the Netherlands and India,
Attitude, prejudice, and intergroup relations
De Ridder and Tripathi (1992) recognized the
Adinaryan’s (1941) research on attitudes and prominence of group norms in intergroup beha-
prejudice and Murphy’s (1953) book In the minds viour. In their theory, norm violation by one
of men, based on a UNESCO sponsored project to group leads to a chain of negative reactions by
study communal (Hindu-Muslim) riots that both groups and, if this sequence continues, it is
occurred at the time of partition of India and likely to escalate violent behaviour. Hutnik (2004)
Pakistan in 1947, laid the base for research in this has proposed a quadrapolar model for the study of
area. Most of the research until the late ’60s ethnic minority identity. Although this work was
employed attitude surveys on various groups of done on Indian immigrants in the UK, it has
people towards all kinds of social, political, undoubtedly significant theoretical implications
cultural, economic, national, and international for understanding intergroup relations in India.
issues (Rath, 1972). A number of studies used Another area of research of special contemporary
the popular attitude measurement techniques, e.g., significance and relevance is terrorism and seces-
Likert, Thurstone, and Bogardus, on social sionism, which has yet to receive due attention of
stereotypes and prejudice. On the whole, the work social psychologists. A welcome initiative is the
done up to that time by social psychologists was work of Angomcha (1999), who has examined the
not adequate enough to give it an edge over other role of relative deprivation and social identity in
disciplines. secessionism and violent actions.
India’s unique caste system continues to play a There have also been studies in the area of
critical role in social relationships. In the recent national stereotypes and international relations. In
decades, caste identity has acquired some new the wake of Indian–Chinese aggression over the
functionality, particularly in sociopolitical life. border dispute, A. K. P. Sinha and Upadhyaya
The caste-based identities, self-perceptions, inter- (1960) examined attitudes towards the Chinese and
caste relationships, and caste-related tensions are reported significant shifts in attitudes from posi-
some of the areas studied by social psychologists. tive to negative in the post-war period. This study
For example, Rath and Sircar (1960) analysed is an example of studying change in attitudes as a
inter-caste relationships and examined attitudes result of a serious conflict like war between two
and opinions of six caste groups and found that friendly nations.
the lower caste groups perceived themselves
negatively. Two decades later, Majeed and Social motives and development
Ghosh (1989), in their study of scheduled castes
(lowest in social hierarchy), found that they do In the post-Independence era, research on achieve-
indeed devalue their own group. The authors call ment motivation and entrepreneurial development
this ‘‘affective syndrome crisis,’’ denoting deep- was undertaken in response to the national agenda
seated unresolved identity crises. for planning and development. Measurement
In many ways, research contributions of Indian of achievement motivation in various settings
social psychologists have been seminal in this area. became popular. Low need for achievement was
Developmental aspects of caste and religious recognized as the root cause of India’s under-
prejudice and identity were the focus of a series development (McClelland, 1961). Many Indian
of studies by A. K. Singh (1988) and his associates. social psychologists collaborated with McClelland
Other related areas covered in social psychological and participated in entrepreneurial training. Some
research are intergroup attitudes and relative also questioned the appropriateness of need for
deprivation (R. C. Tripathi & Srivastava, 1981) achievement theory in the scarce resource society
and sex stereotypes (Williams, Best, Haque, of India. It was argued that resource scarcity
Pandey, & Verma, 1982). We may consider a few presented an enigma for high need for achievement
more illustrations. Western literature on inter- (J. B. P. Sinha, 1968; J. B. P. Sinha & Pandey,
group relations suggests crossed-categorization as 1970). Attempts were made to identify obstacles to
an important strategy for reducing intergroup economic development and this resulted in exam-
conflicts. In their study on cross-category member- ining behavioural bases and correlates of depen-
ship, Ghosh and Huq (1985) found that in the case dence proneness (J. B. P. Sinha, 1970), a typical
 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY IN INDIA 245

response repertoire of Indians. In the 1980s, which can certainly be regarded as a new trend.
research in this area took a different turn. Prior to his work there was a trend of shying away
Agarwal and Misra (1986), using ecocultural and from the use of mathematical models, a trend that
developmental perspective, attempted to under- seems to be reversed with the recent national
stand the meaning of achievement in terms of the seminar on mathematical modelling in behavioural
subject’s notions about achievement goals. and social sciences held in the Department of
Psychology at Allahabad University in May, 2002.
Research in the domain of power and control
Social influence processes mechanisms has lagged behind in India. Sporadic
references to power appeared in the 1970s.
As social beings, we are always engaged in social
One early example was the work of McClelland
influence processes of one kind or another. A
(1975), who analysed power within the Indian
range of social behaviours related to communica-
cultural framework. McClelland observed that
tion, helping, interpersonal attraction, leadership,
Indians are high on need for power and those
power, and manipulating others, as well as
in power tend to control others by giving more
functional and dysfunctional social behaviours,
and thereby demanding more from their sub-
have been studied. Effectiveness of communication
ordinates. Thus competing and giving operate
in various contexts and variables related to it have
together in the Indian context and are often
been examined. The roles of contextual variables
incompatible. Kakar’s (1974) work on authority
like crowding and extended family have been
in India deserves special mention. His analysis
demonstrated in some cross-cultural studies on
of short stories and textbooks revealed that the
competitive behaviours (Carment, 1974; Carment image of the superior was either nurturant or
& Hodkin, 1973). assertive, but preference was for the nurturant
Research on helping and altruism, which started superior. He suggested that the functioning style
in the ’60s in the West, also received the attention of the superior depends upon the personality
of Indian social psychologists. Pandey and Griffitt dynamism, stage of life, and the ideals of the
(1974, 1977) have extended the idea that in the group from which the subordinate derives his
Indian context, dependency can be used as a social sense of identity. J. B. P. Sinha, in his analysis
instrument to seek help and support. A series of of power relationships in Indian organizations,
cross-cultural studies on reward disbursement in suggests that such relationships are jointly deter-
the US and India (L’Armond & Pepitone, 1975) mined by the power need of the executives and the
show that various social motives originate in and hierarchical structure. Research on power strate-
are controlled by the individual’s social environ- gies (J. B. P. Sinha & Singh-Sengupta, 1991)
ment. Although a large number of sociocultural identified strategies that are employed within the
variables have been included in the research on Indian social context and suggested which specific
helping behaviour there is a need to emphasize the strategies were to be employed and under what
collective, community, and group orientation and conditions.
also to extend the research to real-life situations by The studies on leadership and its effectiveness
taking sociopolitical variables into consideration, date back to the mid-1950s. Following the Western
and connecting them to issues related to national framework, these studies reported the relationship
development. Commenting on the status of of employee-centred supervision and job satisfac-
research in this area, Pandey (1988b) remarked tion, morale, and productivity. The work on
that helping research has still to get off the ground leadership styles has been innovative in many
in India. respects, showing a blend of Indian values with
Topics like interpersonal attraction and rela- Western psychological principles and processes,
tionships have been another area of interest. while also proposing new models as part of
Studies on the reinforcement-affect model of programmatic research. The NT (nurturant task)
attraction by R. Singh (1974) on US samples led model of leadership (J. B. P. Sinha, 1980, 1994)
him to formulate a research programme to study shows that effective leadership style in India is
judgment and decision-making within the frame- personalized and is centred on Shradha (deference)
work of Anderson’s information integration for the leader by the subordinates and nurturance
theory (Anderson, 1981). His work is one of the and Sneh (affection) for the subordinates on the
few good examples of programmatic research part of the leader. Interest in leadership effective-
(R. Singh, 1988; R. Singh, Gupta, & Dalal, ness research has continued.
1979). In these studies, Singh used mathematical Research on manipulative behaviours presents
models to structure judgments and decisions, another example of programmatic research
246 PANDEY AND SINGH

(Pandey, 1981; R. C. Tripathi, 1981). Ingratiation emphasized macro-level social and economic
and stable disposition of Machiavellianism are processes, largely being silent on the subjective
generally considered to be pragmatic features of experience of poverty and its consequences.
interpersonal behaviour. In a society where J. Pandey and his associates (Pandey, 2000b) have
resources are limited, as they are in India, where argued for an integrated approach to poverty that
inequality, deprivation, and sociopolitical uncer- includes both objective and subjective criterion.
tainty is prevalent, manipulative behaviours L. B. Tripathi and Misra’s (1975) work on pro-
become rampant. Pandey found support for longed deprivation needs special mention as it
ingratiation tactics and their omnipresence and led to significant changes in the measurement of
pervasiveness in Indian society. The goal of both deprivation in real-life conditions.
ingratiation, a behavioural strategy with a manip- Problems of poverty, inequality, and depriva-
ulative intent, and Machiavellianism, a disposition tion raise issues related to providing justice for the
involving manipulation of others, is to control and vulnerable sections of society. Most social psy-
influence others. A series of studies focusing on chologists have been mute in their analysis of the
the ingratiating tactics of the Machiavellians in situation. Research in this area began in the 1980s
real-life settings (R. C. Tripathi, 1981) have and work has focused on distributive justice. Two
reported results in consonance with the personality cross-cultural studies (Berman, Murphy-Berman,
construct. & Singh, 1985; Murphy-Berman, Berman, Singh,
Pachauri, & Kumar, 1984), comparing US and
Indian subjects, suggested that Indians preferred
Poverty, deprivation, and social justice
allocating more on the basis of the need rule than
Poverty, deprivation, and various forms of US subjects. Pandey and Singh (1997), in a series
inequalities are some of the harsh realities of of studies, suggested that importance of merit or
Indian society. Research on poverty and depriva- need was dependent on the context of allocation.
tion is now over three decades old, and although A strong research programme on distributive
one may find substantial publications in this area, justice in reward allocation within the Indian
not much has yet been done in terms of a context (Krishnan, 2000) has demonstrated that
theoretical perspective. In the first ICSSR survey there are individual and cultural variations in what
(Mitra, 1972), the issue of poverty was hardly people consider to be fair. Socialization and
mentioned, only when dealing with variables like cognitive-moral influences on preferences of jus-
socioeconomic status and caste (Rath, 1972). The tice rules have also been examined (Krishnan,
first exhaustive study on poverty initiated by 1999).
economists (Dandekar & Rath, 1971) discussed
sociocultural dimensions. By the time of the Environment and behaviour
second ICSSR survey (Pareek, 1981), poverty
and welfare politics became major policy issues Despite the fact that the environment–behaviour
with the Garibi Hatao (removal of poverty) slogan relationship has been a major thrust in the West, it
of the then government. During this period, has attracted attention of Indian social psycho-
interest was shown by researchers and this was logists only recently. Pandey (1990) posited a
quite evident in the second survey, which con- close relationship between environment, culture,
tained two chapters—one on poverty and the other and behaviour. Some environmental issues have
on the psychology of inequality. Inclusion of received greater attention. For example, crowding
poverty as a political agenda reinforced the and its impact has been the research focus. In the
funding agencies to consider poverty as a priority 1980s and 1990s, some major research pro-
area of research. A number of projects were taken grammes in this area were conducted. Based on
to investigate poverty and to examine the social- his research, Jain (1987) published a book on
psychological, developmental, and educational crowding and its consequences. A number of
processes related to it (Misra & Tripathi, 2004). studies were conducted at Allahabad (Nagar &
Poverty and deprivation was also an important Pandey, 1987; Ruback & Pandey, 1991) to explore
research area in the third survey. R. C. Tripathi the environment-cognition-behaviour relationship.
(1988a) reviewed studies on poverty, disadvantage, Another research programme on crowding, daily
and deprivation in his chapter on applied social hassles, and coping was initiated at Pune
psychology. Most studies showed a deleterious University (Lepore, Evans, & Palsane, 1991). In
effect of poverty on cognition, motivation, and the backdrop of frequent natural as well as man-
academic achievement. Early research on poverty made disasters, some studies have investigated the
 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY IN INDIA 247

effects of such disasters. A series of studies focused cultural mosaic, consisting of sharing of disposi-
on the famous Bhopal gas tragedy of 1984 (Misra, tions, values, and a common outlook to life,
1992). Recently Siddiqui and Pandey (2003) have making the core of the Indian psyche (D. Sinha,
reported on the role of environmental stressors on 1988). In a systematic study of middle-class values,
health. J.B.P. Sinha and his associates (J.B.P. Sinha &
Sinha, 1974) have identified a set of values that, by
and large, are inimical to development. J. B. P.
Health beliefs and behaviour
Sinha (1988) has argued for utilization of the
In India, knowledge regarding health has its origin existing values, reinterpreting them so as to make
in the systems of Yoga and Ayurveda (traditional them conducive to development. D. Sinha (1988)
medicine), both of which stress the harmony has suggested identification of values that may be
between mind and body. Although the role of regarded as functional to development as well as
social sciences in health care was recognized much those that are dysfunctional for national develop-
earlier, research in this area has picked up in the ment. R. C. Tripathi (1988b) made a plea for
last decade. In the first two surveys there were only aligning values to development and emphasized
a few references related to physical health issues. the need to increase the capacities of developing
Mental health, however, had been widely studied. societies by focusing on their own culture-specific
In the third survey, physical health received values and objectives. Research on individualism
coverage under the chapter on Applied Social and collectivism has identified collectivism as a
Psychology (R. C. Tripathi, 1988a). A number of dominant Indian orientation and examined its
researchers have concentrated on the study of relationship within the development process
religious beliefs, yoga, and indigenous healing (Verma, 1992). The possibility of using aspects of
traditions. Stressors and coping with them in collectivism—e.g., in-group solidarity—for effec-
various social contexts have also attracted the tive work behaviour and development has also
attention of researchers. Dalal (1988) proposed a been suggested.
cognitive model of psychological recovery positing
a relationship of interdependence between causal CURRENT TRENDS IN SOCIAL
attribution and perception of control and found PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH
support for the model in his studies. Some
attempts have been made to develop cultural and In the most recent fourth survey, Psychology in
behavioural intervention strategies that would India revisited: Developments in the discipline
facilitate the recovery process but still much needs (Pandey, 2000a, 2001, 2004), 8 out of 18 chapters
to be done to develop a scientific framework. focus on diverse aspects of social behaviour and
Another research concern has been the study of processes. The topics covered are language beha-
the physically disabled and their rehabilitation. viour and processes, health psychology, gender
Although health is a rapidly growing interdisci- issues, attitude, social cognition and justice, social
plinary research area, we are yet to utilize the vast values, psychological dimensions of poverty and
repertoire of Indian traditional knowledge and deprivation, ethnic minority identity, and environ-
health practices that can help in promoting good ment and behaviour. The various topics covered
health. certainly indicate that the canvas of research
interests of social psychologists is expanding and
Social values and development the topics are unquestionably of contemporary
relevance. Dominance of applied orientation in
From Independence to the present day, the social psychology research is also perceptible and
nation’s development has been at the top of the some good examples can be identified.
agenda of successive governments in India. This Another resource to evaluate the current status
concern gets reflected in the various social of the discipline of social psychology is the ICSSR-
psychology research programmes. A close link sponsored Indian Psychological Abstracts and
between social values and the process of develop- Reviews—a semi-annual journal edited by Prof.
ment is well documented by D. Sinha and Kao B. N. Puhan and published by Sage since 1994.
(1988). The relationship of Hindu religion with This journal also publishes a review article in each
personality and attitudinal and behavioural pat- issue covering different areas of psychology. From
terns and their association with economic devel- 1994 to 2003, out of the 19 published review
opment has been the focus of these investigations. articles, 12 relate to different domains of social
The cultural diversity of India is not without a behaviour: social cognition, leadership and power,
248 PANDEY AND SINGH

polarization, environmental issues and environ- CRITICAL ISSUES RELATED TO

mental pollution, morality, values, and ethical DEVELOPMENT OF THE DISCIPLINE
behaviour. This demonstrates the popularity and
productivity of social psychology. There are Issue of relevance
several reasons for this trend. Many Indian
psychologists who had their initial training in Social psychology research in the country has had
experimental areas later moved to social psychol- its own share of concerns and dilemmas. One must
ogy. This change took place due to poor lab admit at this point that from time to time certain
facilities and the compelling nature of social issues have been raised and addressed by social
problems requiring scientific study. An apt exam- psychologists. One such frequently raised issue is
ple is D. Sinha, who was trained under Bartlett of relevance, well articulated by Pareek (1981).
and later conducted and published research on Relevance in itself may not explain much unless
social phenomenon like rumours (D. Sinha, 1952) one also addresses the related issue, i.e., relevant to
and villages in transition (D. Sinha, 1969). what? In other words, specification of the domain
Another reason, perhaps, was the ease of conduct- or context is necessary to enable one to address
ing social psychology research. Unlike research in this issue. Relevance may have many referents
other areas, where expensive and sophisticated such as individuals, groups, or society. One most
laboratory facilities and equipments were needed, obvious referent is the social context. No one
social psychology research generally does not would question, taking into account the topics
require all this; it is probably more ‘‘do-able.’’ being covered so far, that they are not relevant for
The main impetus for social psychological research society. One must also acknowledge that social
in developing countries originates from the glaring processes and situational demands are in a process
nature of social problems. New socioeconomic and of constant flux. Hence, relevance of an issue
developmental challenges arise from time to time, changes due to variations in situation, which in
attracting the attention of social psychologists. turn is influenced by time and place. But relevance
Cultural diversity, plurality, human rights issues, has a much broader meaning for Pareek; ‘‘rele-
social and distributive justice, child labour, gender vance of a science can be defined as its sensitivity
discrimination and violence against women, and to and concern for a referent and its capability to
enhancing social capital are concerns of para- respond to its needs, resulting in a better insight
mount importance in democratic and civil socie- into the problems and a contribution to the search
ties. Social psychology fits well with these values for solution’’ (1981, p. 805). Pareek treated rele-
and traditions. Thus, one may argue that demo- vance as a multidimensional concept and proposed
cratic sociopolitical context promotes and facil- several dimensions of relevance. Conceptual rele-
itates development of social research. The Indian vance refers to a need for a rigorous approach to
sociopolitical context has largely determined theory building, integration of researches within
the issues studied by the social psychologists. the relevant framework, and models. Another
The impetus for Gardener Murphy’s (1953) In aspect of relevance is related to the methodology
the minds of men originated from the social- of social psychology research, and this can be
political context, viz., partition and its aftermath, achieved by adopting a multimethod approach
which forced social psychologists to understand
and innovations in research methodology. Social
communal hatred and violence. Similarly, many
psychology should certainly have sociocultural
of the contemporary concerns in social psychology
and social relevance, as this would not only help
research, distributive–social justice, ethnic identity
in unravelling some of the complex realities of
and intergroup relations, poverty and deprivation,
Indian society but would also have implications
environmental concerns, health issues, gender,
for social policy. Thus, these issues related to
values, and development arise from the prevailing
relevance placed new challenges before social
sociopolitical-economic concerns in a democratic
psychologists, whose concerns were reflected in
society. The nature of social reality is construc-
the ‘‘crises in social psychology.’’
tive and dynamic, and is constantly influenced
by ongoing debates. In civil, democratic Indian
society, debates on the priorities of socioeconomic Issue of indigenization
and political construction and reconstruction
are ongoing. A contextually rooted and sensitive The need to go beyond the Western mindset
social psychology, therefore, has to be respon- ‘‘swaraj of ideas’’ (Bhattacharya, 1954) was
sive to such debates and ever-changing social recognized and a vociferous call for innovative
conditions. approaches and indigenous thinking was made.
 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY IN INDIA 249

This led to extensive questioning of the Western tradition of a particular culture in search of
psychological constructs and methods of under- psychological universals. These indigenous psy-
standing Indian reality, and initiated Indian social chologies would certainly widen the database for
psychologists into a phase of indigenization (Misra the development of a universal psychology provid-
& Mohanty, 2002). Appeals for indigenization ing alternative perspectives and approaches for the
were also raised from various other quarters. The study of psychological phenomenon (D. Sinha,
disenchantment with positivist experimental meth- 1997). As such, the present trend is to consider
ods, as well as the advances made in the field of culture and social behaviour as being mutually
cross-cultural psychology, and the very nature of related and influencing each other (Dalal & Misra,
social problems that plague Indian society, all 2001). Thus, the nature of social psychology has
created a need for problem oriented research— been changing from acultural towards a culture-
‘‘research that emanates from, adequately repre- sensitive psychology.
sents and reflects back on the culture in which
behaviour is studied’’ (Adair, Puhan, & Vohra,
FUTURE OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY IN INDIA:
1993, p. 150). Assessing the progress in indigeniza-
SOME CHALLENGES AND CONCERNS
tion of psychology in Indian research during the
periods 1972–1974, 1978–1980, and 1984–1987,
Social psychology as a vibrant discipline is
Adair et al. concluded that though not substantial,
intimately linked with the social, political, and
there were definite signs of indigenization emer-
economic life of people. However, at this juncture
ging as a concern in the discipline.
some serious thinking is needed to make the
discipline more relevant as well as to set an agenda
Issue related to cultural context for the future of social psychology in India.
The economic and industrial development in the
The emphasis on indigenization is not just a last 55 years since Independence, the advances
concern specific to India, but making knowledge made in the fields of information technology,
culturally embedded and appropriate is a concern biotechnology, and health, have empowered the
shared by social psychologists worldwide (D. common man, but at the same time have widened
Sinha, 1997). Developments in social psychology the disparity between the rich and the poor, the
in Europe have been quite distinctive, with greater haves and the have-nots. As a consequence,
emphasis on the social context that has been poverty and deprivation, social disharmony, and
largely missing in American social psychology. mental health problems are on the rise. Although
Similarly, the multicultural milieu of Canadian social psychology has been responsive to the social
society forced several social psychologists to argue context, the multiplicity of these problems
for a social psychology that reflects the Canadian demands a more sensitive social psychology to
social reality. In many Asian countries social deal with the changing contexts of life and
psychologists have accepted that the Western circumstances of people. A more empathic attitude
model fails to explain discrete values and char- and proactive orientation is needed in place of the
acteristics of these societies, hence the need for dispassionate approach to research displayed so
indigenous models. This has led to emphasis on far.
cultural variables in social behaviour. It is now Although social psychology in India has been
widely agreed that the ecological, historical, advantaged in comparison to Euro-American
religiophilosophical, political, and overall cultural social psychology in terms of the varied nature
contexts vary widely across and within societies to of samples that have been studied, it has still been
determine the world-view of their people. In the ‘‘urbancentric.’’ There is a need to widen the
’90s, several approaches like ethnopsychology database; 70% of the total population that is rural
(Diaz-Guerrero, 1993), societal psychology (Berry, is hardly represented in most research. Similarly
1994), cultural psychology (Shweder & Sullivan, the marginalized sections of the population and
1993), indigenous psychologies (Kim & Berry, their behaviour patterns have not been adequately
1993), and cross-cultural psychology (Berry, represented in research. Social psychologists have
Poortinga, & Pandey, 1997) have emphasized yet to grapple with cultural and subcultural
one perspective or the other for the scientific diversities and focus on them systematically. The
study of psychological process and behaviour. critical social psychology perspective (Ibanez &
These approaches have emphasized a knowledge Iniguez, 1997), which has recently emerged as a
base leading to sound comparative studies without dominant force, offers one such approach for
the dominance of theories and epistemological analysis of power inequities in societies. This
250 PANDEY AND SINGH

critical perspective, which views current social same problem (R. Singh, 1988), thereby ultimately
practices through the historical and contextual facilitating the emergence of a paradigm.
lens (Wetherell & Potter, 1992), may provide social A number of international collaborative
psychologists in India with a blueprint for the research projects can be identified over the past
analysis of the marginalized sectors of society. For eight decades. Most of the early collaborative
example, if you are interested in the study of research was simply testing Western theories in the
gender discrimination or caste prejudice, you Indian context. This type of collaboration was
should take into account the history, institutional largely disapproved of by the academic commu-
practices and social structures, and embedded nity because it was suggestive of Western dom-
social attitudes. The critical and empowering inance. In the later periods, this led to a new
perspective has been missing in social psychologi- concept of collaborative research, in which
cal research in this country. Such a perspective is researchers joined as co-equals right from the
necessary for social psychology to be more planning up to the publication stage. These ideals
relevant and socially responsive. of collaboration have been hard to sustain due to
The very nature of social issues is complex and realities of inequality in resources, service condi-
demands an interdisciplinary approach. There is tions, and working conditions. For example,
also a need to broaden the scope of inquiry by sabbatical leave and grants for international travel
taking into account both societal and individual and research are available (with some effort) to a
variables. Being confined to either individual or Western partner but not to a collaborative
societal level variables limits the possibilities of colleague from a developing country. The outcome
complete analysis. One has to go beyond the of such collaboration is bound to result in favour
boundaries of the discipline so that the complex- of the Western partner causing frustration to the
ities of the social reality can be grappled with. In Indian colleague. There is a need to give a fresh
the past, the focus has been more on individual look to the nature of collaborative research. Now
level variables. There is a need to focus both on that we have reached a stage where social
individual as well as systemic and structural psychology is a mature discipline in the country,
as evinced from the significant advances in the
variables, to enable both macro and micro under-
field, we see a necessity to make fervent efforts for
standing of social reality.
increased collaboration within the country.
Over the years, powerful arguments have been
Examples of successful national-level collaborative
made for the role of social psychology in policy
research of high quality on relevant topics like
formulation and planning. But our contribution to
normative predictions of people’s intentions and
policy formulation is still negligible. In a society
behaviours and societal and organizational cul-
with scarce resources, research without practical
tures are provided by J. B. P. Sinha and his co-
outcomes will not be considered meaningful. It is
workers located in various parts of India. The
therefore important for social psychological
collaborators facilitated sample representation
research to be relevant to society. Social psychol- from a vast country like India (J. B. P. Sinha
ogists in India need to consider how their research et al., in press; J. B. P. Sinha, Vohra, Singhal,
can contribute more to policy formulation. To Sinha, & Ushashree, 2002). Thus, the need of the
increase the relevance of social psychology hour is to feel confident, to recognize our strength,
research, multiplism (Cook, 1985) as a strategy and to move forward with determination to build
should be considered. Multiplism means the use of a contextually relevant scientific social psychology.
multiple methodologies; planned research pro- To achieve this, of course, we need to have
grammes based on multiple interconnected studies. many centres of active researchers, developing
The synthesis of findings of multiple studies into hubs around the country, attracting national
related to each other, covering various aspects of and international collaborators for quality
problems in a real context, make the findings research.
meaningful for policy implementation. Multiplism
is likely to widen the horizon and enrich the range
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