UNIT 1 :INDIGENOUS PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES

1.Emergence of indigenous and non western perspectives of psychology

The origins of ‘indigenous psychology’ go back mainly to Asia during the 1990s. Its
declared objective is to arrive at psychologies which, unlike the American mainstream,
are adapted to the needs of particular cultures/countries. While the term “indigenous” is often used
to refer to “native” people and cultures, post-modern ideological and socio-political uses of the
term have resulted in a growing opinion among psychologists that all psychologies are
“indigenous” to the cultures in which they arise and are sustained.
In the last 30 years or so, an increasing number of local psychologists in a number
of non-Western societies (e.g., Cameroon, Hong Kong, India, Iran, Japan, Korea, Latin
America, Mexico, New Guinea, Taiwan, and the Philippines) have expressed their dissatisfaction
with the artificiality, superficiality, and incompatibility of their WP in understanding, explaining,
and predicting their local people’s psychological and behavioral functioning. Collectively they
want to transform their WP into an indigenized local psychology. In order to accomplish this grand
goal effectively, they have to consciously indigenize their research in such a way that the theories,
concepts, methods, and tools used are sufficiently compatible with the studied psychological and
behavioral phenomena as structurally and functionally embedded in their ecological, economic,
social, cultural, and historical contexts. The primary purpose of the indigenization of WP is to help
non-Western psychology re-find its sociocultural roots so that the knowledge generated will have
sufficient sociocultural relevance to the mind and behavior of local people. The brief history of
emergence of IP in India and some other non western countries are as follows :
a. Europe: The first scientific IP in the world emerged in Europe (especially Western Europe)in the
late nineteenth century. It was one of the last basic disciplines to split from philosophy to become
an independent field of scientific inquiry.European scientific IP (D) was directly, spontaneously,
and naturally formed mainly under the influence of local folk and philosophical psychologies and
other sociocultural factors (A) already existing in European countries,without any conspicuous
interruption or intervention from a powerful non-European scientific IP (no such psychology
existed at that time). It is a pure form of scientific IP,which may be defined as a discipline that
applies the scientific method to the study of the psychological and behavioral phenomena of people
in a specific ethnic group or cultural tradition for developing a systematic psychological knowledge
system. This system has been constructed in such a way that its theories, concepts, methods, and
tools are highly compatible not only with the studied psychological and behavioral phenomena
themselves but also with their ecological, economic, social, cultural, and historical contexts.
b.Philippines: There were early negative observations about the fit of Western psychology
and other social research with conditions in the Philippines.In the 1970s the psychologist Virgilio
Enriquez, with colleagues, advocated the need for an IP in the Philippines.Enriquez, commonly
recognized as the pioneer of IP development in the Philippines, took his PhD at Northwestern
University in the USA in 1971 and then returned to the Philippines. At the time Enriquez returned
to the Philippines there was a wave of intense nationalism in the country. This nationalism
included questioning of everything foreign. Enriquez (1977) argued that social scientists in the
Philippines had a responsibility to contribute to “the understanding of the psychology of
the Filipino in particular and Filipino society and culture in general” This boosted his efforts of
development of IP in Philippines.
c.Taiwan: IP in Taiwan shows a somewhat similar developmental history to IP in the Philippines,
but also has its own characteristic features. Due to national and international political events in the
1940s and ’50s, psychology in Taiwan was very tightly linked to US psychology. Kuo-Shu Yang
was a pioneer of IP in Taiwan. He took his PhD in 1969 at the University of Illinois, USA, with
Harry Triandis as supervisor, and then returned to Taiwan.Yang conducted psychological research
in the traditional Western way until about 1976, but in that year he changed his research approach
Due to psychology’s dislocation with Chinese reality and its lack of connection with his Chinese
background. In 1976 he embarked upon a mission to Sinicize psychology. However, he soon
realized that he would not get support from his colleagues at the NTU, and conducted studies
of common features of allChinese societies, but also studies of “the unique psychological and
behavioural aspects of people in a certain Chinese society”,After this, the work to indigenize
psychology in Taiwan gathered speed. A research laboratory for IP was established, as was the
journal Indigenous Psychological Research, in 1993.
d.South Korea:IP in South Korea seems to have had a slow start. For example, Choi, Kim, and
Choi (1993) had little to report about IP in South Korea. However, Uichol Kim,
who did his PhD with John Berry in Canada, has since played an important role
in the development of Korean IP. They presented what they called a Korean IP as an alternative
paradigm (in contrast to what they called “traditional psychology” – i.e., Western psychology). In
addition, the authors noted that “Korean indigenous psychology advocates a transaction model of
causality that focuses on the generative and proactive aspects. Bandura’s (1997) sociocognitive
theory shares many of the basic scientific tenets of Korean indigenous psychology”
e.India:Although also associated with nationalistic sentiments, IP in India has a different character
than Filipino SP. Durganand Sinha, the pioneer of IP in India, suggested (1997, p. 134) that
“indigenization is an ongoing process rather than a finished product; it is gradual and comes about
in stages.” Sinha (1986) described the indigenization process in India as occurring in four
phases. Phase 1 corresponds to the pre-independence era and phase 2 to the post independence
period up to the 1960s. The third phase, called the phase of problem-oriented research, lasted up to
approximately 1980, when it was followed by phase 4, the indigenization phase.
In phase 1, the first Indian university department of psychology was established in 1916, but often
psychology was part of philosophy departments and separate departments of psychology only
became more common between the 1940s and 1960s (Misra & Paranjpe, 2012). The Indian Journal
of Psychology was founded in 1926 (J. B. P. Sinha, 1995). However, students interested in modern
psychology often went to the West (Britain or the United States) to study for their PhD. After their
return to India, these researchers adhered to the learned Western type of research in a servile
manner (D. Sinha, 1993). Sinha noted that this showed the West’s political domination over the
Third World and that it was a part of modernization and Westernization.
In Sinha’s phase 2, starting after the Indian independence from Britain in 1947, efforts to
indigenize psychology in India began to emerge (Sinha, 1993). The philosopher and historian of
science, Dhruv Raina, noted (1997) that, following independence, India attempted to recon-
struct its identity on its own terms and not in terms of the orientalist and colonial image provided
by the West. Moreover, “[w]hat was found problematic was the insertion within an internationalist
context of a canonized European definition of rationality and universality” (p. 18). The indigeniza-
tion movement was to a large extent a reaction to this situation. On a similar note, Sinha noted that
after 1947 there was a “growth of national pride and a gradual awareness of distinct identity among
Scholars who began to feel the need for ‘outgrowing the alien framework.’” Thus, efforts to
indigenize psychology in India were initiated as part of generalized social processes prevailing in
the country, which also affected other social sciences such as sociology and social anthropology
Sinha’s phase 3 was marked by researchers becoming more aware of the need for applied research
that generated results that were usable in the local context. As a result of this, the period was also
marked by a “realization of the limitations of their studies which had been excessively dependent
on the West” The importance of research investigating the specific local conditions pertaining
where the research results were to be applied is illustrated by results reported by Wagner et al. This
study showed that people utilized both modern Westernized and traditional conceptualizations of
madness, depending on the context activated by the person. Sinha argued for indigenization from
within by means of an indigenized approach to knowledge. Such an approach “places particular
emphasis on culture-specific factors in human functioning the researcher wants to know what is
native, or rooted in specific societies and cultures”Sinha founded the journal Psychology and
Developing Societies in 1981 and was later involved in helping to found various organiza-
tions at the national and international levels. For example, he was a founding member of the
International Association of Cross-Cultural Psychology(IACCP).
The fourth phase – the indigenization phase – was characterized by Sinha as a phase “of
questioning, doubt and a search for a new identity.” J. B. P. Sinha reported that in the 1980s the
indigenization of Indian psychology gathered speed. In this phase, Indian IP started to integrate
ideas, concepts, and methods from India with those from abroad. Skepticism toward Western
psychology intensified; for example, Western psychology was increasingly believed to be
Inappropriate as a guide for data collection, especially when studying Indian participants
. Poortinga summarized Sinha’s fourth stage as a “confident acceptance of the indigenous and open
to blending with Western elements.”
Conclusion:
One important reason for the development of the IP movement was discontent with the lack of fit
of Western psychology with the local realities in non-Western or non-US societies. Given the
increasing diversification of IP, including a tendency to be increasingly linked to other ongoing
intellectual waves such as critical theory and postcolonialism, and given the tendency for other
forms of globalized and internationalized psychology to develop, the IP movement might in the
Future dissolve into different versions, more or less aligned and associated with other
developments in psychology. At the same time, some of the more applied components in IP
research programs may be at least partially covered by other approaches to psychology.
 UNIT 2: INDIAN PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
1. Personality and motivation in upanishads :
Layers of existence : Taittiriya Upanishad - According to the Taittiriya Upanishad, the existence
of the human being is connected to the pancha koshas. Pancha refers to five, kosha means sheaths,
while maya means illusion. The five koshas are:
Annamaya kosha – physical sheath
Pranamaya kosha – physiological or energy sheath
Manomaya kosha – psychological or the mind sheath
Vijnanamaya kosha – wisdom sheath
Anandamaya kosha – bliss sheath
1. Annamaya Kosha:The first sheath makes up the physical body. ‘Anna’ refers to food that
nourishes the physical body. It is the transformation of food that is consumed. What is this body? It
is skin, flesh blood, bone, muscles, tissues, and organs. Annamaya Kosha often links to the first
thing we look at when we connect ourselves to the outer world.
On the other hand, maya prevents us from seeing the truth. In fact, Annamaya Kosha is the carrier
for the other Koshas. The physical body undergoes change from birth – growth, decay, sickness and
eventually death. We have no control over our biological processes as it is controlled by the laws of
nature. However, we can delay our ageing process and reduce the chances of getting sick. We have
a choice to allow evolution to continue at the level of the senses, mind, intellect, emotion or on the
level of self.
2. Pranamaya Kosha:The second sheath is Pranamaya. “Prana” refer to life force. Prana is a part of
cosmic life. Prana is the energy behind the breath. It’s the life force within us and everything
around us. This force holds together our body and our mind. When we raise our awareness through
the practices of Yoga, we may be able to see the Pranamaya Kosha in the form of an Aura which
surrounds the body. A person who is contented, energized, and in harmony with the self is likely to
have high levels of prana, whereas those experiencing lethargy, low energy levels or dullness may
have low prana.The food that we eat can affect the pranayama kosha. For example, eating freshly
cooked organic green vegetables will provide higher levels of prana than the ones sprayed with
pesticides or overcooked. A natural view of a green garden and sunlight will provide more prana
than a chaotic street.The five vital forces in the body that make up the sheath of Pranamaya are
Apana, Samana, Prana, Vyana and Udana. Besides, there are 72,000 nadis (the pathways) that move
the prana in the human body. These nadis are interconnected with the chakras (the energy centers)
in the human body. Each chakra has its own physiological function and affects the endocrine
system.
3. Manomaya Kosha:Another more subtle energy that is within the physical body but more mental
in nature is known as Manomaya Kosha. Mano refers to the mind, but it includes not only the mind,
but also thoughts, emotions, the senses, and the subconscious. Through the five senses of seeing,
hearing, tasting, smelling and touching, the mind receives information and reacts accordingly based
on Chitta (impressions, personal habit patterns) or Ahamkara (ego). It analyzes, records,
understands, rationalizes, accepts, rejects and compares. During this time, positive and/or negative
thoughts, feelings and emotion will arise.The trained mind can influence the entire physical body
system to function well and conserve energy. The trained mind increases concentration. The
purified mind overcomes selfishness and ego, increases inner strength and brings inner peace. We
can purify the Manomaya kosha through meditation, karma yoga (selfless service and charity
work), bhakti yoga (prayer), knowledge (studying the scriptures), and Yama and Niyamas (the
yogic moral ethics towards the society and self-discipline). The state of the manomaya kosha is
affected by both what we eat (annamaya kosha) and our energy level (pranamaya kosha) too.
4. Vjanamaya Kosha:When the mind is further transcended, it reaches the wisdom sheath. Jnana
refers to knowledge, awareness and inner perception. Here the buddhi (intellect) dominates our
thinking, controls the Ahamhara (ego) and makes decision.Vijnanamaya Kosha links the conscious
mind, the individual mind and the universal mind. The universal knowledge comes to the conscious
mind through Vijnanamaya Kosha. In other words, the mind sees the outlook of the object, but
Vijnanamaya Kosha sees the object as a part of the universe.We have greater potential to transform
and become more stable, intuitive, truthful, vital, loving and connected to the Universe. When a
person is deficient of the fourth sheath, he may not be in control of his life. He may constantly react
without awareness. To purify the Vijnanamaya kosha, the intellect has to be purified and ego has to
be surrendered. This can be achieved through the practice of Karma Yoga, self-introspection, jnana
yoga via the study of Yoga Philosophy and regular practice of meditation.
5. Anandamaya Kosha:All the step-by-step yogic practices lead us to the bliss sheath –
Anandamaya Kosha. Ananda refers to bliss. Whether in good times or bad, in good health or facing
death, we remain steady. We transcend from the lower self to the highest. We are involved in all the
works but unattached to any. We are just the observer. All the works presented to us are
opportunities to serve with love. It becomes a source of our unconditional love, eternal happiness
and harmony. When the mind is liberated, we understand what our “Real Identity” is. It is our
divine being.

Dvaita and Advaita schools : Vedanta is one of the six schools of Hindu philosophy based on the
Upanishads. Vedanta means the end of Vedas (ved-anta). Many spiritual masters and gurus have
interpreted Upanishads in different forms across the infinite span of time. The philosophy that
attempts to explain the text central to this philosophy is Brahma Sutras. It is the pursuit of
knowledge into Brahman and Atman.The most well-known schools of Vedanta are Advaita Vedanta
(school of non-dualism), Visistha Vedanta (school of qualified non-dualism), and Dvaita Vedanta
(school of dualism).
Dvaita Vedanta : Dvaita Vedanta identifies Atman (soul) and Brahman as two separate and
non-interchangeable entities. Dvaita classifies everything in the universe into two realities,
● Brahman alone
● Paratantra, i.e., dependent realty (the souls and inanimate matter)
Propounded by Sri Madhvacharya, Dvaita Vedanta describes brahman as superior to all souls and is
perfect in aspects. The brahman knows all past, present, and future and has all the knowledge in the
universe, most powerful, compassionate, and wise. The only way to salvation (moksha) is to feel
love and devotion toward the supreme. The supreme soul (Brahman) is independent, and all other
souls are dependent on him.The existence of God is demonstrable by logical proof, and the
Upanishads are devoted to describing its nature. Sri Madhvacharya, in Dvaita Vedanta, identifies
Brahman in the form of Lord Vishnu. However, here Vishnu is not considered part of Trimurti, but
brahman itself (Absolute reality).
Who is Brahman? :Dvaita Vedanta explains brahman as supreme of everything in the universe, and
this world/universe is not illusionary but is the actual creation of Brahman. Therefore, there is an
eternal distinction between absolute reality and individual self-reality. Thus, the universe owes god
for its creation. God knows every soul and all its actions. The soul’s actions are subject to god, but
God has been kind enough to provide us freedom of will. We are free to make decisions and have
our will and choices, but God has eyes and can influence our decisions.
Madhvacharya explains “Agyaana” as mistaken knowledge and can be corrected through devotion
and salvation. Here one focuses on creating a special bond between God and the devotee. Devotion
can be done in various ways; by reading scriptures, chanting mantras, and performing selflessness
and kindness. The goal is not to reach a higher state but bhakti itself. The journey to achieve god is
itself a goal.The bonding of the Jivas (souls) to the cycle of life and death results from their
ignorance towards the very true nature of the god. That is why the adoration of God is the ultimate
moksha and frees the soul from the cycle of the world. However, as per Madhava, the liberated soul
does not become God but exists as a separate reality. The concept of spiritualism is less pronounced
here. Most of the followers of Dvaita embraced Vaishnavism (worship of Vishnu as a supreme
reality).
Other gods explained :If there is one and only supreme god, how come there be hundreds of gods in
Hinduism? The answer to this is simpler than expected. The devas are the souls of people who God
rewarded for their ultimate devotion and salvation. As Brahman is the only one whose form cannot
be changed, forms of all other beings can be changed. Even gods other than brahman can be
promoted or demoted into higher and lower forms to speak in simple words. According to
Madhvacharya, other gods are mortal too, and they change their form after their death.

Advaita Vedatanta : Advaita Vedanta is the non-dualistic school of thought that believes only one
truth that is Brahman. Here the Brahman goes beyond the god or the creator. “I am The Universe
and, The Universe resides within me” is the ultimate truth. This one is all the gods, demons, places,
times, and everything that exists. This one is I, You and Them. This belief is derived from
Upanishads.Main Teachings of Advaita Vedanta
Advaita symbolizes the highest point of the spiritual manifestation one can attend. Vedanta is the
solution to the problem of human suffering. To be more clear, suffering arises as a reaction to
physical or emotional pain.
Ātmān = True Self:The ātmā or ātmān (individual consciousness) inside you is the true source of
happiness. Adi Shankaracharya says, “ātmā is your true nature, that makes you complete.” This
inner reality is usually shielded by the outer world’s components (people, events, things). Here
outer mask covers the godly reality hidden within the self.The desires we possess and try
vigorously to fulfill them, will it give contentment? Not exactly! The more desires we fulfill, the
more tired we get.So, the true source of happiness lies within you. Thus, there is no reality beyond
the self, and this self can be realized through the teachings of the Advaita Vedanta.
Satchitananda = Nature of Atman or Self:Sat, Chit, and Ananda are the true nature of Atman. Sat is
the knowingness of the consciousness, the desire to know, the ability to know, and you already
know. Chit is the aliveness, the prana in you. The intensity of life is experienced based on the chit.
Ananda is the pleasantness and bliss that exists within Atma.The purpose of activities in our life
might be different. Sometimes to lift sat, sometimes to lift chit, sometimes to lift Ananda.
Satchitananda is the essence of your being.
Drig Drishya Viveka:Distinguishing seer from seen is one of the difficulties in Advaita. To get out
of this ability is the nature of the self. As the sun doesn’t get affected in any way whatsoever, it
shines upon, likewise the consciousness that light upon the activities of the mind does not truly
affect the activities of Vritti that it illumines.The misinterpretation of the experience of happiness or
sadness that arises in our mind is the obstacle to the self. According to the philosophy of Advaita
Vedanta, the Vrittis (perceptions, cognitions, and emotions) that arise in your mind don’t truly
affect the true self.
Avidya and Maya:What is the hindrance behind the attainment of self? Adi Shankaracharya
beautifully explains it; Ignorance and Maya (illusion). Ignorance is giving importance to the outer
world and avoiding the inner world (Atman). When a person starts giving more attention to people,
situations, and things, he forgets his true nature and gets stuck in the loophole of ignorance.
Maya is the thought process that makes individuals stick with the Iness. The feeling of me, my
family, my friends, my life, my objects, these kinds of material thoughts, creates an illusion in mind
in the attainment of self. Thus, to avoid oneself from the cycles of Maya, one-pointed attention to
the inner environment (Atma) is the only solution.
The philosophy of Advaita Vedanta, the wisdom that has been passed by different sages
like Gaudapada, Shankaracharya, and many more, revolves around the only truth, i.e., Brahman.
Advaita is considered to be the most profound teachings among all schools of thought.The
consciousness is utterly untouched by any suffering or worldly misery. Trying to determine the
difference between pain and suffering is one small step towards Advaita Vedanta.
(Motivation) Role of Bhuddhi , Citta , Manas and Ahamkar: (Advaita)
Buddhi - The Intellect:Buddhi or the intellect cannot function without a certain bank of memory or
data. Depending on the data you have, the intellect plays around. Suppose in your memory system,
there are 10 gigabytes of memory. Depending on how sharp your buddhi is, one person can
produce, let’s say, a trillion thoughts with these 10 gigabytes. Someone else can produce 10 trillion
thoughts with the same 10 gigabytes of memory.If you can think a little better than someone else, it
is considered as intelligence today. If someone says one thing and you can say ten things to that,
you may be socially smart, but you are not any more intelligent. Unfortunately, in today’s systems
of education and academics, everything is determined by this. If you can make more things out of
it, you are considered intelligent, which is not true – you only have a sharper buddhi. The buddhi
will not take you beyond limits in any way, because it can only function based on the data that is
already there. It is not capable of accessing anything beyond that.
Manas - A Huge Silo of MemoryThe next dimension is called manas. Manas has many layers to it.
But manas is not just the brain – it is right across the body. Every cell in the body has a phenomenal
memory – not just of this life but of millions of years. Your body clearly remembers how your
forefathers were a million years ago. Top to bottom, there is manas – this is called manomaya
kosha. In every cell in the body, there is memory and intelligence, but no intellect. Intellect is only
in the brain.In English language, everything comes under one banner called “mind.” The idea that
intelligence is only in the brain has produced human beings whose consciousness is seriously
constipated. What is in the brain is intellect, not intelligence. Intelligence and memory are right
across your body. But people have never been trained how to use this intelligence. Instead, they use
their intellect for everything. No wonder they are stressed out whatever job you give them. The
whole weight is on only one dimension of the mind out of sixteen. It is like loading a
sixteen-wheeler truck and trying to drive on only one wheel – you can imagine the stress! That is
what today’s world is going through. People may be using other dimensions of the mind
marginally, unconsciously, but they are not trained to use them. They have only been trained to use
their buddhi, or their intellect. They are very smart. They know everything about everything, but
they do not know how to figure their own life. They do not even know how to sit here peacefully
and at total ease within themselves. If there is true intelligence, the first thing that you need to
figure out is how to make life happen. You know how to make the world happen, but you do not
know how to make your life happen. You do not know how to conduct your mind, your energies,
your emotions or your body. If you ask people to become fit, they become tight. If you ask them to
live in a more natural way, they become fat. Where is the intelligence? There is only intellect.
Intellect looks good only in comparison. Suppose you are the only person on the planet, your
intellect will not mean anything. Only because there are a few idiots around you, you shine. By
itself, intellect will not be of any consequence.
Ahankara - The Sense of Identity:The intellect directly connects with the third dimension of your
mind, called ahankara. Ahankara is sometimes translated as ego, but it is much more than that.
Ahankara gives you a sense of identity. Once your ahankara takes on an identity, your intellect
functions only in that context. It is important to function beyond the intellect, because the intellect
is seriously enslaved to your identity.Our identities, such as belonging to a certain nation,
community, or whatever else, are necessary for our survival in a particular society. But you cannot
think beyond this because you are functioning only from your intellect, and the intellect takes its
sustenance from ahankara. Only along the axis of ahankara, the intellect can function. The intellect
cannot transcend this, because that is its nature. But there are other ways to know life beyond the
identities we have taken on for our survival in the world.
Chitta - The Cosmic Intelligence:The fourth category of the mind is called chitta. Chitta is mind
without memory – pure intelligence. This intelligence is like the cosmic intelligence – simply there.
Everything happens because of that. It does not function out of memory – it simply functions. In a
way, what you call cosmos is a living mind, not in the sense of intellect but in the sense of chitta.
Chitta is the last point of the mind. It connects to the basis of creation within you. It connects you
with your consciousness. Chitta is always on – whether you are awake or asleep. Your intellect
comes on and goes off. Many times it fails, even when you are awake. If chitta or the intelligence
within you was not always on, you could not stay alive. Try to conduct your breath with your
intellect – you will go crazy. Chitta is keeping you alive, keeping you going, making life happen. If
you touch this dimension of your mind, which is the linking point to one’s consciousness, you do
not even have to wish for anything, you do not have to dream of anything – the best possible thing
that can happen to you will anyway happen.

2.Self consciousness in Upanishads:

States of consciousness: Materialism has its root in the involvement in material elements and
being engrossed in as the highest end. This is one of the primary stages of a man’s thinking and
reaction in society. A man who is materialistic in his thinking worries about the gain of wealth,
material prosperity and physical well being. On the other hand, spiritualist is deep-seated in the
concern towards Consciousness. It is the highest virtue in a man’s evolution. In fact, the very term
“Spiritual” is to have a leaning towards the spirit or consciousness.[1] All philosophies and
religions of the world primarily concentrate upon the musing or contemplation on the spirit i.e.,
consciousness.
The Upanishads, particularly the Mandukya, deals in great detail about the four states of
consciousness. They are refereed to as:
● Jāgṛt-avasthā: The Wakeful State of Consciousness
● Svapna-avasthā: The Dream State of Consciousness
● Suṣupti-avasthā: The Deep-Sleep State of Consciousness
● Turiya : The fourth state of consciousness
Jāgṛt-avasthā: The Wakeful State of Consciousness
A man walks around the street and buys groceries. He feels happy. He steps on a thorn and feels
hurt and sad. Sitting in park, leaning on a fence, he day-dreams. He goes to sleep in the end of the
day. The Consciousness experiences all these in the Wakeful State termed as “Jāgṛt-avasthā”. This
refers to the alert state of the consciousness where it takes stimulus or input from external objects
of the real world. The divinity that is immanent in consciousness is termed as “Vaiśvānara”.[3] It
refers to the divinity which is the inner immanent of the consciousness and not the mere
self-oriented consciousness. The name “Vaiśvānara” is quite significant. It literally refers to “the
one where all beings reside and who is the indweller in all beings”. The Jāgṛt-avasthā has its sway
in the gross objects in the wakeful state.[4] The Māṇḍukya Upaniṣad makes an interesting
observation. It this state of Jāgṛt-avasthā, the consciousness or even the immanent Vaiśvānara is
outward in awareness. Gross objects such as the house, street, car and the room are all gross objects
which are external and outward. These objects are cognized by consciousness by its external
orientation towards gross elements. Two roles of the immanent consciousness is noted in the
Māṇḍukya Upaniṣad. One aspect is that it enjoys or relishes with reference to gross objects which
are tangible.[5] Another observable feature of immanent consciousness is that it is outward or
external-oriented. To understand this with an example, we may note the counter-part state of the
dream. In the dream-state, the consciousness is internal pondering upon the inner impressions of
the mind. Whereas in the wakeful state, it is outward towards car, street, building and others which
are external realities. Hence, the immanent spirit of the Jāgṛt-avasthā is termed as “Bahiḥ Prajñaḥ”
or “the consciousness which is outward”.[6]
Svapna-avasthā: The Dream State of Consciousness
This state is the dream-state of consciousness. In this state, consciousness is engrossed into
impressions of the mind. To comprehend with an example; a man who works in a zoo spends all his
days with the flora and fauna most diversified. His mind, in the waking state is involved fully in
these aspects of nature. This naturally creates a strong impression in his mind. The strong
impressions that one gains in his waking state are termed as “Samskaras”. Literally, “Samskara”
refers to the residue impression in the mind. After this, the man sleeps and his consciousness enters
the dream-state. In his dream-state, a recollection and flare of imagination happens with the
ingredients of the “Samskaras” or the impressions in the mind. These are latent till the dawn of
dream-state. At the outbreak of the dream-state, the latent impressions or “Samskaras” come to the
forefront and a world of dream-experience happens. This state of immanent consciousness is
termed as “Taijasa”.[7] It is the impressions that are collected during the waking state alone that are
brought to the forefront during the Dream State called Svapna-avasthā.
Suṣupti-avasthā: The Deep-Sleep State of Consciousness
The state of Suṣupti-avasthā is the state of Deep-Sleep which is bereft of all experiences of objects.
The state of Suṣupti-avasthā is a deep and sublime state of consciousness where there is neither any
experience of gross objects nor experience of subtle or impressions of mind. It is the state of
dreamless sleep. The state of Suṣupti-avasthā is so deep that the seat of cognition or mind is relaxed
and enters a “Nadi” or subtle portion of the brain in functionality. A person who reaches the state of
Suṣupti-avasthā does not experience or “see” any objects such as the pot as he is not awake. At the
same instance, he does not even have any dream as such, as the mind is incapable of recalling any
latent impressions. Such a state is indeed rare, but is one of the important states of consciousness.
However, it cannot be said that the mind is without any experience of time and happiness. After the
awakening, the man recalls this experience and remarks; “I slept for quite a long time happily”.
Two things may be noted in this recollection. One is the mentioning of time-factor. One notes that
he had slept for a long time. This means that the experience of time did happen. Secondly, the
experience of happiness. As one fees the state of happiness in the Suṣupti-avasthā, it is not a null
state. Hence, the Suṣupti-avasthā is a dreamless state of sleep with positive experience of time,
happiness and other all-time and intrinsic factors. This innate consciousness is termed as “Prājña”.
The Turiya (Fourth) State
A state of consciousness in which there is awareness of the knower, that state is named by the sages
of yore as the Turiya state. Without remaining aware of one’s real Self, one cannot attain the Turiya
state. When the experience of the Self becomes profound, the awareness of ‘I am’, the witness, the
knower, remains constant in every activity, in all three states.
Due to unawareness of the Self, you get identified with whatever you see. In reality, you, the one
who sees is distinctly separate from all that is seen. Just as in a dream, everything seems so real that
you forget who you are and get engrossed in it. Only upon waking up, you realise it was just a
dream. But the fact that you remember dreaming shows that in you, there is a knower which
journeys through the three states. Therefore, these states are not you. The moment you are
awakened to the reality that you are separate from all of these; the fourth state begins to emerge.
This awareness of the separateness is the Turiya state.

Bhagavad Gita:
The Bhagavad Gita (“Song of God” or “Song of the Lord”) is among the most important religious
texts of Hinduism and easily the best known. It has been quoted by writers, poets, scientists,
theologians, and philosophers – among others – for centuries and is often the introductory text to
Hinduism for a Western audience.It is commonly referred to as the Gita and was originally part of
the great Indian epic Mahabharata. Its date of composition, therefore, is closely associated with that
of the epic – c. 5th-3rd century BCE – but not all scholars agree that the work was originally
included in the Mahabharata text and so date it later to c. 2nd century BCE.
The Gita is a dialogue between the warrior-prince Arjuna and the god Krishna who is serving as his
charioteer at the Battle of Kurukshetra fought between Arjuna's family and allies (the Pandavas)
and those of the prince Duryodhana and his family (the Kauravas) and their allies. This dialogue is
recited by the Kauravan counselor Sanjaya to his blind king Dhritarashtra (both far from the
battleground) as Krishna has given Sanjaya mystical sight so he will be able to see and report the
battle to the king.The Kauravas and Pandavas are related and there are mutual friends and family
members fighting on both sides for supremacy of rule. Accordingly, when Arjuna sees all his
former friends and comrades on the opposing side, he loses heart and refuses to take part in a battle
which will result in their deaths as well as many others. The rest of the text is the dialogue between
the prince and the god on what constitutes right action, proper understanding and, ultimately, the
meaning of life and nature of the Divine.
The Gita combines the concepts expressed in the central texts of Hinduism – the Vedas and
Upanishads – which are here synthesized into a single, coherent vision of belief in one God and the
underlying unity of all existence. The text instructs on how one must elevate the mind and soul to
look beyond appearances – which fool one into believing in duality and multiplicity – and
recognize these are illusions; all humans and aspects of existence are a unified extension of the
Divine which one will recognize once the trappings of illusion have been discarded.The Gita
inspired the Bhakti (“devotion”) Movement which then influenced the development of Buddhism,
Jainism, and Sikhism. Krishna explains the path of selfless devotion as one of the paths toward
self-actualization, recognition of the truth of existence, and liberation from the cycle of rebirth and
death; the other two being jnana (“knowledge”) and karma (“action”). The Hare Krishna
Movement of the present day is an expression of Bhakti, and the Gita remains their principal text.
Vedas, Upanishads, & the Three Gunas
Hinduism is known to adherents as Sanatan Dharma (“Eternal Order” or “Eternal Path”) and is
informed at its fundamental level by the texts known as the Vedas which also include subtexts
known as the Upanishads. The word Veda means “knowledge”, and Upanishad is interpreted to
mean to “sit down closely” as though drawing near for instruction from a master. The Vedas convey
the essential knowledge of the universe; the Upanishads instruct one on how to use that knowledge.
The vision of the Vedas and Upanishads, in its simplest and most concise form, is that there is a
single entity – Brahman – who is the creator of existence and existence itself. Human beings carry
a spark of this great Divinity within themselves known as the Atman. The purpose of life is to reach
the self-actualization of the Atman which will then bring one into union with Brahman in life after
one experiences physical death. One achieves this self-actualization through the performance of
one's dharma (duty) in accordance with one's karma (right action) to eventually attain moksha
(liberation) and the recognition of Final Truth. If one does not attain self-actualization in a given
lifetime, one is reincarnated and must try again.Standing in the way of one's self-actualization are
worldly distractions in the form of the three gunas – qualities, characteristics, states of mind –
inherent in each individual. The gunas are:
● Sattva – wisdom, goodness, enlightenment
● Rajas – passion, activity, aggression
● Tamas – darkness, confusion, helplessness
The gunas are not a hierarchy one needs to work through from bottom to top but all three exist, to
greater or lesser degrees, in every individual. The confusion of Tamas can be caused by the passion
of Rajas and the urge toward goodness or wisdom of Sattva. The gunas help to enslave the mind by
interpreting the world one sees as the truth – as the way life and the universe truly are – and so trap
one in the cycle of rebirth and death (samsara), keeping one from self-actualization by diverting
attention from the truth of reality to what one has been taught to accept as reality.The best
illustration of this is the interpretation of death as a tragic loss both for the deceased and for the
survivors. One's natural response to death is sorrow and anger at the loss or, for those experiencing
the decline in health of a terminal disease, fear of the unknown and rage at being forced to leave all
one knows behind. The sages of the Upanishads and the figure of Krishna in the Gita would say
these responses are simply the gunas at work. One is conditioned to respond emotionally to loss
but, depending on which of the three gunas is most dominant in an individual, one will express that
emotion in different ways. The soul possessing more of Sattva will be inclined to be philosophical
and optimistic; of Rajas, angry and aggressive; of Tamas, inconsolable and despairing.None of
these responses, Krishna would say, are appropriate because the person who has died has not
ceased to exist and one commits a serious spiritual error in responding as though they have. Even
the response of Sattva is not wholly appropriate because it supposes an end to life, a discontinuity,
when there is none. The soul is immortal, existed before birth, and exists after death. This
understanding is emphasized in the Upanishads and illustrated dramatically throughout the Gita
which stresses the importance of moving beyond what seems to be true toward actual Truth.
Qualities of Sthitaprajna
The sthitaprajna is like the vijnani. The sthitaprajna's experience of samadhi is sahaja, or
spontaneous and effortless. The sthitaprajna is a free soul, ever steady in knowledge of Self. The
sthitaprajna sees the presence of God not merely in the good and noble but also in the wicked and
ignoble. The state of steady wisdom is a state of transcendence that does not overlook, rationalize,
or destroy the lower values of life but fulfills them all, just as adulthood does not deny childhood
but completes it.A sthitaprajna is also known as a jivanmukta, or one who is truly free while still
living. Although the realization of truth is private and cannot be communicated to others, the
sthitaprajna can be identified by his or her actions, habits, and character as a tree is known by its
leaves, flowers, or fruit. The Bhagavad Gita describes the character of the sthitaprajna as the
following:
1] The sthitaprajna is dvandatita, or free from the conflicts of the pairs of opposites, such as pain
and pleasure, virtue and vice, honour and dishonour, and good and evil. In short, the sthitaprajna is
free from all attachments and aversions.
2] The sthitaprajna demonstrates the reality of the Self the divinity of all beings, and the unity of all
existence through his or her conduct.
3] Steady in wisdom, the sthitaprajna enjoys the constant bliss of the Self, irrespective of the
changing phenomena of the universe . The rise and fall of mind and pain and pleasure of body
never make the sthitaprajna waver in steadiness of wisdom.
4] Though behaving like an ordinary person, the sthitaprajna is ever conscious of the reality of
oneness.
5] Though engaged in actions, being free from ego and free from motive, the sthitaprajna is not a
doer of actions. Though having a physical body, the sthitaprajna is merely a dweller within the
body and is unidentified with it.
6] Firmly grounded in the wisdom of the one Self, the sthitaprajna is at peace and ease with
everything in all situations.
7] The wisdom of the sthitaprajna is wisdom of a cosmic oneness with all beings that cannot be
contained in any temple or exhaustively described by any scripture.
8] The sthitaprajna is not bound by the injunctions of the scriptures, the traditions of society, or the
laws of ethics. Yet the sthitaprajna's freedom does not impose itself on anyone, nor does it violate
the rules of morality and ethics.
9] The sthitaprajna does not belong to a particular culture, sect, nation, or society; the sthitaprajna
is for all beings of all times.
10] Whatever the sthitaprajna does is conducive to the welfare of all beings. When the sthitaprajna
does good, he or she has no expectations or desires. The sthitaprajna's very nature is to do good.
11] The sthitaprajna is a seer of truth, no longer its seeker. The sthitaprajna is not just pure but
purity itself. A person conscious of his or her purity is also conscious of impurity. The sthitaprajna
is not just holy but holiness itself, not just a knower of truth but the very embodiment of truth. The
Bhagavad Gita declares: "The yogi who is happy within, who rejoices within, and who is illumined
within attains freedom in Brahman, himself becoming one with Brahman."
12] While steady wisdom indicates seeing action in inaction and inaction in action, it does not stand
for a philosophy of inaction. The sthitaprajna continues to act, lest by following his or her example,
the vast majority of people should be led to practice inertia in the name of spirituality.
13] The sthitaprajna lives on the borderline between absolute and relative consciousness.
14] The sthitaprajna is a jnani, a bhakta, and a yogi.
15] Ever established in the state of yoga, the sthitaprajna remains in constant union with God and,
at the same time, is the ideal exemplar of karma-yoga, demonstrating steady wisdom through every
action.
16] The sthitaprajna's knowledge of Ultimate Reality is universal and dynamic.
17] The sthitaprajna's spiritual vision is integral and all-embracing.
18] For the sthitaprajna, God is both immanent and transcendent at the same time. Dedicated
service is as important as offerings of worship, and meditation is no less an action than everyday
activity

Trigunas;Characteristics
There are 3 forms through which Prakriti manifests itself in a matter, known as Trigunas or 3
qualities of Nature. The word Prakriti also consists of 3 root words
Pra means Sattva Guna
Kr means Rajas Guna
Ti means Tamas Guna
Trigunas combines in different composition to develop the 5 elements of the body, which also
known as Pancha Maha-Bhoota.
Characteristics of the Trigunas and the Personality:The trigunas have the following characteristics:
1.Sattva is the energy of creation. The Sattvic state is a healthy, disease-free body. People with this
guna are inherently good and caring. Sattva governs the senses and is the aspect of intellect and
knowledge. When Sattva is dominant, a person treats work as worship.People of Sattvic nature are
usually of the Kapha dosha constitution.
Qualities: Happiness, harmony, purity, balance, holistic, creative positive, building, virtue, peace,
constructiveness, goodness, spirituality, consciousness and universalizing
2.Rajas is the movement of energy particles. Rajas guna governs achievement and will power.
Rajas people are very desirous and full of attachment. Due to their acute self-interest, sometimes
they may face difficulties in differentiating between right and wrong.People of Rajasic nature are
usually of the Pitta dosha constitution.
Qualities: Activity, self-indulgence, passion, ego, individualization, dynamism, movement,
self-centredness and drive
3.Tamas is the inert substance which is capable to convert into new substances. Tamas governs
negative thinking in the mind and stimulates sleep, apathy and lethargy. People with Tamas guna
dominant are cynical, apprehensive and vindictive.People of Tamasic nature are usually of the Vata
dosha constitution.
Qualities: Imbalance, chaos, disorder, impurity, destruction, anxiety, delusion, negativity, inactivity,
dullness, lethargy, inertia, violence, ignorance and viciousness

JAIN PERSPECTIVE:
1.The Jain religion: past and present History :
Overview
Along with Hinduism and Buddhism, Jainism is one of the three most ancient Indian
religious traditions still in existence and an integral part of South Asian religious belief
and practice. While often employing concepts shared with Hinduism and Buddhism, the
result of a common cultural and linguistic background, the Jain tradition must be
regarded as an independent phenomenon rather than as a Hindu sect or a Buddhist
heresy, as some earlier Western scholars believed.
The name Jainism derives from the Sanskrit verb ji, “to conquer.” It refers to
the ascetic battle that, it is believed, Jain renunciants (monks and nuns) must fight
against the passions and bodily senses to gain enlightenment, or omniscience and purity
of soul.
Jainism has been confined largely to India, although the recent migration of Indians to
other, predominantly English-speaking countries has spread its practice to many
Commonwealth nations and to the United States. Precise statistics are not available, but
it is estimated that there are more than six million Jains, the vast majority of whom live
in India.
History
Early history (7th century BCE–c. 5th century CE)
Scholars of religion generally hold that Jainism originated in the 7th–5th century BCE in
the Ganges basin of eastern India, the scene of intense religious speculation and activity
at that time. Buddhism also appeared in this region, as did other belief systems that
renounced the world and opposed the ritualistic Brahmanic schools
whose prestige derived from their claim of purity and their ability to perform the
traditional rituals and sacrifices and to interpret their meaning. These new religious
perspectives promoted asceticism, the abandonment of ritual, domestic and social
action, and the attainment of spiritual illumination in an attempt to win, through one’s
own efforts, freedom from repeated rebirth (samsara).
Jains believe that their tradition does not have a historical founder. The first Jain figure
for whom there is reasonable historical evidence is Parshvanatha (or Parshva), a
renunciant teacher who may have lived in the 7th century BCE and founded
a community based upon the abandonment of worldly concerns. Jain tradition regards him as the
23rd Tirthankara (literally, “Ford Maker”; i.e., one who leads the way across
the stream of rebirths to salvation) of the current age (kalpa).
Early medieval developments (500–1100)
There is archaeological evidence of the presence of Jain monks in southern India from
before the Common Era, and the Digambara sect has had a significant presence in what
is now the state of Karnataka for almost 2,000 years. The early medieval period was the
time of Digambara Jainism’s greatest flowering. Enjoying success in modern-day
Karnataka and in neighbouring Tamil Nadu state, the Digambaras gained the patronage
of prominent monarchs of three major dynasties in the early medieval period—
the Gangas in Karnataka (3rd–11th century); the Rashtrakutas, whose kingdom was just
north of the Ganga realm (8th–12th century); and the Hoysalas in Karnataka (11th–14th
century).
Late medieval–early modern developments (1100–1800)
In the period of their greatest influence (6th–late 12th century), Jain monks of both
sects, perhaps influenced by intense lay patronage, turned from living as
wandering ascetics to permanent residence in temples or monasteries. A legacy of this
transformation is the contemporary Digambara practice of the bhattaraka, through
which a cleric takes monastic initiation but, rather than assuming a life of
naked ascetic wandering, becomes an orange-robed administrator and guardian
of holy places and temples.
During the 20th century
Jainism evolved into a worldwide faith. As a result of age-old trading links, many Jains
from western India settled in eastern African countries, most notably Kenya and
Uganda. Political unrest in the 1960s compelled many of them to relocate to the United
Kingdom, where the first Jain temple outside India was consecrated in Leicester, and
then increasingly to the United States and Canada, where they successfully assumed
their traditional mercantile and professional occupations. A desire to preserve their
religious identity has led expatriate Jains to form trans-sectarian organizations such as
the Jain Samaj, founded in Europe in 1970, and the Federation of Jain Associations
in North America (also known as JAINA), founded in 1981.

Traditions: The Digambara and Svetambara sects

It is worthwhile to see what the exact differences between the Digambara and Svetambara sects of
Jainism are. Literally, the monks of the Digambaras are naked while those of the Svetambaras wear
white clothes. In fact there are no fundamental doctrinal differences between the two sects. For
example, the most authoritative sacred text of all Jainas is the Tattvarthadhigama-sutra by
Umasvati. However, there are some major as well as minor points on which the two sects are
opposed to each other. (Digambara, (Sanskrit: “Sky-clad,” i.e., naked) one of the two principal
sects of the Indian religion Jainism, whose male ascetics shun all property and wear no clothes. In
accordance with their practice of nonviolence, the monks also use a peacock-feather duster to clear
their path of insects to avoid trampling them. They drink water from a gourd, and they beg for their
food and eat only once a day. The ascetics of the other sect, the Shvetambara (“White-robed”),
wear white robes. Ascetics of neither sect bathe because personal cleanliness is a feature of the
world they have abandoned and because they believe that bathing would destroy organisms living
in the water.)
Some Points of differences:Some of the points of differences between the Digambaras and
Svetambaras are as follows:

● Practice of Nudity:Digambaras stress the practice of nudity as an absolute

pre-requisite to the mendicant’s path and to the attainment of salvation. But the
 Svetambaras assert that the practice of complete nudity is not essential to attain
liberation.
● Liberation of Woman:Digambaras believe that a woman lacks the adamantine body
and rigid will necessary to attain moksa, i.e., liberation: hence she must be reborn as a
man before such an attainment is possible. But the Svetambaras hold the contrary
view and maintain that women are capable in the present life time, of the same
spiritual accomplishments as men.
● Food for Omniscient:According to the Digambaras, once a saint becomes a kevali or
Kevala-jnani, that is, omniscient, he needs no morsel of food. But this view is not
acceptable to the Svetambaras.
● Minor points of Differences:Leaving aside the trivial differences in rituals, customs
and manners, the following are some of the minor points on which the two sects of
Digambaras and Svetambaras do not agree:
● Embryo of Mahavira:The Svetambaras believe that Mahavira was born of a Ksatriya
lady, Trisala, though conception took place in the womb of a Brahman lady,
Devananda. The change of embryo is believed to have been effected by God Indra on
the eighty-third day after conception. The Digambaras, however, dismiss the whole
episode as unreliable and absurd.
● Marriage of Mahavira:The Svetambaras believe that Mahavira married Princess
Yasoda at a fairly young age and had a daughter from her by name Anojja or
Priyadarsana and that Mahavira led a full-fledged householder’s life till he was thirty,
when he became an ascetic. But the Digambaras deny this assertion altogether.
● Tirthankara Mallinatha:The Svetambaras consider Mallinatha, the 19th Tirthankar as a
female by name Mall; but the Digambaras state that Mallinatha was a male.
● Idols of Tirthankars:The Svetambara tradition depicts the idols of Tirthankars as
wearing a loin-cloth, bedecked with jewels and with glass eyes inserted in the marble.
But the Digambara tradition represents the idols of Tirthankars as nude. Unadorned
and with downcast eyes in the contemplative mood.
● Canonical Literature:The Svetambaras believe in the validity and sacredness of
canonical literature, that is, the twelve angas and sutras, as they exist now. While the
Digambaras hold that the original and genuine texts were lost long ago. The
Digambaras also refuse to accept the achievements of the first council which met
under the leadership of Acharya Sthulabhadra and consequently the recasting of the
angas.
● Charitras and Puranas:The Svetambaras use the term ‘Charitra’ and the Digambaras
make use of the term ‘Purana’ for the biographies of great teachers.
● Food of Ascetics:The Svetambara monks collect their food from different houses
while the Digambara monks take food standing and with the help of knotted upturned
palms and in one house only where their sankalpa (preconceived idea) is fulfilled.
● Dress of Ascetics:The Svetambara monks wear white clothes. but the Digambara
monks of the ideal nirgrantha type are naked.
● Possessions of Ascetics:The Svetambara ascetic is allowed to have fourteen
possessions including loin-cloth, shoulder-cloth, etc. But the Digambara ascetic is
 allowed only two possessions (viz., a the pichhi, a peacock-feather whisk-broom) and
a kamandalu (a wooden water-pot).
2.Personality and motivation:
Triratnas or principles of life: The three jewels of Jainism are also known as three gems and
three refuges. They are different from the three jewels of Buddhism. They constitute the core
practice of Jainism for both the ascetics and the laity. The three jewels are interdependent and yet
independent. They prepare the followers to practice the vows they have to undertake as a part of
their religious obligation.Jainism is a very austere religion, which demands a high degree of
commitment from its followers, in which one has to be willing to forego everything to achieve
liberation, including one's life. While the laity is given some freedom to practice the law, no
lenience is given to those who have choosen to become the ascetics and follow the path in letter
and sprit. The three jewels which are common for both groups are cultivation of 1. Right perception
(samyak darshana), 2. Right knowledge (samyak jnana) and 3. Right conduct (samyak charitra).
These three jewels are discussed in detail below.
Right Perception (Samyak Darsana):Right Perception (samyak charitra) is also translated into
English as right vision, and right view. It is actually all these and even more. Perception is not a
mere physical act. There is a mental process behind it and it is very much influenced by the attitude
and the background of the preceptor. Right Perception comes with the ability to discriminate
correctly between right and wrong, good and bad, right belief and wrong belief, right knowledge
and wrong knowledge, and between truth and untruth.Right Perception comes from right thoughts,
right insight, right knowledge, right understanding, right faith, right relationships and right attitude.
In a traditional sense, right perception comes from having right beliefs and right thinking about the
thirthankaras and their teachings, and by knowing the difference between the Jiva, the embodied
soul and Ajiva, the inert matter. In a negative sense, right perception also means not having the
wrong perception, which is acquired by not believing in false prophets, not following wrong
scriptures, not believing in the wrong knowledge and not indulging in wrong practices.
Right perception leads to contentment (prasanna), detachment (nirveda), spiritual yearning for
liberating, (samvega), kindness (anukampa) and faith in the path (astikaya). It also results in
freedom from eight kinds of pride, namely pride in family, physical strength, beauty, knowledge,
wealth, authority, relationships and spiritual progress. Cultivation of right perception requires a
great deal of inner discipline and assiduous practice which demands the following requirements.

1. Faith without doubts,

2. Complete renunciation of desire for worldly comforts,
3. Respect for believers on the path,
4. Absence of likes and dislikes,
5. Disinterest in wrong paths,
6. Bringing non-believers to the path,
7. Cultivation of right faith, and
8. Spreading the knowledge Jainism

Right knowledge (Samyak Jnana):Right knowledge (samyak jnan) comes with right perception,
right understanding, right discrimination and by knowing the true doctrine. Knowledge that is
gained through external agencies is liable to error whereas knowledge gained directly through the
faculties of the soul cannot be wrong. The true test of right knowledge lies in its ability to help us in
getting what is good for us and in avoiding what is sinful. Right knowledge is useful and reliable
because it is a true representation of what is.Jainism acknowledges eight types of knowledge. Of
them five constitute right knowledge. They are mati (mental knowledge), sruti (acquired
knowledge), avadhi (distant knowledge), manahparyaya (paranormal knowledge) and kevala
(absolute knowledge). The remaining three types of knowledge constitute false knowledge (mithya
jnan). They are invalid knowledge, erroneous knowledge and wrong knowledge.
Mati jnana (mental knowledge) is ordinary perception obtained through the normal faculties of the
mind such as perception, cognition, analysis and memory. It is further divided into smriti
(remeberance), pratyabhijna or samjna (recognition), curita or tarka (inductive logic) and
abhinibodha or anumana (deductive logic). According to another classification, it is divided into
upalabdhi (end result), bhavana (feelings and emotion) and upayoga (usefulness). Matijnana comes
to us mainly through the sense organs (indriyas). So sensory knowledge always precedes mental
knowledgeSruti jnana is verbal and non verbal knowledge acquired through signs, symbols and
words. Study and hearing are the usual methods of obtaining srutijnana. While matijnana is
acquired through primary contact srutijnana is acquired through secondary contact or another
source.
Srutijnana is of four types depending upon how it is acquired: labdhi (contact), bhavana
(attention), upayoga (utility) and naya (perspective). The difference between sruti and mati is very
subtle because in case of srutijnana also perception, cognition and understanding play an important
role. Matijnana is the raw material from which comes srutijnana as a finished product. The former
is based on personal experiences and perceptions while the latter is based on other people's
knowledge and experiences that has been borrowed through communication.Avadhi jnana is
clairvoyance or knowledge of distant and remote things acquired through higher faculties, without
the use of the senses or study. It comes either from birth (bhava) because of previous karma or from
virtues (gunas) acquired by doing good karma and destroying bad karma.
Manahparyaya jnana is the knowledge acquired psychically through other people's minds using the
paranormal faculty of mind reading or telepathy. People endowed with this faculty have the ability
to actually see the thought forms and mental impressions of other people and know instantly what
they are thinking. Manahparyaya jnana is acquired because of previous good karma or virtue
acquired in the present life by removing impure karma. Manahparyaya is a kind of avadhijnana but
it is limited to the extent of other people's minds and what is going on in them. In comparison,
avadhijnana extends to every thing and everywhere. Secondly both human beings and others can
acquire avadhijnana, but manahparyaya is possible only in case of humans.From right perception
comes right knowledge. From right knowledge comes right conduct and the power of
discrimination. As karma is gradually removed from the embodied self, it begins to acquire
different types of right knowledge. First comes perceptual knowledge. From it arises the desire to
study and acquire the sruti knowledge. From the study of the doctrine and its practice comes
clairvoyance or knowledge of distant objects and telepathy. These extraordinary powers enable the
jiva to come into contact with higher beings from whom it gains more knowledge leading to its
further purification. As the Jiva becomes adept in different types of knowledge. it gradually moves
on the path of liberation and achieves kevala jnana or the highest knowledge. Ultimately, in the
transcendental state, the Jiva gains perfect knowledge and becomes complete.
Right conduct (Samyak Charitrya):The three jewels are interconnected and work in tandem. One
cannot have right conduct without right knowledge and one cannot have right knowledge without
right perception. Right conduct comes from the awareness of what is right and what is wrong and
by doing what is right. It is practicing right knowledge as revealed by the thirthankaras and the
jinas. At the core of their teachings is the practice of non-violence as a solution to the problem of
karma. However ahimsa has to be practiced in conjunction with other teachings. A follower of
Jainism should not have any doubt about the teachings of the Jinas. From faith comes the
conviction and the resolve to remain committed to the path. Faith in the doctrine is therefore the
first commitment expected of each follower. The conviction is further cemented by the 12 vows or
vratas, which each initiate into Jainism has to undertake to begin his or her journey on the path. Of
the 12 vows five are main vows or maha vratas and the rest are supplementary vows or anuvratas.
Jain scriptures provide ancillary information on how to practice each of the main vows.
5 Vows:Right knowledge, right faith, and right conduct are the three most essentials for attaining
liberation in Jainism. In order to acquire these, one must observe the five great vows:
● Non-violence - Ahimsa
● Truth - Satya
● Non-stealing - Achaurya or Asteya
● Celibacy/Chastity - Brahmacharya
● Non-attachment/Non-possession - Aparigraha
● Non-violence (Ahimsa):
Among these five vows, non-violence (Ahimsa) is the cardinal principle of Jainism and hence it is
known as the cornerstone of Jainism. Non-violence is the supreme religion (Ahimsa parmo
dharma). It is repeatedly said in Jain literature; "Do not injure, abuse, oppress, enslave, insult,
torment, torture, or kill any creature or living being."
According to Jainism all living beings, irrespective of their size, shape, or different spiritual
developments are equal. No living being has a right to harm, injure, or kill any other living being,
including animals, insects, and plants. Every living being has a right to exist and it is necessary to
live with every other living being in perfect harmony and peace.
Nonviolence in Jainism is not a negative virtue. It is based upon the positive quality of universal
love and compassion. One who is actuated by this ideal cannot be indifferent to the suffering of
others.Violence of every type should be completely forbidden. Mental tortures by way of harsh
words, actions, and any type of bodily injuries should also be avoided. Even thinking evil of some
one is considered violence in Jainism.
Practically, it is impossible to survive without killing or injuring some of the smallest living beings.
Some lives are killed even when we breathe, drink water, or eat food. Therefore, Jainism says that
minimum killing of the lowest form of life should be our ideal for survival.In the universe, there are
different forms of life, such as, human beings, animals, insects, plants, bacteria, and even smaller
lives, which cannot be seen even through the most powerful microscopes. Jainism has classified all
the living beings according to their senses.
The five senses are touch, taste, smell, sight, and hearing.
● Living being with five senses - humans, animals, birds, heavenly and hellish beings
● Living being with four senses - flies, bees, etc.
● Living being with three senses- ants, lice, etc.
● Living being with two senses - worms, leaches, etc.
 ● Living being with one sense - plants, water, air, earth, fire etc.
It is more painful if a life of the higher forms (more than one sense) is killed. Hence Jainism allows
laypeople to use only vegetables as a food for survival. All non-vegetarian food is made by killing
a living being with two or more senses. Therefore, Jainism preaches strict vegetarianism, and
prohibits non-vegetarian foods.Jainism explains that violence is not defined by actual harm, for this
may be unintentional. It is the intention to harm, the absence of compassion, unawareness, and the
ignorance that makes an action violent. Without violent thought there can be no violent actions.
Non-violence is to be observed in action, speech, and thought. One should not be violent, ask
others to do so, or approve of such an activity.
Truth (Satya):Anger, greed, fear, and jokes are the breeding grounds of untruth. To speak the truth
requires moral courage. Only those who have conquered greed, fear, anger, jealousy, ego, and
frivolity can speak the truth.Jainism insists that one should not only refrain from falsehood, but
should always speak the truth, which should be wholesome and pleasant. One should remain silent
if the truth causes pain, hurt, anger, or death of any living being.Truth is to be observed in speech,
mind, and deed. One should not utter an untruth, ask others to do so, or approve of such activities.
Non-stealing (Achaurya or Asteya):Stealing consists of taking another's property without his
consent, or by unjust or immoral methods. Further, one should not take anything which does not
belong to him. It does not entitle one to take away a thing, which may be lying, unattended or
unclaimed. One should observe this vow very strictly, and should not touch even a worthless thing,
which does not belong to him. When accepting alms, help, or aid one should not take more then
what is minimum needed. To take more than one's need is also considered theft in Jainism.
The vow of non-stealing insists that one should be totally honest in action, thought, and speech.
One should not steal, ask others to do so, or approve of such activities.
Celibacy / Chastity (Brahmacharya):Total abstinence from sensual pleasure and the pleasure of all
five senses are called celibacy. Sensual pleasure is an infatuating force, which sets aside all virtues
and reason at the time of indulgence. This vow of controlling sensuality is very difficult to observe
in its subtle form. One may refrain from physical indulgence but may still think of the pleasures of
sensualism, which is prohibited in Jainism.Monks are required to observe this vow strictly and
completely. They should not enjoy sensual pleasures and pleasure of all five senses, ask others to
do the same, nor approve of it. There are several rules laid down for observing this vow for
householders. They should not any physical relationship other than own spouse. The relationship
with your own spouse should be of limited nature.
Non-attachment / Non-possession (Aparigraha):Jainism believes that the more worldly wealth a
person possesses, the more he is likely to commit sin to acquire and maintain the possession, and in
a long run he may be unhappy. The worldly wealth creates attachments, which will continuously
result in greed, jealousy, selfishness, ego, hatred, violence, etc. Lord Mahavir has said that wants
and desires have no end, and only the sky is the limit for them.An attachment to worldly objects
results in the bondage to the cycle of birth and death. Therefore, one who desires of spiritual
liberation should withdraw from all attachments to pleasing objects of all the five senses.
Monks observe this vow by giving up attachments to all things such as:
● Material things: Wealth, property, grains, house, books, clothes, etc.
● Relationships: Father, mother, spouse, children, friends, enemies, other monks,
disciples, etc.
● Pleasure of Five Senses: The five senses are touch, taste, smell, sight, and hearing.
 ● Feelings: Pleasure and painful feelings towards any objects.
They have the equanimity towards music and noise, good and bad smells, soft and hard objects for
touch, beautiful and dirty sights, etc. They do not eat food for taste but for survival with the
intention to continue to progress spiritually and ultimately to attain liberation.Non-possession and
non-attachment are to be observed in speech, mind, and deed. One should not possess, ask others to
do so, or approve of such activities.Jainism has lay down and described in much detail these five
great vows for the path of liberation. These are to be observed strictly and entirely by the monks
and nuns. Partial observance is laid down for the householders with additional seven vows.

3. Self and Consciousness:

1. Jiva:According to Jainism jiva means a living soul in a state of bondage and in association with
matter, subject to the modifications and aspects of Nature, karma and rebirth. The souls are
numerous and exist everywhere, not only in living beings, but in inanimate objects as well. They
are every where, in every rock, in every drop of rain, in every particle of water, in every breeze of
the wind, in every tongue of the flame, and in every ray of light.Thus when a person is drinking
water, eating food or lighting a stove to cook his food, he is likely to hurt the beings inside those
objects and incur karma. Because of the ubiquitous nature of souls and their hidden presence in
inanimate objects poses numerous problems for the beings upon earth since they cannot avoid
hurting or harming them due to their ignorance and carelessness. From this perspective, even
breathing may potentially lead to sinful karma.
A Jain therefore shows extreme caution in his day to day living as he deals with the various objects
of the world. Since he does not want to attract bad karma by disturbing other living souls and
forcing them to find new bodies elsewhere, he exercises utmost care and caution in his movements
and actions to avoid injury and harm to others and avoid retribution for himself.
This caution manifests in every aspect of his life from the way he eats and sleeps to the profession
he choses and the actions he performs. The Jain scriptures protect them further from possible
self-destruction by laying down a strict code of conduct and suggesting the consequences that await
those who violate them.As a result, a Jain shows extreme diligence in selecting his food and eating
it. He avoids eating roots and tubers like potatoes, which harbor not only individual souls but also
clusters of souls. He redues of quantity of food and water to the exten possible and avoids actions
such as lighting lamps and using excess running water, which may potentially harm the souls living
in the space of the five elements, to save himself from the consequences of destroying life and
interfering with the destiny of innumerable souls. Many Jains also cover their mouhts with white
cloth after the night fall, to avoid inhaling insects and other microorganisms hidden in the air. They
also walk carefully watching their steps to avoid huring the beings present in the earth or moving
upon it.
Five types of beings
Jainism recognizes five types of beings depending upon the number of the senses they possess.
1. Those with five senses: Gods, men, beings in the hell and higher animals such as monkeys,
elephants, snakes, horses, etc., come under this category. These beings possess manas which gives
them varying degrees of intelligence and rationality.
2. Those with four senses: In this category the beings do not possess the sense of hearing. Many
insects fall into this category.
3. Those with three senses: In this category, the beings do not possess the sense of hearing and the
sense of sight. Many insects are placed under this category including the moths, because of their
tendency to move towards light and fire and destroying themselves.
4. Those with two senses. In this category the beings possess only the sense of taste and the sense
of touch. Many worms, leeches, shell fish fall into this category.
5. Those with only one sense: In this category the beings possess only the sense of touch. These are
again divided into five sub categories: i) the plant bodies containing only one soul or a cluster of
souls such as the tubers and roots, ii) earth bodies made of earth material such as coals, minerals,
stones and so on, iii) water bodies made up of water such rivers, lakes, water falls, lakes, ponds and
even a drop of water, iv) fire bodies made up of fire such lightning, a lamp or candle light, or the
fire in the kitchen stove, and finally v) the air bodies made of wind and gases such as a breeze or a
storm wind.
According to Jainism the whole world is an aggregate of living souls hidden in every form and
every object. The number of souls never change, because the souls are eternal and indestructible.
When a soul becomes liberated, its place is automatically filled with another soul from another
body.The souls undergo continuous change from one condition to another because of the karma,
which binds tthem to matter and keeps them chained to the cycle of births and deaths. They attain
true liberation when they are freed from all conditionalities, bonds, desires and association with
matter.It happens when the jivas succeed in arresting the inflow of karma and purifying their bodies
through good conduct and righteous actions. Foremost among the virtues is the practice of
non-violence, truthfulness, non-covetiousness etc. The practice of nonviolence is central to the
ethics of Jainism. In the journey of liberation each aspirant should practice it to perfection. In
Jainism, nonviolence is a way of life, because injury to other beings especially those jivas with
higher number of senses makes liberation extremely difficult.

2.Ajiva: Anything that does not have the life or a consciousness is Ajiva. Ajiva literally means
without a soul and therefore, they cannot accumulate any karmas. They have no birth, death,
pleasure, or pain; they are achetan (inert). Examples of Ajivas are: a box, car, fan, television, photo
frame, iron, watch, etc.The Jain Philosophy has divided Ajivas into the following five categories:

(1) Dharmastikay (Medium of Motion).

(2) Adharmastikay (Medium of Rest).

(3) Akashastikay (Space).

(4) Pudgalastikay ( Matter).

(5) Kal (Time).

1.DHARMASTIKAY:Dharmastikay is formed from two words: Dharma + Astikay. The term

Dharma here does not refer to religion, but means the medium of motion. Astikay means collection
of spaces.Dharmastikay denotes the medium of motion for things in the universe. In the absence of
this medium, Jivas and other things would be unable to move. This medium prevails in lok, but is
absent in alok.
2. ADHARMASTIKAY:This term is also formed of two terms: Adharma + Astikay. Here again,
Adharma does not refer to a lack of religion, but rather it means the medium of rest. In the absence
of this medium, jivas and other things would continuously move. This medium also prevails in lok,
but is absent in alok.
3. AKASHA-SHTIKAY:Akashashtikay is formed of two words: Akasha and Astikay. Whole space
in the universe is called Akash. In Jainism, Akash is divided into two parts: Lokakash (Lok) and
Alokakash (Alok). Jiva, Pudgal, Kal, Dharmashitkay, and Adharmastikay exist only in
Lokakashshitaky. Alokakash is an empty space and does not contain any Jiva, Pudgal, kal,
Dharmashitaky and Adharmashitaky
4. PUDGALASTIKAY:The word Pudgal is made up of two terms: Pud means addition and Gal
means division. In other words, what continuously changes by addition and/or division is called the
Pudgal or the matter. All the matters in the universe are called Pudgals.A pudgal has the form or a
shape. A pudgal can be experienced by touching, tasting, smelling, or seeing. Like Jiva, Pudgal is
also mobile. The karman particles that attach to our souls are the pudgal. Pudgal can only be
divided and subdivided to a certain extent. This indivisible smallest part of pudgal is called
Paramanu. A paramanu is much more minute than even an atom. When a Paramïnu is attached to
the main pudgal, it is called a Pradesh. These sub-atomic paramanus are too minute to be detected
by normal vision, but they can be combined. Thus, when a paramanu is combined with other
paramaus, they are called a skandha. A part of a skandha is called the desh. Such skandhas may be
large or small. Small skandhas may be invisible to the eye, but they can be seen when the
combinations are larger.
5.KAL:Kal means time, which brings forth changes. A child becomes a young person, a young
person becomes an old person, and the old person dies. In other words, something which is new
becomes old, worn, and torn with the time. All of these changes involve the time. The past, present,
and future are the different modes of the time and are measured in terms of the years, months, days,
hours, minutes or seconds. For all practical purposes a second happens to be the smallest
measurement of time. Jainism however, recognizes a very tiny measurement of time known as
samay which is an infinite small part of a second.

3.Ahimsa :Jains believe that the only way to save one's own soul is to protect every other soul, and
so the most central Jain teaching, and the heart of Jain ethics, is that of ahimsa (non-violence).
In practical terms the biggest part that ahimsa plays in the lives of lay Jains today is in the
regulation of their diet.Mahavira taught that:there is no quality of soul more subtle than
non-violence and no virtue of spirit greater than reverence for life-Mahavira
Ahimsa is often translated simply as non-violence, but its implications are far wider; it is more than
not doing violence, it is more than an attitude, it is a whole way of life. And for modern Jains the
concept also includes the positive elements of working for justice, peace, liberation, and freedom, if
doing so does not involve violence.Literally translated, Ahimsa means to be without harm; to be
utterly harmless, not only to oneself and others, but to all forms of life, from the largest mammals
to the smallest bacteria.Jains believe that life (which equals soul) is sacred regardless of faith, caste,
race, or even species.Do not injure, abuse, oppress, enslave, insult, torment, torture or kill any
creature or living being.-Jain scripture
In following this discipline Jain monks may be observed treading and sweeping in their temples
with the utmost of care so as to avoid accidentally crushing crawling insects, or wearing muslin
cloths over their mouths in case they should accidentally swallow a fly.Ahimsa basics
● Refraining from violence
● One should refrain from violence to any living creature. Violence includes:
● physical violence
● mental violence
● verbal violence
Violence can be committed in several ways, all of which should be avoided:
committing it yourself
● asking others to commit violence
● encouraging others to commit violence
● assenting to or condoning violence
● Violence involves violent intention as well as physical harm
● This is controversial among Jains and both the points below are disputed. Accidental
physical harm may not count as violence if there was no violent intention, but lack of
compassion or care may be a sufficiently violent intention.
Ahimsa touches every area of life, so Jains:
● are vegetarian
● don't use cloth whose production hurts animals or humans
● take care to preserve life in everything they do
● Jains are also not allowed to do jobs that cause harm, for example:
● those involving furnaces or fires
● those in which trees are cut
● those involving fermentation
● trading in meat products, honey or eggs
● trading in silk, leather etc
● selling pesticides
● selling weapons
● digging
● circus work involving animals
● zoo work
Ahimsa is positive as well as negative, so it's good to:
● forgive
● promote tolerance
● be compassionate
● give to charity
● work for peace
● protect the environment
● work for kindness to animals
● do one's daily work in a just and honest way
Ahimsa in context
'Ahimsa paramo dharmah' (Non-violence is the supreme religion)
Jains believe that violence in thought and speech is as bad as physical violence, so they try to
control things like anger, greed, pride and jealousy.Jains also believe that getting others to do harm,
or allowing others to do harm, is as bad as doing harm yourself.
Positive as well as negativeMost Jains believe that ahimsa doesn't just mean not doing harm - it
also means working positively to promote tolerance, forgiveness and compassion, and to help those
who are less fortunate. So ordinary Jains give regularly to charity.
Monks and nuns
Monks and nuns follow the doctrine of ahimsa in every part of their life with great strictness:
● monks walk in the street and sweep the ground with the utmost care so as to avoid
accidentally crushing crawling insects
● monks wear muslin cloths over their mouths to make sure they don't swallow and thus
harm any flies
● monks are not allowed to use violence in self-defence even if this results in their own
death
Lay Jains
Lay Jains try to follow the doctrine in every part of their life, but not so strictly - since full ahimsa
is not compatible with everyday life. Some harm is inevitably done, for instance, in the following
activities:
● preparing food
● cleaning buildings
● walking
● driving
● self-defence against attack
The golden rule for lay Jains is to avoid doing any harm intentionally; harm which is unavoidably
done in the course of employment, normal domestic life, or in self-defence is accepted, although
should be avoided if possible.Some forms of employment seem to be incompatible with Jainism -
Jains can't work as butchers, fishermen, brewers, wine-merchants, arms-dealers, mill-owners and so
on.Lay Jains should be vegetarians: as their scripture forbids them to intentionally injure any form
of life above the class of one-sensed beings, they can only eat vegetables. Nor will Jains serve meat
to guests, or permit any ill-treatment of animals.

4.Karma:Karma literally means "deed" or "act" and is associated with earthly existence. The
concept of karma in Indian philosophy and religion is inextricably associated with the doctrine of
rebirth, or reincarnation. According to the law of karma, a person’s individual and collective
actions determine the nature of his or her future existence in the present life or in a future life.
Karma is not punishment or retribution, but simply an extended expression of natural acts. The
doctrine of karma and samsara (the realm of rebirth and karmic retribution) provides causal
explanations for the phenomena of life, serves as a foundation for ethical and religious
understanding, and rationalizes the commitment to seek liberation from a painful and unsatisfactory
worldly existence. The Hindu concepts of karma differ in important ways from the corresponding
ideas found in Buddhism and Jainism. Most schools of Hinduism place God in the position of
administrator, supervisor, and even mitigator of karma. Jainism and Buddhism regard karma as an
impersonal force or law operating independently of God.Jainism explains karma as an invisible,
material substance which adheres to the soul (jiva), weighing it down and determining the
conditions of the next reincarnation. Karma is the link which ties the soul to the body, and the cause
of bondage and sorrow. Every action that a person performs, good or evil, opens up channels of the
senses (sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell), through which karma filters in and adheres to the
jiva. Ignorance of truth and four passions of anger, greed, pride, and delusion attract the flow of
karmic matter which obscures the radiance of the soul.
The way to deliverance from this bondage is through the three jewels of right faith (belief in real
existence), right knowledge (knowledge of real nature without doubt or error) and right conduct
(the practice of the five virtues).[5] Through them, the flow of karma into the soul is stopped, and
existing karma is discharged. When the last particle of karma has been exhausted, “the partnership
between soul and matter is dissolved,” and the soul achieves infinite faith, knowledge, bliss and
power. It then transcends the cycle of earthly existence (samsara) and goes to a place or state called
Siddhashila, where the jiva, identical with all other pure jivas, experiences its own true nature in
eternal stillness, isolation, and noninvolvement and dwells in eternal bliss. Jains believe that this
highest and most exalted state, the permanent release of the jiva from all involvement in worldly
existence, can only be achieved by individuals through their own efforts without the assistance of
any god or spirit.Jains avoid professions which involve violence to the self or other living beings,
such as agriculture or the military, and go to great lengths to avoid harming any living thing,
because such an action attracts karma.
The 8 types of karma
These types of karma can be split equally into destructive and non-destructive karma.
1.Destructive karmas
a.mohaniya-karma (delusory):
● deludes the jiva
● causes attachment to false beliefs
● prevents the jiva living a correct life
b.jnana-avaraniya-karma (knowledge-obscuring):
● interferes with the jiva's intellect and senses
● prevents the jiva understanding the truth
● blocks the jiva's natural omniscience
c.dars(h)an-avarniya-karma (perception-obscuring):
● interferes with perception through the senses
d.antaraya-karma (obstructing):
● obstructs the energy of the jiva
● blocks the doing of good acts that the jiva wants to do
2.Non-destructive karmas
a.vedaniya-karma (feeling-producing):
● determines whether the jiva has pleasant or unpleasant experiences
b.nama-karma (physique-determining):
● determines the type of rebirth
● determines the physical characteristics of the new life
● determines the spiritual potential of the new life
c.ayu-karma (life-span-determining):
● determines the duration of a being's life (within the limits of the species into which
the jiva is reborn)
d.gotra-karma (status-determining):
● determines the status of a being within its species

UNIT 3: BUDDHIST PERSPECTIVE OF PSYCHOLOGY

1.HISTORY AND SCHOOLS/TRADITIONS:
Buddhism, founded in the late 6th century B.C.E. by Siddhartha Gautama (the "Buddha"), is an
important religion in most of the countries of Asia. Buddhism has assumed many different forms,
but in each case there has been an attempt to draw from the life experiences of the Buddha, his
teachings, and the "spirit" or "essence" of histeachings (called dhamma or dharma) as models for
the religious life. However, not until the writing of the Buddha Charita (life of the Buddha) by
Ashvaghosa in the 1st or 2nd century C.E. do we have acomprehensive account of his life. The
Buddha was born (ca. 563 B.C.E.) in a place called Lumbini near the Himalayan foothills, and he
began teaching around Benares (at Sarnath). His erain general was one of spiritual, intellectual, and
social ferment. This was the age when the Hindu ideal of renunciation of family and socia llife by
holy persons seeking Truth first became widespread, and when the Upanishads were written. Both
can be seen as moves away from the centrality of the Vedic fire sacrifice.
Siddhartha Gautama was the warrior son of a king and queen. According to legend, at his birth a
soothsayer predicted that he might become a renouncer (withdrawing from the temporal life). To
prevent this, his father provided him with many luxuries and pleasures. But, as a young man, he
once went on a series of four chariot rides where he first saw the more severe forms of human
suffering: old age, illness, and death (a corpse), as well as an ascetic renouncer. The contrast
between his life and this human suffering made him realize that all the pleasures on earth where in
fact transitory, and could only mask human suffering. Leaving his wife—and new son
("Rahula"—fetter) he took on several teachers and tried severe renunciation in the forest until the
point of near-starvation. Finally, realizing that this too was only adding more suffering, he ate food
and sat down beneath a tree to meditate. By morning (or some say six months later!) he had
attained Nirvana (Enlightenment), which provided both the true answers to the causes of suffering
and permanent release from it.
Now the Buddha ("the Enlightened or Awakened One") began to teach others these truths out of
compassion for their suffering. The most important doctrines he taught included the Four Noble
Truths and the Eight-Fold Path. His first Noble Truth is that life is suffering (dukkha). Life as we
normally live it is full of the pleasures and pains of the body and mind; pleasures, he said, do not
represent lasting happiness. They are inevitably tied in with suffering since we suffer from wanting
them, wanting them to continue, and wanting pain to go so pleasure can come. The second Noble
Truth is that suffering is caused by craving—for sense pleasures and for things to be as they are not.
We refuse to accept life as it is. The third Noble Truth, however, states that suffering has an end,
and the fourth offers the means to that end: the Eight-Fold Path and the Middle Way. If one follows
this combined path he or she will attain Nirvana, an indescribable state of all-knowing lucid
awareness in which there is only peace and joy.
After the Buddha's death, his celibate wandering followers gradually settled down into monasteries
that were provided by the married laityas merit-producing gifts. The laity were in turn taught by the
monks some of the Buddha's teachings. They also engaged in such practices as visiting the
Buddha's birthplace; and worshipping the tree under which he became enlightened (bodhi tree),
Buddha images in temples, and the relics of his body housed in various stupas or funeral mounds.
A famous king, named Ashoka, and his son helped to spread Buddhism throughout South India and
into Sri Lanka (Ceylon) (3rd century B.C.E.).
Many monastic schools developed among the Buddha's followers. This is partly because his
practical teachings were enigmatic on several points; for instance, he refused to give an
unequivocal answer about whether humans have a soul (atta/atman) or not. Another reason for the
development of different schools was that he refused to appoint asuccessor to follow him as leader
of the Sangha (monastic order). He told the monks to be lamps unto themselves and make the
Dhamma their guide.
About the first century C.E. a major split occurred within the Buddhist fold-that between the
Mahayana and Hinayana branches. Of the Hinayana ("the Lesser Vehicle") branch of schools, only
the The ravada school (founded 4th century B.C.E.) remains; it is currently found in Sri Lanka and
all Southeast Asian countries. This school stresses the historical figure of Gautama Buddha, and the
centrality of the monk's life-style and practice (meditation). The ravada monks hold that the
Buddha taught a doctrine of anatta (no-soul) when he spoke of the impermanence of the human
body/form, perception, sensations/feelings, consciousness, and volition. They believe, however,
that human beings continue to be "reformed" and reborn, and to collect karma until they reach
Nirvana. The The ravada school has compiled a sacred canon of early Buddhist teachings and
regulations that is called the Tripitaka.
The Mahayana ("Greater Vehicle") branch of schools began about the 1st century C.E.;
Mahayanists are found today especially in Korea, China, Japan, and Tibet. The three most
prominent schools are Pure Land, Chanor Zen, and Tantra. Mahayana schools in general utilize
texts called sutras, stressing that lay people can also be good Buddhists, and that there are other
effective paths to Nirvana in addition to meditation—for instance the chanting and good works
utilized in Pure Land. They believe that the Buddha and all human beings have their origin in what
is variously called Buddha Nature, Buddha Mind, or Emptiness. This is not "nothing," but is the
completely indescribable Source of all Existence; it is at the same time Enlightenment potential.
The form of the historical Buddha was, they say, only one manifestation of Buddha Nature.
Mahayana thus speaks of many past and also future Buddhas, some of whom are "god-like" and
preside over Buddha-worlds or heavenly paradises. Especially important are bodhi sattvas—who
are persons who have reached the point of Enlightenment, but turn back and take a vow to use their
Enlightenment-compassion, -wisdom, and -power to help release others from their suffering.
Mahayana canon says that finally there is no distinction between "self" and "other," nor between
samsara (transmigration, rebirth) and Nirvana! Because of this the bodhi sattvais capable of taking
on the suffering of others in samsara and of transferring his own merit to them.
Although Buddhism became virtually extinct in India (ca. 12th century C.E.)—perhaps because of
the all-embracing nature of Hinduism, Muslim invasions, or too great a stress on the monk's way of
life—as a religion it has more than proved its viability and practical spirituality in the countries of
Asia to which it has been carried. The many forms and practices that have been developed within
the Buddhist fold have also allowed many different types of people to satisfy their spiritual needs
through this great religion.

The different Buddhist schools of thought, still operating in the present day, developed after the
death of the Buddha (l. c. 563 - c. 483 BCE) in an effort to perpetuate his teachings and honor his
example. Each of the schools claimed to represent Buddha's original vision and still do so in the
modern era.Although Buddha himself is said to have requested that, following his death, no leader
was to be chosen to lead anything like a school, this was ignored and his disciples seem to have
fairly quickly institutionalized Buddhist thought with rules, regulations, and a hierarchy.
At first, there may have been a unified vision of what Buddha had taught but, in time,
disagreements over what constituted the “true teaching” resulted in fragmentation and the
establishment of three main schools:

● Theravada Buddhism (The School of the Elders)

● Mahayana Buddhism (The Great Vehicle)
● Vajrayana Buddhism (The Way of the Diamond)

a.Theravada BuddhismTheravada Buddhism is said to be the oldest form of the belief system, but
this is challenged by modern scholars. Robert E. Buswell, Jr. and Donald S. Lopez, Jr. explain:
Despite the way in which scholars have portrayed the tradition, Theravada is neither synonymous
with early Buddhism nor a more pristine form of the religion prior to the rise of the Mahayana.
Such a claim suggests a state of sectarian inertia that belies the diversity over time of doctrine and
practice within what comes to be called the Theravada tradition. (904)
Even so, many of those who self-identify as Theravada Buddhists do still make the claim that it is
the oldest version of Buddhism and the closest to the founder's vision. It is known as the "Teaching
of the Elders" which derives from the same name held by the earlier school of Sthaviravada, and
this is sometimes interpreted to mean that its founders were those closest to the Buddha but,
actually, the term was commonly used in India to denote any monastic sect, and this applies directly
to Theravada.
Adherents focus on the Three Trainings (trisksa):
● Sila (moral conduct)
● Samadhi (meditation)
● Prajna (wisdom)
This discipline is observed as part of the Eightfold Path and is inspired by the central figure of the
school, the sage Buddhaghosa (5th century CE) whose name means “Voice of the Buddha” for his
ability to interpret and comment upon Buddhist doctrine. They hold the Pali canon to be the most
authentic and focus on a monastic interpretation of the Buddhist path in which the individual seeks
to become an arhat (saint) and has no obligation to teach others the way toward enlightenment. One
may certainly do so if one chooses but, unlike Mahayana Buddhism, the goal is not to become a
spiritual guide to others but to free one's self from samsara.
Theravada Buddhism is divided between a clergy of monks and a congregation of laypeople and it
is understood that the monks are more spiritually advanced than the common folk. Women are
considered inferior to men and are not thought capable of attaining enlightenment until they are
reincarnated as a male. The Theravada school is sometimes referred to as Hinayana (“little
vehicle”) by Mahayana Buddhists, but it should be noted that this is considered an insult by
Theravada Buddhists in that it suggests their school is not as important as Mahayana.

b.Mahayana Buddhism
Mahayana Buddhists named themselves the “Great Vehicle” either because they felt they retained
the true teachings and could carry the most people to enlightenment (as has been claimed) or
because they developed from the early "Great Congregation" Mahasanghika school and wished to
distance themselves from it, however slightly. It was founded 400 years after Buddha's death,
probably inspired by the early Mahasanghika ideology, and was streamlined and codified by the
sage Nagarjuna (c. 2nd century CE), the central figure of the school. It may have initially been a
minor school before interacting with Mahasanghika or, according to some scholars, developed on
its own without that school's influence but, either way, Mahayana is the most widespread and
popular form of Buddhism in the world today, spreading from its initial acceptance in China,
Korea, Mongolia, Japan, Sri Lanka, and Tibet to points all around the world.
The Mahayana school believes that all human beings possess a Buddha nature and can attain
transcendent awareness, becoming a Bodhisattva (“essence of enlightenment”), who can then guide
others on the same path. Adherents seek to attain the state of sunyata - the realization that all things
are devoid of intrinsic existence, nature, and lasting meaning - a clearing of the mind that enables
one to recognize the true nature of life. Having attained this higher state, just as Buddha did, one
becomes a buddha. This transcendental state is similar to how gods and spirits were viewed by the
Buddha himself - as existing but incapable of rendering any service to the individual – but, as a
Bodhisattva, both women and men who have awakened are able to help others to help themselves.
As with Theravada and every other school of Buddhism, the focus is on the self – self-perfection
and self-redemption – and no other can do the spiritual work which one needs to do to release one's
self from suffering. Although Buddha is sometimes seen as a deified being by Mahayana
Buddhists, the tenets do not encourage one to call on him for help. Following Buddha's own vision,
a belief in a creator god who is attentive to one's prayers is discouraged because it attaches one to a
power outside of one's self and sets one up for disappointment and frustration when prayers go
unanswered.This is not to say that no Mahayana Buddhists pray directly to the Buddha; the
tradition of representing Buddha in statuary and art, of praying to these objects, and considering
them holy - observed in Mahayana Buddhism - was initiated by the Mahasanghika school and is
among the many compelling reasons to believe the younger school emerged from the older one.

c.Vajrayana Buddhism:Vajrayana Buddhism (“Diamond Vehicle”) is so-called because of its

association of enlightenment with an unbreakable substance. Its name is also given as “Thunderbolt
Vehicle”, especially in reference to Tantric or Zen Buddhism, in that enlightenment falls like a
thunderbolt after one has put in the required effort at perfecting the self. It is often considered an
offshoot of Mahayana Buddhism – is even referenced as a sect of that school – but actually borrows
tenets from both Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism while adding an innovation of its own.
In both Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism, one decides to follow the path, accepts the Four
Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path as legitimate, and commits to a spiritual discipline which will
lead to enlightenment by renouncing unprofitable habits. In Vajrayana Buddhism, it is understood
that one already has a Buddha nature – everyone does, just as Mahayana believes – but, in
Vajrayana, one only has to realize this in order to fully awaken. An adherent, therefore, does not
have to give up bad habits such as drinking alcohol or smoking right away in order to begin one's
work on the path; one only has to commit to following the path and the desire to engage in
unhealthy and damaging behaviors will steadily lose their allure. Instead of distancing one's self
from desire, one steps toward and through it, shedding one's attachment as one proceeds in the
discipline.
As with Mahayana Buddhism, the Vajrayana school focuses one on becoming a Bodhisattva who
will then guide others. It was systematized by the sage Atisha (l. 982-1054 CE) in Tibet and so is
sometimes referred to as Tibetan Buddhism. The Dalai Lama, often referenced as the spiritual
leader of all Buddhists, is technically only the spiritual head of the Vajrayana School, and his views
are most directly in line with this school of thought.
It is actually impossible to tell which, if any, of these schools is closest to the original vision of the
Buddha. Siddhartha Gautama, himself, wrote nothing down but instead – like many great spiritual
figures throughout history whose followers then founded a religion in their name – lived his beliefs
and tried to help others in their struggles. Since the earliest Buddhist texts were written centuries
after the Buddha lived, and in an era when the events of a famous person's life were regularly
embellished upon, it is unknown whether his so-called “biography” is accurate nor even the dates
between which he is said to have lived.
However that may be, and whoever he was, the Buddha established a belief system which attracts
over 500 million adherents in the present day and has, for centuries, offered people a path toward
peace of mind and inspiration to help others. The Buddhist belief in the sanctity of all life – no
matter which school one attaches one's self to – promotes care for other human beings, animals,
and the earth in an effort to end suffering and offer transformative possibilities. In this respect, each
school works toward goals that Buddha himself would approve of and differences in how those
goals are reached are ultimately irrelevant.

2.PERSONALITY AND MOTIVATION:

Skandas -five groupings: When the Buddha taught the Four Noble Truths, he began with the
First Truth, life is "dukkha." This is often translated as "life is suffering," or "stressful," or
"unsatisfactory." But the Buddha also used the word to mean "impermanent" and "conditioned." To
be conditioned is to be dependent on or affected by something else. The Buddha taught that the
skandhas were dukkha.The component parts of the skandhas work together so seamlessly that they
create the sense of a single self, or an "I." Yet, the Buddha taught that there is no "self" occupying
the skandhas. Understanding the skandhas is helpful to see through the illusion of self.
Form/Matter -Rupa
In its broadest sense, form is spoken of in terms of causal and resultant forms. Causal forms are the
elements of earth, water, fire and wind, and then the resultant forms–which are made from these
elements–are said to include the five sense faculties and their objects, as well as a slightly more
problematic category called ‘imperceptible forms’, which we will not develop here.
The sense faculties are not the ordinary sense organs—our eyes and ears and so on—but subtle
forms within the sense organs. They have particular shapes which are described very precisely in
the Abhidharma literature.
The first of the sense objects is visual form, which means the various colours and shapes that
appear to our eyes. Broadly speaking, colours may be divided into the primary colours—which
according to the Abhidharma are white, red, yellow and blue—and the secondary colours. They
may be pleasant, unpleasant or neutral.
Sounds, the objects of the ears, may occur naturally or be man-made, or they may be a combination
of the two, such as when a person beats a drum. A lot of sounds are just meaningless noise, but
some impart meaning. In the case of the latter, they might be a vehicle for ordinary notions, or else
the sublime, liberating message of the Dharma. As with sights, sounds can be pleasant, unpleasant
or neutral.
Smells or odours can be natural or artificial, and once again, pleasant, unpleasant or neutral.
Tastes are said to be of six kinds, roughly translated as sweet, sour, bitter, hot, astringent and
pungent.
Textures, or tactile sensations, may be felt on the body’s surface or in its interior. Interior ‘textures’
include hunger and thirst, and the feelings that come with being ill or deeply relaxed.In this
investigation, form means our physical bodies. More generally, it is all that we can see, hear, smell,
taste and touch, and also the subtle faculties that do the seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting and
touching.
a.Feelings/Sensations -Vedana:Although this is called the skandha of feelings, it does not mean
emotional feelings, but something more like sensations. These are said to be the painful, pleasant
and neutral sensations in the body and the pleasant or unpleasant sensations in the mind. (It is said
that neutral sensations of the mind are not counted separately, because they are indistinguishable
from the neutral sensations of the body.)We are always experiencing sensations, mostly neutral
ones, but also painful and pleasant.They can also be thought of as the sensations that occur based
on sense impressions. A sense object such as incense would belong under the skandha of form, but
the sensation created when we smell it belongs in this category. In this case, it would most likely be
a pleasant sensation.According to the teachings, feelings are important because they are the basis
for attachment and aversion, which lie at the heart of many of the conflicts between lay people,
who have not renounced mundane concerns.
b.Perceptions - Samjna:Perception means the apprehension of a specific object, as circumscribed
and distinct from something else.On the conceptual level, this means the recognition of identities or
names, and on the sensory level it means the discernment of the five objects of sense.Technically,
perception is defined as ‘that which grasps or identifies characteristics’. Perception could be
non-conceptual, in the case of the five physical senses, or conceptual, as in the perception of
thoughts and ideas.In all these cases, perception can either be ‘discerning’ or ‘non-discerning’. The
five non-conceptual sense perceptions are regarded as discerning when they are operating normally
and perceiving their proper objects: colours/shapes, sounds, smells, tastes and textures. Mental
perception is said to be discerning when it distinguishes identities or names. This happens when (a)
mind recognizes an object and associates it with its name, and (b) the mind knows what is referred
to when a name is given.Perception is non-discerning when the sense organ in question is fully
functional but there is no object. This occurs in states of deep meditative absorption, and also when
the mind is unable to identify and name objects, as, for example, when you encounter something
for the first time and therefore do not recognize it. This is the common experience of children.
Mental perception is also non-discerning when it does not know what is referred to when names are
given as, for example, when an unknown language is heard.
(It should however be noted that non-discerning perception does not refer to the mere privation of
sensory stimulus, as, for example, when you are in a dark place with your eyes open or in a
soundproof room. In these cases, the senses do in fact have objects – darkness and silence,
respectively.)There are as many types of perception as there are phenomena.Perceptions are
subjective experiences, and are said to be important because they are the basis for disagreement and
controversy, leading to conflict amongst philosophers who have renounced worldly affairs.
c.Formations- Samskara:The category called formations is a little complicated. But if we just limit
ourselves to mental formations, then it basically refers to thoughts and emotions, or what are
technically referred to as the ‘mental states’. Although there are many possible mental states, the
Abhidharma teachings speak of fifty-one, which are held to be particularly important.Sensation and
perception are actually included in these fifty-one, but are treated separately in the list of the five
skandhas because they are especially noticeable.There is no need to go into all fifty-one here, but
we should know that they include the components necessary for any cognition to occur, namely
sensation, perception, intention (meaning the mind is directed towards a particular object), attention
(the mind is held on that object) and contact (an object, a functioning sense organ and
consciousness all come together).There are also five states which assist in the discernment of
objects. These are interest, appreciation, mindfulness, concentration and discernment. We are
talking about these on a subtle level. For example, we need a certain amount of concentration to
focus on a particular object, and some discernment to identify it.These first ten are called ‘general
mind states’.Then there are the virtuous states of mind such as faith, conscientiousness, absence of
attachment, absence of aggression, absence of delusion, and diligence.Then there are the principal
non-virtuous states of ignorance, desire, anger, pride, doubt and harmful beliefs; as well as the
secondary negative states such as vindictiveness, spite, envy, deceit, stinginess, laziness and
forgetfulness. Here we also include the drowsiness and agitation we experience in meditation, as
well as distraction.Finally, there are several ‘variable’ states which could be either positive or
negative, such as regret.
d.Consciousness - Vijnana:Consciousness here refers to the consciousness of impressions from the
five senses, and also consciousness of mental objects, like thoughts, ideas and emotions. (See: Six
consciousnesses.)The consciousnesses of the five senses (seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, and
touching) are non-conceptual. Then the information is fed to the mental consciousness, where
concepts can enter in.Visual consciousness registers only colours and shapes. It does not recognize
particular colours, which is the function of the skandha of perception. Nor does it identify certain
colours as pleasant, which is done by the feeling skandha.The followers of the Mind Only school
identified eight types of consciousness. In addition to the consciousnesses of the five senses and the
mind, they spoke of a ‘defiled mental consciousness’ and the ‘all-ground consciousness’, or alaya
vijñana.The defiled mental consciousness is closely connected with the ego, and is where the
notion of ‘I’ and ‘mine’ enters into experience. It is absent in the meditation of noble beings, but
never ceases in the mind stream of an ordinary being. This seventh consciousness relates very
closely to our ‘self-image’. After we receive data from the senses, and process them with the sixth
consciousness, the defiled mental consciousness asks whether or not this experience fits with how
we have come to think of ourselves – our ‘image’, in other words. This means there is a lot of
judgment here, paving the way for attachment and aversion.The alaya consciousness is described as
‘mere knowing, an unspecified apprehension, the object of which is general and uncircumscribed’.
It is often likened to a storehouse, in which we keep all our habits and instincts, the imprints or
‘seeds’ of our actions which will ripen into future experiences

Four noble truth : A common, sloppy rendering of the Truths tells us that life is suffering;
suffering is caused by greed; suffering ends when we stop being greedy; the way to do that is to
follow something called the Eightfold Path.In a more formal setting, the Truths read:
● The truth of suffering (dukkha)
 ● The truth of the cause of suffering (samudaya)
● The truth of the end of suffering (nirhodha)
● The truth of the path that frees us from suffering (magga)
Quite often, people get hung up on "life is suffering" and decide Buddhism isn't for them. However,
if you take the time to appreciate what the Four Noble Truths are really about, everything else
about Buddhism will be much clearer. Let's look at them one at a time.
a.The First Noble Truth
The First Noble Truth is often translated as "life is suffering." This is not as dire as it sounds; it's
actually quite the opposite, which is why it can be confusing.Much confusion is due to the English
translation of the Pali/Sanskrit word dukkha as "suffering." According to the Ven. Ajahn Sumedho,
a Theravadin monk and scholar, the word actually means "incapable of satisfying" or "not able to
bear or withstand anything." Other scholars replace "suffering" with "stressful."
Dukkha also refers to anything that is temporary, conditional, or compounded of other things. Even
something precious and enjoyable is dukkha because it will end.
Further, the Buddha was not saying that everything about life is relentlessly awful. In other
sermons, he spoke of many types of happiness, such as the happiness of family life. But as we look
more closely at dukkha, we see that it touches everything in our lives, including good fortune and
happy times.Among other things, the Buddha taught that the skandhas are dukkha. The skandhas
are the components of a living human being: form, senses, ideas, predilections, and consciousness.
In other words, the animated body you identify as yourself is dukkha because it is impermanent and
it will eventually perish.
b.The Second Noble Truth:The Second Noble Truth teaches that the cause of suffering is greed or
desire. The actual word from the early scriptures is tanha, and this is more accurately translated as
"thirst" or "craving."We continually search for something outside ourselves to make us happy. But
no matter how successful we are, we never remain satisfied. The Second Truth is not telling us that
we must give up everything we love to find happiness. The real issue here is more subtle; it's the
attachment to what we desire that gets us into trouble.The Buddha taught that this thirst grows from
ignorance of the self. We go through life grabbing one thing after another to get a sense of security
about ourselves. We attach not only to physical things but also to ideas and opinions about
ourselves and the world around us. Then we grow frustrated when the world doesn't behave the
way we think it should and our lives don't conform to our expectations.Buddhist practice brings
about a radical change in perspective. Our tendency to divide the universe into "me" and
"everything else" fades away. In time, the practitioner is better able to enjoy life's experiences
without judgment, bias, manipulation, or any of the other mental barriers we erect between
ourselves and what's real.The Buddha's teachings on karma and rebirth are closely related to the
Second Noble Truth.
c.The Third Noble Truth:The Buddha's teachings on the Four Noble Truths are sometimes
compared to a physician diagnosing an illness and prescribing a treatment. The first truth tells us
what the illness is and the second truth tells us what causes the illness. The Third Noble Truth holds
out hope for a cure.The solution to dukkha is to stop clinging and attaching. But how do we do
that? The fact is that it cannot be accomplished by an act of will. It's impossible to just vow to
yourself, from now on I won't crave anything. This doesn't work because the conditions that give
rise to craving will still be present.The Second Noble Truth tells us that we cling to things we
believe will make us happy or keep us safe. Grasping for one ephemeral thing after another never
satisfies us for long because it's all impermanent. It is only when we see this for ourselves that we
can stop grasping. When we do see it, the letting go is easy. The craving will seem to disappear of
its own accord.The Buddha taught that through diligent practice, we can put an end to craving.
Ending the hamster wheel-chase after satisfaction is enlightenment (bodhi, "awakened"). The
enlightened being exists in a state called nirvana.
d.The Fourth Noble Truth:The Buddha spent the last 45 or so years of his life giving sermons on
aspects of the Four Noble Truths. The majority of these were about the Fourth Truth: the path
(magga).In the Fourth Noble Truth, the Buddha as a physician prescribes the treatment for our
illness: The Eightfold Path. Unlike in many other religions, Buddhism has no particular benefit to
merely believing in a doctrine. Instead, the emphasis is on living the doctrine and walking the
path.The path is eight broad areas of practice that touches every part of our lives. It ranges from
study to ethical conduct to what you do for a living to moment-to-moment mindfulness. Every
action of body, speech, and mind are addressed by the path. It is a path of exploration and discipline
to be walked for the rest of one's life.Without the path, the first three Truths would just be a theory.
The practice of the Eightfold Path brings the dharma into one's life and makes it bloom.

Eightfold path: Within the fourth noble truth is found the guide to the end of suffering: the noble
eightfold path. The eight parts of the path to liberation are grouped into three essential elements of
Buddhist practice—moral conduct, mental discipline, and wisdom. The Buddha taught the
eightfold path in virtually all his discourses, and his directions are as clear and practical to his
followers today as they were when he first gave them.
THE NOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATH
● Right understanding (Samma ditthi)
● Right thought (Samma sankappa)
● Right speech (Samma vaca)
● Right action (Samma kammanta)
● Right livelihood (Samma ajiva)
● Right effort (Samma vayama)
● Right mindfulness (Samma sati)
● Right concentration (Samma samadhi)
Practically the whole teaching of the Buddha, to which he devoted himself during 45 years, deals in
some way or other with this path. He explained it in different ways and in different words to
different people, according to the stage of their development and their capacity to understand and
follow him. But the essence of those many thousand discourses scattered in the Buddhist scriptures
is found in the noble eightfold path.It should not be thought that the eight categories or divisions of
the path should be followed and practiced one after the other in the numerical order as given in the
usual list above. But they are to be developed more or less simultaneously, as far as possible
according to the capacity of each individual. They are all linked together and each helps the
cultivation of the others.These eight factors aim at promoting and perfecting the three essentials of
Buddhist training and discipline: namely: (a) ethical conduct (sila), (b) mental discipline (samadhi)
and (c) wisdom (panna). It will therefore be more helpful for a coherent and better understanding of
the eight divisions of the path if we group them and explain them according to these three heads.
ETHICAL CONDUCT
Ethical conduct (sila) is built on the vast conception of universal love and compassion for all living
beings, on which the Buddha’s teaching is based. It is regrettable that many scholars forget this
great ideal of the Buddha’s teaching, and indulge in only dry philosophical and metaphysical
divagations when they talk and write about Buddhism. The Buddha gave his teaching “for the good
of the many, for the happiness of the many, out of compassion for the world.”
According to Buddhism, for a man to be perfect there are two qualities that he should develop
equally: compassion (karuna) on one side, and wisdom (panna) on the other. Here compassion
represents love, charity, kindness, tolerance, and such noble qualities on the emotional side, or
qualities of the heart, while wisdom would stand for the intellectual side or the qualities of the
mind. If one develops only the emotional, neglecting the intellectual, one may become a
good-hearted fool; while to develop only the intellectual side [and] neglecting the emotional may
turn one into a hard-hearted intellect without feeling for others. Therefore, to be perfect one has to
develop both equally. That is the aim of the Buddhist way of life: in it wisdom and compassion are
inseparably linked together, as we shall see later.Now, in ethical conduct (sila), based on love and
compassion, are included three factors of the noble eightfold path: namely, right speech, right
action, and right livelihood.
a.RIGHT SPEECH:Right speech means abstention (1) from telling lies, (2) from backbiting and
slander and talk that may bring about hatred, enmity, disunity, and disharmony among individuals
or groups of people, (3) from harsh, rude, impolite, malicious, and abusive language, and (4) from
idle, useless, and foolish babble and gossip. When one abstains from these forms of wrong and
harmful speech one naturally has to speak the truth, has to use words that are friendly and
benevolent, pleasant and gentle, meaningful, and useful. One should not speak carelessly: speech
should be at the right time and place. If one cannot say something useful, one should keep “noble
silence.”
b.RIGHT ACTION:Right action aims at promoting moral, honorable, and peaceful conduct. It
admonishes us that we should abstain from destroying life, from stealing, from dishonest dealings,
from illegitimate sexual intercourse, and that we should also help others to lead a peaceful and
honorable life in the right way.
c.RIGHT LIVELIHOOD:Right livelihood means that one should abstain from making one’s living
through a profession that brings harm to others, such as trading in arms and lethal weapons,
intoxicating drinks or poisons, killing animals, cheating, etc., and should live by a profession which
is honorable, blameless, and innocent of harm to others. One can clearly see here that Buddhism is
strongly opposed to any kind of war, when it lays down that trade in arms and lethal weapons is an
evil and unjust means of livelihood.
These three factors (right speech, right action, and right livelihood) of the eightfold path constitute
ethical conduct. It should be realized that the Buddhist ethical and moral conduct aims at promoting
a happy and harmonious life both for the individual and for society. This moral conduct is
considered as the indispensable foundation for all higher spiritual attainments. No spiritual
development is possible without this moral basis.

MENTAL DISCIPLINE
Next comes mental discipline, in which are included three other factors of the eightfold path:
namely, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. (Nos. 6, 7 and 8 in the list).
a.RIGHT EFFORT:Right effort is the energetic will (1) to prevent evil and unwholesome states of
mind from arising, and (2) to get rid of such evil and unwholesome states that have already arisen
within a man, and also (3) to produce, to cause to arise, good, and wholesome states of mind not yet
arisen, and (4) to develop and bring to perfection the good and wholesome states of mind already
present in a man.
b.RIGHT MINDFULNESS:Right mindfulness is to be diligently aware, mindful, and attentive
with regard to (1) the activities of the body (kaya), (2) sensations or feelings (vedana), (3) the
activities of the mind (citta) and (4) ideas, thoughts, conceptions, and things (dhamma).
The practice of concentration on breathing (anapanasati) is one of the well-known exercises,
connected with the body, for mental development. There are several other ways of developing
attentiveness in relation to the body as modes of meditation.With regard to sensations and feelings,
one should be clearly aware of all forms of feelings and sensations, pleasant, unpleasant and
neutral, of how they appear and disappear within oneself. Concerning the activities of mind, one
should be aware whether one’s mind is lustful or not, given to hatred or not, deluded or not,
distracted or concentrated, etc. In this way one should be aware of all movements of mind, how
they arise and disappear.As regards ideas, thoughts, conceptions and things, one should know their
nature, how they appear and disappear, how they are developed, how they are suppressed,
destroyed, and so on.These four forms of mental culture or meditation are treated in detail in the
Satipatthana Sutta (Setting-up of Mindfulness).
c.RIGHT CONCENTRATION:The third and last factor of mental discipline is right concentration,
leading to the four stages of Dhyana, generally called trance or recueillement. In the first stage of
Dhyana, passionate desires and certain unwholesome thoughts like sensuous lust, ill-will, languor,
worry, restlessness, and skeptical doubt are discarded, and feelings of joy and happiness are
maintained, along with certain mental activities. Then, in the second stage, all intellectual activities
are suppressed, tranquillity, and “one-pointedness” of mind developed, and the feelings of joy and
happiness are still retained. In the third stage, the feeling of joy, which is an active sensation, also
disappears, while the disposition of happiness still remains in addition to mindful equanimity.
Finally, in the fourth stage of Dhyana, all sensations, even of happiness and unhappiness, of joy and
sorrow, disappear, only pure equanimity and awareness remaining.
Thus the mind is trained and disciplined and developed through right effort, right mindfulness, and
right concentration.

WISDOM
The remaining two factors, namely right thought and right understanding, constitute wisdom in the
noble eightfold path.
a.RIGHT THOUGHT:Right thought denotes the thoughts of selfless renunciation or detachment,
thoughts of love and thoughts of non-violence, which are extended to all beings. It is very
interesting and important to note here that thoughts of selfless detachment, love and non-violence
are grouped on the side of wisdom. This clearly shows that true wisdom is endowed with these
noble qualities, and that all thoughts of selfish desire, ill-will, hatred, and violence are the result of
a lack of wisdom in all spheres of life whether individual, social, or political.
b.RIGHT UNDERSTANDING:Right understanding is the understanding of things as they are, and
it is the four noble truths that explain things as they really are. Right understanding therefore is
ultimately reduced to the understanding of the four noble truths. This understanding is the highest
wisdom which sees the Ultimate Reality. According to Buddhism there are two sorts of
understanding. What we generally call “understanding” is knowledge, an accumulated memory, an
intellectual grasping of a subject according to certain given data. This is called “knowing
accordingly” (anubodha). It is not very deep. Real deep understanding or “penetration” (pativedha)
is seeing a thing in its true nature, without name and label. This penetration is possible only when
the mind is free from all impurities and is fully developed through meditation.
From this brief account of the noble eightfold path, one may see that it is a way of life to be
followed, practiced and developed by each individual. It is self-discipline in body, word, and mind,
self-development, and self-purification. It has nothing to do with belief, prayer, worship, or
ceremony. In that sense, it has nothing which may popularly be called “religious.” It is a Path
leading to the realization of Ultimate Reality, to complete freedom, happiness, and peace through
moral, spiritual, and intellectual perfection.

Triptikas:Tripitaka or Three Baskets is a traditional term used for various Buddhist scriptures. It
is known as pali Canon in English. The three pitakas are Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka and
Abhidhamma Pitaka.Theravāda school Tripitaka is the only complete Tripitaka preserved in Pali.
Sārvāstivāda is a near complete Tripitaka written in Sanskrit and preserved in Sanskrit, Chinese and
Tibetan.
a.Sutta Pitaka:It contains over 10 thousand suttas or sutras related to Buddha and his close
companions. This also deals with the first Buddhist council which was held shortly after Buddha’s
death, dated by the majority of recent scholars around 400 BC, under the patronage of king
Ajatasatru with the monk Mahakasyapa presiding, at Rajgir.Its sections are:
● Digha Nikaya:Comprises the “long” discourses in 34 long sutras.
● Majjhima Nikaya:Comprises the “middle-length” discourses in 152 sutras.
● Samyutta Nikaya: Comprises the “connected” discourses in over 2800 sutras.
● Anguttara Nikaya: Comprises the “numerical” discourses in over 9600sutras.
● Khuddaka Nikaya: Comprises the “minor collection” It has 15-17 booklets. (Thai 15.
Sinhali 17 & Burmese 18 booklets).
b.Vinaya Pitaka:The subject matter of Vinay Pitaka is the monastic rules for monks and nuns. It
can also be called as Book of Discipline.
● Suttavibhanga: The basic code of Monastic discipline is known as It contains 227
rules for fully ordained Monks called bikkhus (Maha vibhanga) and 311 rules for fully
ordained nuns called Bikkhunis (Bikkhuni Vibhanga) They are contained in
Suttavibhanga, one of the parts of Vinay Pitaka.
● Khandhaka:Khandhaka is the second book of Vinay Pitaka. It has two volumes viz.
Mahavagga and Cullavagga. Mahavagga deals with the awakening of Buddha and his
great disciples. Cullavagga deals with the first and second Buddhist councils and
establishments of community of Buddhist nuns and rules for Buddhist community.
● Parivara: Parivara is the last book of Vinaya Pitaka. It covers the summary of analysis
of rules mentioned in first two books of Vinay Pitaka. Its is latest book and seems to
be later than the Fourth Buddhist Coincil in Ceylon. It also contains questions and
answers.
 ● Abhidhammapitaka:Abhidhammapitaka deals with the philosophy and doctrine of
Buddhism appearing in the suttas. However, it does not contain the systematic
philosophical treatises. There are 7 works of Abhidhamma Pitaka which most scholars
agree that don’t represent the words of Buddha himself. The 7 books are
C.Dhammasangani: It contains a matrix which lists the classification of Dhammas or ideas.
● Vibhanga :It has 18 chapters dealing with different teachings of Buddhism. It is in 3
volumes and third volume is in question answer format.
● Dhatukatha:It has a matrix and various topics.
● Puggalapannatti: It has a matrix which deals with the list of the persons.
● Kathavatthu:It contains the debates and commentary on thoese debates.
● Yamaka :Yamaka has questions in pairs and understanding.
● Patthana :It also contains the questions and answers.

3.Self and consciousness:

Tri-Lakshana: The Three Characteristics of Existence
The Buddha teaches as follows:”Whether Perfect Ones appear in the world or not, it still remains a
firm condition, an immutable fact, and fixed law that all formations (sankharas) are impermanent,
that they are subject to suffering, and that every thing is without and Ego.”
These three characteristics of Anitya, Dukkha and Anatma, are the salient features of sentient
existence. In the Buddha-Dharma these are called the “Trilakshana” or The Three Cardinal Features
of Life.
a.Annitya:Everything that undergoes change, is impermanent and unstable. There is the process of
arising, reaching a peak, and passing away. The transitory nature of life is recognised in all
religions and philosophies. It was the materialist Omar Khayyam, who wrote:-
“Each morn a thousand roses brings you say, Yes, but where goes the rose of yesterday? And that
same summer which brings the rose, Shall take Jamshid and Kaikhobad away.”
Even the priceless inventories of ancient time are gradually wearing away.
own bodies too undergo change and lead to the inevitable decay and death. Thus we see that
impermanence is the first cardinal feature of life. The Buddha says that, what is not stable is not
worth clinging to, and is not worthy of our attachment. The glory of Greece is no more, and the
grandeur of Rome is relegated to the limbo of the forgotten past. It is so with all things in this
world. Truly as Thomas Gray said “The paths of the glory lead but to the grave”. The Buddha
points out the unsatisfactory nature of life, and tells us that’s its first characteristics is transiency.
He advocates the cultivation of the qualities of non-attachment and dispassion to this phantom
show that we all call life. His doctrine is one which leads to non-attachment (viragaya), and disgust
or dissatisfaction (nibbidyaya) with the fleeting vicissitudes of life. Nirvana is not a heaven up in
the sky with its unspeakable boredom of eternal life and eternal happiness, but it is a state of
happiness that comes with the eradication of greed, ill-will, and ignorance. The person grounded in
virtue (sila) who trades the Noble Eightfold-Path can transcend the impermanence, and the
unsatisfactory nature of life, and attain the enduring bliss of Nirvana.
Parents suffer when their children fall ill, but when they recover the parents are happy. But is there
any guarantee that the child will not fall ill again? It is so with all things. A Latin author said “Eheu
fugaces labuntur anni”. Alas! the fleeting years slip away, and we with them”. Therefore the first
cardinal feature of life and all things therein is its instability or Anityata. It is this instability that
makes Dukka or the unsatisfactory nature of life bearable. Otherwise human beings would die of
boredom with what we call pleasure, and the agony of what constitutes suffering. How long can we
revel in seeking satisfaction with this process of change, decay, and death? Surely, when one
realizes with intuitive wisdom that comes from Vidharshana meditation, that all things are
transcient, he will get disgusted with this process of mutability. That disgust will pave the way for
progress towards Nirvana. Therefore it is said in verse 287 of the Dhammapada.
“That all things rise and cease to be, when with wisdom one does see, fed up with ill, he will be
trading the way to purity.”
In Pali:- Sabbe sanhara anicca ti Yada pannaya passati Atha nibbhindati dukkhe Esa maggo
visudhiya”
b.Dukkha:Dukkha means suffering, or the unsatisfactory nature of life. Etymologically ‘Du’ means
difficult or unpleasant.” Kha stands for to bear. Thus Dukkha connotes difficult to bear and what is
unpleasant, to be born of life’s difficulties and sorrow from the slightest irritations, boredom,
frusrtations, to actual anger mental and physical pain. To be able to comprehend dukkha fully, one
must be able to take into consideration the entire process of perpetual wandering in Sansara, the
long chain of rebirths, and not merely one single-life-time which may sometimes not be very
painful. On the other hand, no right thinking man who who sees the vast process of suffering
around him in this world can be happy and unmoved by it even though he may not be having a bad
quota of suffering due to his good kamma in the past.The problem of suffering is universally
recognized. It has grappled the attention of thinkers, theologians and religionists in all climes and
ages. In the words of a Hebrew prophet, “Man is born to trouble as sparks fly upwards.” It was the
celebrated Greek poet Homer who said, “For men on earth it’s better not to be born at all, or being
born to pass through the gates of Hades with all speed.” Socrates the sage of Greece, remarked that,
if the troubles of men were to be reshuffled and distributed, each man would be content with his
own quota, and would not like to share that of another. So much steeped and ingrained in suffering
is the world.
Let us look at the forests and the ocean depth. Here the stronger preys upon the weaker. Amongst
men too, the economically stronger preys upon the weaker by exploitation of labour. The whole of
creation can be summed by in the words “eating and avoiding being eaten”. Sir Edwin Arnold
remarks of in his “Light of Asia”.
“Beauteous is the earth, but all its forest-broods, Plot mutual slaughter, hungering to live, of
sapphire are the skies, but when men cry Famished, no drops they give”.
It was Tennyson the son of a Clergyman, who wrote, “Never morning wore to evening, but some
heart did break.” Instances can be multiplied from the world’s literature to show that the keynote
that underlines existence is suffering. It is on this central theme that the Buddha built up his
doctrine. He too was concerned with the same problem which confronted all thinkers. “One thing
do I teach,” declared the Buddha, “and that is suffering and how to get rid of it.” Elsewhere the
Buddha has said, that just as there is one flavour in the ocean, and that the taste of salt, there is one
flavour in my doctrine, and that the flavour of deliverence from suffering. The Four Noble Truths
are the heart-core and corner stone of the Buddha·Dharma. Of these truths, the first is the
recognition of the universality of suffering.
Thus we see that the Buddha-Dharma is founded on facts which can be verified by our own
experience, and not on any sort of dogma, or speculative assumption, and not to be accepted of
faith alone, e.g. “In the beginning God created heaven and earth”, The truth of suffering can be
verified by each individual for himself, because life is one big picture dominated by suffering.
Those natural and reared on the obsession that life was created and is maintained by a merciful
God, would find this truth distasteful, because it exposes the imperfection of the Creator and his
handwork. The five solutions offered in Christian Theology to the problem of suffering and its
compatibility with the concept of a merciful Creator have been found to be unsatisfactory and
founded on logic as has been explained and admitted by Alstair M. Maclntyre* in his book
“Problems of Christian Belief” Buddha exhorts us to follow the Noble Eightfold Path and make an
end of the sufferings in Sansara. The delusion called attachment to existence has to be abandoned
by under standing the true nature of life in the light of the knowledge of the First Noble Truth-viz.
Suffering (in Pali, Dukkha). This understanding is conducive to progress on the Noble Eightfold
Path.
Therefore it is said in verse 288 of the Dhammapada:-
“When with wisdom one does see, that in all things there’s no felicity. Disgusted with ill, he will be
Treading the path to purity”
In Pali:- Sabbe sankahara dukka ti
Yada Pannaya pasati Atha nibbhindai dukkhe Esa maggo visudhiya”
c.Anatma:The third feature of all forms of existence is Anatma, or the absence of anything,
enduring, or an Ego. This is the most difficult of the Buddha’s teaching. All, other religious systems
including the six systems of Hindu philosophy, teach that there is something enduring permanently
in man, and that they call the “soul”. The Buddha was the only teacher who was able to overcome
this universal illusion. Plato ard the Greek philosophers spoke of the immortality of the soul. They
have mistaken the impermanent stream of consciousness that exists in a flux and manifests itself
from one life to another, for an immortal soul.The Buddha rejected the all theories regarding the
immortality of the soul, and said that the mind of man undergoes change even more rapidly than the
body, and there is no place for a soul in either the mind or the body. The mind-flux that persists
during one’s life and remanifests itself in a new life after death is not to be mistaken for an
unchanging, eternal soul. According to the Buddha, the illusion that this mind-flux is an eternal
soul, imutable and changeless is the greatest of all delusions. The fallacy is the cause of all
trammells, and unrest in the world.“The Ego-illusion is the cause of all passions and defilements”
worte Santideva in his classic “Bodhichariyavatara”. As Santideva is a Mahayanist teacher, this is
sufficient proof that the Anatma doctrine is accepted by the Mahayana Buddhists. The ego-illusion
is a deep-seated fallacy in the human mind, and can only be eliminated by attaining the first stage
on the patch to sainthood, namely the Sotapatti stage.
In the Sanyutta Nikaya, Chapter 12, the Buddha says “It would be better for the world ling to
regard this body built up, of the four elements as his Ego rather than the mind, for it is evident that
the body may last a year, two, three unto a hundred years, and more, but that which is called
thought, mind or consciousness is arising continually during day, and night, as one thing, as passing
away as another thing. The Buddha analysed the mind for the vestige of a soul, and declared that
only sensations, perceptions and thought processes and consciousness were there. All these He
declares to be impermanent, arising, and passing away. But their rapid continuation created the
illusion of an egoentity persisting in man. Just as when the parts are rightly set, we use the term
chariot to a combination of wheels shaft, axle etc., we use the term man, to a combination of
psycho-physical forces.
“Just as the ship goes by the winds impelled, Just as the shaft goes by the bowstring’s force So goes
the body in its forward move, Full driven by the virant thrust of air,
As to the puppet’s back the dodge-tread tied, So to the body-doll the mind is tied,
And pulled to that body, moves, stands, sits.”
For modern psychology the soul is a complete superfluity, having no right to a place among its first
principles. That the belief is thoroughly unscientific is borne out by the following statement of
Prof: Mac Dougal:-
“It is a matter of common knowledge that science has given its verdict against the soul, has
declared the conception of a soul.. is a mere survival from primitive culture, one of the many relics
from savage superstition that obstinately persists among us in defiance of the clear teaching of
modern science.”It is the acceptance of this doctrine that distinguishes the genuine Buddhist from
the spurious one. In determining the true doctrines of the Buddha, the Elders who took part in the
Third Council have declared that three words consisting of eight letters constitute the core of the
Buddha-Dharma.
Those three Pali words when written in the original scripts are, Anicca, Dukkha, and Anatta. In Pali
Language:-
“Na hi sila kattam hetu, Uppajjanti Tathagatha Attakkhra tini pad a 5ambuddhena pakasita.”
Translation:-
“Not mere teachers of ethics right, Are the Buddhas who the Dhamma teach, Three words
contained in letters eight, Constitute the core of what they preach.”

UNIT 4: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS OF YOGA PRACTICES:

1.Meaning and aims of yoga:
Yoga is a physical, mental and spiritual practice that originated in ancient India. First codified by
the sage Patanjali in his Yoga Sutras around 400 C.E, the practice was in fact handed down from
teacher to student long before this text arose. Traditionally, this was a one-to-one transmission, but
since yoga became popular in the West in the 20th century, group classes have become the norm.
The word yoga is derived from the Sanskrit root yuj, meaning “to yoke,” or “to unite”. The practice
aims to create union between body, mind and spirit, as well as between the individual self and
universal consciousness. Such a union tends to neutralize ego-driven thoughts and behaviours,
creating a sense of spiritual awakening.Yoga has been practiced for thousands of years, and whilst
many different interpretations and styles have been developed, most tend to agree that the ultimate
goal of yoga is to achieve liberation from suffering. Although each school or tradition of yoga has
its own emphasis and practices, most focus on bringing together body, mind and breath as a means
of altering energy or shifting consciousness.Amongst all the many many yoga practices (and so
called yoga brands), there is really just one yoga - yoga - that is all! It is in this sense that we can
call all the things we do - whether it is chanting, prāṇāyāma, Primary Series, or whatever - we can
call it all Ashtānga Yoga so long as we follow this one simple and essential internal principle. So let
us let us look at six different aims or approaches to yoga so we can better understanding where we
are going & what we are trying to acheive: sṛṣṭi (growth), śikṣaṇa (learning), rakṣaṇa
(maintenance), cikitsā (therapy), ādhiātmika (spirituality) & śakti (powers).
Sṛṣṭi: growth - Sṛṣṭi is the development of physical & mental strengths & skills. In this realm we
are learning how to practice and working hard to develop more skills & practices. This phase
always occurs in the beginning and also whenever we are trying to gain new abilities. Some take
this to extremes while others are content just learning a modest amount of practice. Even the effort
we put forth to regain our strength & abilities after having lapsed from practice - whether because
of illness, travel, laziness or whatever - is also practice for the sake of growth (sṛṣṭi).
Śikṣaṇa: learning - Śikṣaṇa is when we work to deeper our awareness and knowledge of the
practice. This has two primary categories: study of externals & study of the internals. Study of the
externals means learning all the breathings and movements of the vinyāsas perfectly, as well as all
of the details & subtleties of positioning. While internal studies refers to cultivating our awareness
to understand the breath on a subtle level in the sense of how it effects our bio-rhythms & our mind.
Internally too, we focus to feel the external positioning of the āsanas as an extension, an emanation
of our core (head, neck, ribcage, waist & pelvis).
Rakṣaṇa: maintenance or protection - Rakṣaṇa is the use of yoga practice to maintain our health &
vitality so that we can function more optimally throughout the day. If we have jobs and children,
then this should be the main focus of our yoga practice. We do not need to impress anyone with our
āsana prowess. We need to excel with our daily responsibilities. And for this, we should focus less
on accomplishing a stunning practice, and more on how we feel the rest of the day after practice.
The practice - when approached moderately (anywhere between 20 - 75 minutes) - can
tremendously increase our mental focus, emotional balance & equanimity; and when these are
optimized, then we execute tasks with a surprisingly high degree of skill & efficiency. Now that’s
impressive! There is another important aspect of rakṣaṇa: Perhaps we have practiced for 15 - 30
years, have developed some āsana skills that we would like to continue being able to do. But, at the
same time, we no longer feel the need to practice so physically intense. This happens because after
a long time of practice, we naturally evolve from a growth based approach (sṛṣṭi) to feeling more
interested in contemplative, self-reflective practices (ādhiātmika). In the initial stages of this
transition, we will naturally want to maintain those skills that we worked so diligently to develop.
So although time spent on āsanas reduces, we can practice to maintain certain aspects of our
physical practice in addition to maintaining our health & vitality.
Cikitsā: therapy - Cikitsā is the approach when we need healing & rejuvenation. There are two
primary categories: diagnostic and energization - viz. working to understand the issue & fix it or
simply working to support the miraculous healing energy of this body. In practice these two work
together. Diagnostics means that we analyize the problem and formulate a suitable solution.
Energization means that we support the innate healing capacity of the body (homeostasis).
Diagnostically, we may have educated knowledge about the body that informs a healing strategy;
but even still, if we do not have this intellectual knowledge, we can use heightened sensitivity to
guide us during our practice. By focusing acutely on the movement of our breath, we develop our
ability to know how far to go into a position, how to subtilely adjust ourselves in a position and
which positions to avoid. This awareness prevents us from aggravating the problem which would
interfere with our healing. Through this approach our consciousness becomes deeply attuned to the
life principles governing our body. Everyone is capable of this process without ever opening a
book. We simply need to pay close attention to reading the sensations of breath in the body. We
need to be patient and trust that the body will heal in its own time. People who follow this method
set aside attachments of what was done yesterday and pay sole attention to what is happening, what
is possible right now. These people maintain stability in practice and become proficient in yoga.
 Supporting the regenerative and healing capacity of the body happens by providing good
nutrition and a healthy balance between rest & activity. It also happens by deep internal prāṇāyāma
& meditative practices. The body is constantly regenerating itself. Old cells are forever being
replaced by new cells. Food - as raw material - is being turned into our bodies, energies &
consciousness. Creation itself is happening within us every moment, and we have the ability to
energize this process, to become partners in this process of creation. By consciously making efforts
to increase our sensitivity, we begin to feel the biorhythms happening inside of us. Everyone feels
the changes our breath undergoes as we quickly climb a flight of stairs or as we move through a
certain sequence of postures - right? This is a change in our biorhythms. If we truly focus on
feeling inside our chest, belly and/or head with each increment of each breath, we will feel the
emergence of these changes in our biorhythms as they occur. In this way, we can directly partner
with the force of creation happening within us. As beginners in this process, a simple way to
support the inner healing capacity (homeostasis) is by breathing smoothly, as smoothly as possible,
by making the exhalation & inhalation exactly the same. After this is mastered, then we gradually
make the breath longer and more subtle. There are many specifics that will affect the breathing
rhythm that the body needs. Our effort to elongate the breath must be done with great care and
sensitivity as to how the body is responding, and what the body-breath is telling us otherwise we
may create imbalances. However, everyone should engage in making the breath smoother and more
even and from this process our sensitivity becomes qualified for stretching the breath into the realm
beyond breath - called kevala kumbhaka or caturthi.
Ādhiātmika: spirituality - Ādhiātmika is any effort to understand ourselves better and ultimately
to experience a purer version of ourselves by transcending our boundary creating notions. As we
age, the amount of time spent doing āsanas should decrease while the amount of time studying,
doing prāṇāyāma & meditation should increase. Our progress should be measured by how much
kinder & more thoughtful we have become. We should have a generously patient attitude towards
people. Not simply in terms of giving materially to people, but in terms of giving our attention with
warmth in our hearts. Whether or not we practice yoga, believe in God or not, no matter what
cultural things we identify with or not is insignificant when compared to having integrity, poise,
equanimity, warm heartedness, joy, contentment, generosity, patience and such. If we succeed at
becoming good humans than we will feel satisfied with our lives. This is a life well lived.
Śakti: powers or siddhis - Śakti means that we are pursuing powers. We may think that this just
means pursing magical occult powers, but it equally refers to trying to master physical feats with
the intent to impress others. This includes posing more beautifully in order to become more popular
on social media. The pursuit of abilities & power (śakti) - both esoteric & exoteric - with the
motive of being liked by others or for broadening our influence in society can never lead to true
happiness nor a sense of fulfillment. The temptation to achieve power arises in us from our
compulsions (kleśas) - erroneous belief that something other than our own self can either bring us
happiness or unhappiness. The truth is though that the experience of both joy & sorrow is really
actually a creation of our own minds. When we seek outside for pleasure or for the cause of our
negative emotions, or when we blame circumstances for our anxieties, we dig ourselves deeper into
the pit of ignorance & compulsive behavior. So although yoga culture is intermingled with the
pursuit of powers, true yoga recognizes this as mere external phenomena that is forever unreliable.
We must learn to work with the phenomenal world, but we must simultaneously rely on ourselves
for our sense of wholeness, joy & satisfaction in life.
2.Patanjali Yoga Sutra: The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is a text containing 196 sutras that can be
followed like a guide for a yoga student to achieve enlightenment and final liberation. It is intended
to not only educate anyone on the importance of discovering one’s true Self but also to highlight
the importance of understanding the yogi’s place in the universe.The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali are
further categorized into four main parts, each with an intention behind the selected sutras. They are:

● Samadhi pada (defining what yoga is and enlightenment)

● Sadhana pada (the connection between student and higher Self)
● Vibhuti pada (dedication to the practice and self-discipline)
● Kaivalya pada (liberation or freedom from suffering)
From these four primary categories, the yoga student is guided through the possible tribulations that
may occur throughout the path towards enlightenment with different solutions that should keep
them on track.
“Sutras” are small teachings that help summarize the overall message someone is trying to teach.
They are a result of hundreds of years of oral instruction and needing a method to keep the moral
short enough for memorization.However, one prevalent issue is that there is no fool proof way of
knowing precisely what each sutra truly means. Author metaphors can be interpreted by the reader,
especially if the author has been deceased for quite some time; it is up to the individual to create
their meaning with each sutra.
Teachings of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
Although the underlying messages of the yoga sutras will be up to the individual to interpret, there
are a few overarching teachings that the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali will hopefully instill in all the
students that wish to read and be guided. These teachings are:
Reason for yoga – The texts help to highlight the importance of yoga to reconnect with the
universe. It details how, through poses dedicated to challenging your body and spirit, your mind
will begin to open to the possibilities and reconnect with the universal forces around you.
In other words, it heightens your presence to your surroundings.
Development of yoga – The teachings of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali do not shy away from the fact
that the process of yoga is not an easy one. Instead, it celebrates the challenges by giving a guiding
hand through the struggles and possible solutions.
To the teachings, the heartache is part of the process.
Liberation – One of the highest teachings from the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is the feeling of
liberation from the stresses of not being connected across the body, mind, soul, and universe. The
liberation of oneself from disconnect is the most significant teaching of the texts.
These thoughts and questioning of oneself are all credited with the disconnect of your true Self
from your body. Once the process of the reconnection begins, these stressors slowly dissipate as
you come closer and closer to discovering your true form. It is only then that true happiness and
enlightenment can start to be developed.

History of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali

As far as the origin of the teachings that the sutras are based on, that remains a bit of a mystery. The
assumption is that Patanjali collected all the thoughts, mantras, and teachings of yoga from
generations before him. From these understandings, he organized the knowledge and applied his
interpretation of the lessons he wished to instill in his students. It was from this gathering of
knowledge that the Yoga Sutras were written by Patanjali around 400 BCE in India. Once the texts
were complete, and people began following their guidance, it quickly became the most influential
teaching of yoga and self-discovery. In the medieval era, it was translated into 42 languages,
including Old Javanese and Arabic. Unfortunately, the teachings fell out of popularity for about 700
years. It wasn’t until the 19th century that the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali gained fame once more
thanks to the efforts of Swami Vivekananda, the Theosophical Society, and others. In the 20th
century, along with the growing popularity of yoga as a practice of meditation and stress relief, it
gained popularity once more and is now available to the general public. (Yoga In Practice 2012).

a.Samadhi Pada:The first chapter in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is composed of around 51 sutras,
all about the idea of enlightenment. Not only does it help define the goal of enlightenment using
yoga, but it also explains what yoga is. For the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, yoga is a physical means
to detach the physical form from the sense of oneself or ego. It is used to vigorously practice
concentration to separate (“vairagya”) through repeated practice (“ahbyasa”). To obtain
enlightenment, the physical body must first overcome the pain that comes with mental stillness.
Because the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is designed like a guidebook, it outlines almost every possible
obstacle that one may come in contact with, especially in the spaces of health, wealth (abundance)
and relationships, while following the yoga instructions. Along with outlining them all, it offers
possible solutions to return to a state of dissolving the Self from the body. Without this disconnect
from the ego, the yoga student will continue to suffer under mental pain and suffering.
b.Sadhana Pada:The second chapter of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is the Sadhana Pada. This
chapter highlights the importance of a connection between the yoga student (also referred to as
“yogi”) and a divine or higher Self. This does not necessarily mean a divine figure such as a god or
mystic being (though one is welcome to add such a meaning to it). It mainly focuses on trying to
connect with the pure essence of one’s true Self.Roughly translating to “unit of spiritual practice,”
the Sadhana Pada outlines the steps necessary to remove suffering and instead move towards
enlightenment. This is further explained to be achieved through the process of Eight Limbs of
Yoga, or the eight-fold path (Ashtanga yoga). In the Sadhana Pada, all eight limbs are introduced,
but only the first five of these limbs are explained.
The eight limbs introduced in Sadhana Pada are:
Yamas (ethical standards)
Non-harming (Ahimsa)
Truthfulness (Satya)
Non-stealing (Asteya)
Moderating the Senses (Brahmacharya)
Non-possessiveness (Aparigraha)
Niyamas (self-disciplines)
Self-Purification (Shaucha)
Contentment (Santosha)
Self-Discipline (Tapas)
Self-Study (Svadhyaya)
Self-Surrender (Ishvara Pranidhana)
Asana (physical poses)
Pranayama (breathing techniques)
The formal practice of controlling the breath, which is the source of our prana, or vital life force
Pratyahara (withdrawal of senses)
The goal is to clear the mind of all thoughts and leave the body in such a relaxed position that
divine intervention seems possible.
Warning: Many yoga students have passed out while practicing pratyahara. Please take caution with
your surroundings!
1.Dharana (concentration)
The act of holding, bearing, wearing, supporting, maintaining, retaining, keeping back, a good
memory
2.Dhyana (meditation)
This is the cliche you may think of when you hear, “meditation,” but it is incredibly important. This
is especially true for reaching enlightenment. You must self-reflect to disconnect from ego and
reconnect with the true Self.
3.Samadhi (absorption into the object of focus)
To focus only on one object and nothing else. It can be a physical object, but usually, in terms of
the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, it is a focus on the true Self and complete liberation.

c.Vibhuti Pada:The third chapter of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is the Vibhuti Pada. With 55
sutras, it focuses on the idea of the power of enlightenment and manifestation. The Vibhuti Pada
also highlights the mind’s ability to concentrate to the point of almost supernatural levels (also
known as “siddhis”). According to the Yoga Sutras, this level of power can only be reached through
absolute dedication to the Eight Limbs of Yoga. The main focus of the chapter is for the individual
to dedicate their time and will power towards the, “…deeper progression of yoga practice, with a
focus on the mind’s power to manifest,” (Yogapedia, Vibhuti Pada). In other words, the guide tries
to lead you towards a more mindful state of living, even outside of the time dedicated to the yoga
practice. It also combines the importance of the final three limbs of the eight-limbed path. Dharana
(concentration), dhyana (meditation), and samadhi (enlightenment) need to be mastered before
moving onto Kaivalya Pada so that siddhis can be executed. Although siddhis may sound like a
superpower, it is merely the removal of the Self from the ego. It is a manifestation of healthy
dissociation to reconnect and establish a relationship with the true Self, lost from the distractions of
the modern world.The goal is to move towards enlightenment with good intentions and little to no
ego. Without the separation of Self from ego, the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali cautions that the feelings
of enlightenment (once reached) will quickly hinder the yogi’s ability to cross towards final
liberation (also known as Kaivalya).However, Patanjali warns in Vibhuti Pada that one must
practice without ego, or else these powers may become an obstacle on the path to Kaivalya or ‘final
liberation’.
d.Kaivalya pada:The final chapter of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is Kaivalya pada. Translating to
“unit of isolation,” this chapter focuses mainly on the complete separation of the individual with
their, “…relationships, egoism, attraction, aversion and the cycle of birth and death,” (Yogapedia
Kaivalya). If the yoga student can achieve this complete separation of Self from ego and
surroundings, they are referred to as a “Kevalin.”
The final liberation is an idea that is well defined throughout the chapter, as well. It is the liberation
from rebirth and freedom from suffering through the realization of the true Self. With a focus on
Samadhi (enlightenment) being the absence of an ego, the Kaivalya pada celebrates peaceful minds
through compassion. Through the 34 sutras written by Patanjali, the yogi can achieve this peaceful
mind only through the following mental practices:
● Attitudes of friendliness – There should be no envy towards people who feel joyful,
especially when you are feeling lower than them.
● Compassion – It should extend beyond those who are kind first and incorporate
people who are unhappy and less fortunate.
● Encourage virtue – With no ego, the yogi should encourage acts of kindness in the
name of higher beings (or of true Self) and take joy in supporting these acts.
● Resist the impure – Through dedication and self-discipline, the yogi should avoid any
acts or thoughts that would otherwise lead them towards people with ill intentions.
Once a yoga student has reached this level of enlightenment and Kevalin, they can move towards a
state of final liberation from the internal and outside forces that keep the body and mind from the
connection of the true Self.

Ashtanga yoga -In Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra, the eightfold path is called ashtanga, which literally
means “eight limbs” (ashta=eight, anga=limb). These eight steps basically act as guidelines on how
to live a meaningful and purposeful life. They serve as a prescription for moral and ethical conduct
and self-discipline; they direct attention toward one’s health; and they help us to acknowledge the
spiritual aspects of our nature.
1. Yama:The first limb, yama, deals with one’s ethical standards and sense of integrity, focusing on
our behavior and how we conduct ourselves in life. Yamas are universal practices that relate best to
what we know as the Golden Rule, “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.”
The five yamas are:
● Ahimsa: nonviolence
● Satya: truthfulness
● Asteya: nonstealing
● Brahmacharya: continence
● Aparigraha: noncovetousness
2. Niyama;Niyama, the second limb, has to do with self-discipline and spiritual observances.
Regularly attending temple or church services, saying grace before meals, developing your own
personal meditation practices, or making a habit of taking contemplative walks alone are all
examples of niyamas in practice.
The five niyamas are:
● Saucha: cleanliness
● Samtosa: contentment
● Tapas: heat; spiritual austerities
● Svadhyaya: study of the sacred scriptures and of one’s self
● Isvara pranidhana: surrender to God
3. Asana:Asanas, the postures practiced in yoga, comprise the third limb. In the yogic view, the
body is a temple of spirit, the care of which is an important stage of our spiritual growth. Through
the practice of asanas, we develop the habit of discipline and the ability to concentrate, both of
which are necessary for meditation.
4. Pranayama:Generally translated as “breath control,” this fourth stage consists of techniques
designed to gain mastery over the respiratory process while recognizing the connection between the
breath, the mind, and the emotions. As implied by the literal translation of pranayama, “life force
extension,” yogis believe that it not only rejuvenates the body but actually extends life itself. You
can practice pranayama as an isolated technique (i.e., simply sitting and performing a number of
breathing exercises), or integrate it into your daily hatha yoga routine.
These first four stages of Patanjali’s ashtanga yoga concentrate on refining our personalities,
gaining mastery over the body, and developing an energetic awareness of ourselves, all of which
prepares us for the second half of this journey, which deals with the senses, the mind, and attaining
a higher state of consciousness.
5. Pratyahara:Pratyahara, the fifth limb, means withdrawal or sensory transcendence. It is during
this stage that we make the conscious effort to draw our awareness away from the external world
and outside stimuli. Keenly aware of, yet cultivating a detachment from, our senses, we direct our
attention internally. The practice of pratyahara provides us with an opportunity to step back and
take a look at ourselves. This withdrawal allows us to objectively observe our cravings: habits that
are perhaps detrimental to our health and which likely interfere with our inner growth.
6. Dharana:As each stage prepares us for the next, the practice of pratyahara creates the setting for
dharana, or concentration. Having relieved ourselves of outside distractions, we can now deal with
the distractions of the mind itself. No easy task! In the practice of concentration, which precedes
meditation, we learn how to slow down the thinking process by concentrating on a single mental
object: a specific energetic center in the body, an image of a deity, or the silent repetition of a
sound. We, of course, have already begun to develop our powers of concentration in the previous
three stages of posture, breath control, and withdrawal of the senses.In asana and pranayama,
although we pay attention to our actions, our attention travels. Our focus constantly shifts as we
fine-tune the many nuances of any particular posture or breathing technique. In pratyahara we
become self-observant; now, in dharana, we focus our attention on a single point. Extended periods
of concentration naturally lead to meditation.
7. Dhyana:Meditation or contemplation, the seventh stage of ashtanga, is the uninterrupted flow of
concentration. Although concentration (dharana) and meditation (dhyana) may appear to be one
and the same, a fine line of distinction exists between these two stages. Where dharana practices
one-pointed attention, dhyana is ultimately a state of being keenly aware without focus. At this
stage, the mind has been quieted, and in the stillness, it produces few or no thoughts at all. The
strength and stamina it takes to reach this state of stillness is quite impressive. But don’t give up.
While this may seem like a difficult, if not impossible task, remember that yoga is a process. Even
though we may not attain the “picture perfect” pose, or the ideal state of consciousness, we benefit
at every stage of our progress.
8. Samadhi:Patanjali describes this eighth and final stage of ashtanga, samadhi, as a state of
ecstasy. At this stage, the meditator merges with his or her point of focus and transcends the Self
altogether. The meditator comes to realize a profound connection to the Divine, an
interconnectedness with all living things. With this realization comes the “peace that passeth all
understanding”; the experience of bliss and being at one with the Universe. On the surface, this
may seem to be a rather lofty, “holier than thou” kind of goal.
However, if we pause to examine what we really want to get out of life, would not joy, fulfillment,
and freedom somehow find their way onto our list of hopes, wishes, and desires? What Patanjali
has described as the completion of the yogic path is what, deep down, all human beings aspire to:
peace. We also might give some thought to the fact that this ultimate stage of
yoga—enlightenment—can neither be bought nor possessed. It can only be experienced, the price
of which is the continual devotion of the aspirant.

Asanas:
Asana is the physical practice of yoga poses. In addition to referring broadly to the physical aspect
of yoga, asana can also be used to describe a particular pose, as in, "The handstand is an asana that
is really hard for me," or "This flow consists of a series of standing asanas."
What most people call yoga could more specifically be called asana. Yoga has eight limbs. Besides
asana, yoga also encompasses pranayama (breathing exercises), dhyana (meditation), yamas (codes
of social conduct), niyamas (self-observances), pratyahara (withdrawal of the senses), dharana
(concentration), and samadhi (bliss).
Benefits of Asanas
Asanas are performed to improve flexibility, strength, and balance.1 Asanas—or yoga poses—help
the body's joints , ligaments, and muscles strengthen through movement. A regular yoga practice
can, over time, increase flexibility and mobility, lubricating the spine and alignment to aid in
everyday activity.All yoga poses are performed in conjunction and in sync with the breath, such as
Ujjayi breath. When you combine breathing techniques and focus, these asanas can also help
relieve stress and anxiety. The poses are not meant to simply be physical exercises but rather used
holistically as a mind-body practice to improve physical, mental, and spiritual health.
A regular asana practice can also help in strengthening the immune system2 and in improving
blood circulation throughout the body.3 Through a dedicated practice and with time, the body can
experience noticeable improvements and benefits from asanas.
Sanskrit Names for Poses
Asana is used as a suffix in the Sanskrit names for yoga poses, such as trikonasana (Triangle pose),
virabhadrasana (Warrior I), and eka pada rajakapotasana (Pigeon pose). Knowing this and a few
other Sanskrit terms can help you unravel these complicated names.For instance, eka pada means
one footed, so in these poses, you can expect that one foot will be doing something different from
the other. Parsva means side (usually a pose facing one side), parivrtta means turned (usually a
twisted version of a pose), supta means reclining, and so on. Beginning to see these patterns helps
the names start to make more sense.It is common to have the Sanskrit names for animals, Hindu
deities, and mythological figures included in the names for poses. You will also see variations in
the spelling as they can be translated into English in various ways. Some poses have more than one
name as they come from different yoga traditions.
History of Asana
Asana is the Sanskrit word for posture or seat. As interpreted from the archeological record and
primary source materials, the first yoga asanas were most probably seated positions for meditation.
They were described in the "Yoga Sutras" of Patanjali, written around the third century.Asanas are
part of the Hatha yoga practice, a branch of yoga combining physical movements and breathing
techniques. The "Hatha Yoga Pradipika" was written in the 15th century and describes only 14
postures, mostly seated positions. It is not until fairly recently in yoga's history (with the influence
of the Western physical culture movement) that asana developed a wide array of poses and became
the most widely practiced aspect of yoga.Understanding this goes a long way toward accepting that
asana is not a static practice enshrined through the millennia. Rather, it is constantly evolving. A
pose invented last week isn't less legitimate than one from the 1940s or the 16th century.
Bikram Choudhury attempted to patent 130 asanas in 2007. The U.S. Patent Office decided that
asanas could not be patented in the way he was claiming.4 The government of India then sought to
keep asanas in the public domain by publishing them in a public database.

Prana
Prana is energy, vitality, power. Prana is the foundation and essence of all life; the energy and
vitality that permeates the entire Universe. Prana flows in everything that exists.Furthermore, Prana
is the connecting link between the material world, consciousness and mind. It is what makes life on
the material level possible. Prana regulates all physical functions for example, the breath, the
supply of oxygen, digestion, elimination and much more. The function of the human body is much
like a transformer, receiving energy from the Universal flow of Prana, distributing that energy, and
then eliminating it. If a person or a room has a healthy, harmonious vibration, we say: “There is
good Prana here”. Illness, on the other hand, disturbs or blocks the flow of Prana. As we develop
the ability to control Prana, we gain harmony and health, of both body and mind. In addition to this,
with long and consistent practice an expansion of consciousness is experienced.
Prana is divided into ten main functions:
● The five Pranas - Prana, Apana, Udana, Vyana and Samana.
● The five Upa-Pranas - Naga, Kurma, Devadatta, Krikala and Dhananjaya.
The Five Pranas
PRANA:Prana is that special function of the Cosmic Prana, which supplies the human body with
essential oxygen. Its energy flows from the nostrils to the level of the heart.Clean air is vital for
health however, on its own air, is not the decisive factor in good health. Some people are prone to
illness, even though they are frequently out in the fresh air. On the other hand, people who live in
rooms or suburbs with relatively poor air quality remain healthy. Our health is not influenced by
external factors only. Health is also governed by our inner condition, by the power of resistance and
the inner will - Atmabala - the inner vitality. When Atmabala is strong within, external forces can
barely harm us. The practice of “Yoga in Daily Life” strengthens our vitality. Certain techniques in
particular activate Prana Shakti, these are Bhastrika, Nadi Shodhana and Ujjayi Pranayama.
APANA:Apana Prana influences the lower part of the body from the navel to the soles of the feet.
This Prana regulates the elimination process. Diseases that affect the lower abdomen, intestines,
kidneys, urinary tract, legs, etc., are the result of disturbed Apana Prana. The techniques of Nauli,
Agnisara Kriya, Ashvini Mudra and Mula Bandha serve to strengthen and purify Apana Prana.
VYANA:Vyana Prana flows through the nerve channels of the human body. It has an effect upon the
whole body and particularly on the Nadis. Poor circulation, impaired nerve stimulation and nervous
breakdowns, originate from a deficiency in Vyana Prana.Vyana Prana is activated and strengthened
in the practice of Kumbhaka (breath retention). With each natural, relaxed breath that we take, there
is an automatic pause between inhalation and exhalation. In the practice of Pranayama, this pause is
consciously lengthened. When we retain the breath, we withhold energy in the body with a
resultant build up in pressure. This pressure has the effect of releasing energy blockages.
Kumbhaka stimulates the nervous system. Anyone who has combined the techniques of Kumbhaka
and Maha Bandha, knows the subsequent, pleasant sensation of peace that flows through the body.
This is the reason for being able to meditate well after this practice. The feeling is produced by the
increased flow of Vyana Prana throughout the whole body.
UDANA:Udana Prana is the ascending energy that flows from the heart to the head and brain.
Udana Prana accompanies the awakening of the Kundalini Shakti. It is with the assistance of Udana
Prana that the Astral body separates itself from the physical body. A strong Udana Prana eases the
phase of death.With the control of Udana Prana, the body becomes very light and one may gain the
ability to levitate. When Udana Prana is in our control, external obstacles such as water, earth or
stones no longer obstruct us. Intense practice of the Yoga breath exercises also gives the possibility
of walking on water, or even floating in the air. Fakirs who sit or lie on a bed of nails possess the
ability to control their Udana Prana. Yogis who live in the forest and remain unaffected by heat,
cold, thorns and insects, etc., are protected through the control of Udana Prana. Udana Prana is
activated by the practice of Ujjayi Pranayama, Bhramari Pranayama, as well as Viparitakarani
Mudra.
SAMANA:Samana is a very important Prana that connects two main Chakras - Anahata and
Manipura Chakras.Samana Prana distributes the energy of nutrition throughout the human body.
We are aware that food not only influences our physical body, but also affects our psyche and
consciousness. The quality of our Prana (all types of Prana), is directly associated with the quality
of our food. Pure, sattvic, vegetarian food and the practice of Pranaya ma will provide a healthy
and balanced body for life.Samana Prana has an influence on the Manipura Chakra, whose
corresponding element is fire. When Yogis are able to control Samana Prana it is a pure flame
within them. Those in whom Samana Prana is completely pure are surrounded by a radiant aura,
which is even noticeable by those who do not have the ability to see auras.This Prana is
strengthened through the practice of Agnisara Kriya and Nauli. The practice of these two Kriyas
prevents digestive problems and Diabetes. It also improves one’s resistance to infectious disease
and cancer, due to the digestive fire that is awakened in the whole body, which purifies and cleans.
The most effective technique for awakening Samana Prana is Kriya Yoga. The practice of Kriya
Yoga warms the entire body. This is due to the rising of Samana Prana. A very aware person can
observe the aura of a Kriya practitioner becoming brighter and stronger with each round of
practice.
The Five Upa-Pranas:The five Upa-Pranas regulate important functions in the human body.
NAGA - Burping:Removes blockages of Prana and Apana and prevents gas formation in the
digestive system. Constant suppression of Naga can lead to Cardiac Arrhythmia. Other functions
include triggering of the vomit reflex due to indigestion and dissolving blockages of Samana Prana.
KURMA - Blinking:This Upa-Prana functions in the area of the eyes, controlling opening and
closing of the eyelids. The energy of this Upa-Prana is active when we are awake and is revitalised
when we sleep. Kurma protects the eyes from the penetration of dust and foreign bodies etc.
Disturbance of this Upa-Prana causes uncontrolled blinking and twitching of the eyelids. The
practice of Trataka provides balance and strength to Kurma, as does the chanting of OM, placing
warm palms over the eyes and Asanas where the head is bent forward.
DEVADATTA - Yawning:The function of Devadatta is similar to that of Samana Prana. Yawning
expels gas, reducing tiredness after eating. Certain foods such as grains, onions and garlic cause
fatigue. Many Yogis only eat vegetables and some milk products in order to sustain their level of
vitality and thereby reduce lethargy.
KRIKALA - Sneezing:Clears blockages in the respiratory system. Sneezing can also ease headache
as it releases energy blockages in the head and neck. A sneeze should not be suppressed, as this
may affect vertebrae in the cervical spine. In folk tales it is said that he who sneezes loudly and
strongly, has a long life. Weak sneezes indicate weak vitality.
DHANANJAYA - Opening and Closing of Heart Valves:Dhananjaya resides close to the Heart. It
influences the whole body and in particular the muscles of the heart by opening and closing the
heart valves. Cardiac Arrhythmia and even Heart Attack may occur due to a serious disturbance of
Dhananjaya.
There are four areas in the human body where the flow of Prana is particularly intensive -
through the sole of each foot and the palm of each hand. The feet are closely related to the earth
element and represent negative polarity. Therefore one should never concentrate on the feet in
meditation. Conversely, the energy of the palms originates from the heart. It is related to the air
element and produces positive polarity.

Pranayama:
The word Pranayama is made up of two words, “Prana” and “Ayama”. ‘Prana’ means the vital life
force energy, and ‘Ayama’ means to regulate or lengthen. Pranayama is the practice of regulating
and uplifting that life-force energy in our body.Pranayama is the practicing that brings the breath
and prana to its natural rhythm. As every living (and even non-living) organisms have prana in
them, it is what regulates everything and even connects everything. Thus, once we have our rhythm
of prana on-check, yoga happens in life.
Importance of Pranayama In Yoga
Prana is the vital energy for our physical and subtle layers. It flows in our body through thousands
of subtle energy channels called the ‘Nadis’ (energy channels) and energy centers (junctions of
those Nadis) called ‘Chakras’.The proper flow of fuel and other essential energy components in the
vehicle determines the quality of its performance. Likewise, the proper flow of Prana through the
Nadis and Chakras maintains the quality functioning of our body and our mind. Having a
continuous, smooth, steady flow and high level of prana keeps the mind calm, positive, and
enthusiastic.Eventually, the vehicle will consume its fuel and its performance will also deteriorate
over time with its continuous usage. Thus it needs to be refueled and serviced time and again.
Likewise, even our body and mind need to be refueled and serviced just like a vehicle to keep
running properly. Ensuing, ‘Prana’ would be the fuel, ‘Pranayama’ is the process of refueling and
practicing ‘Yoga Asanas’ and ‘Meditation’ would be similar to servicing the body and the mind.
As a result, Pranayama is mentioned as one of the 8 limbs of yoga (Ashtanga Yoga) in Patanjali
Yoga Sutras. Pranayama is a yogic way of breathing to increase our prana. Thus, with the help of
breath, increasing prana levels makes one more energetic, enthusiastic, positive and maintains a
good state of mind.
Additionally, science acknowledges that everything in this world is just a vibration. Each vibration
has its frequency and each frequency has its rhythm. Naturally, when two or more rhythms align
with each other, it creates harmony.Similarly, when the rhythm of our breath, mind and other bodily
synchronizes, it creates an amazing harmony, which is called Yoga. Pranayama adjusts the rhythm
of our breath to its natural states and lets yoga happen.
Stages of Breathing Process in Pranayama
When we inhale and exhale air, in the normal respiratory cycle, we consider it as one cycle of
respiration. Additionally, even this single cycle of respiration can be broken down into four phases.
Moreover, as per Patanjali Yoga Sutras, even prolonging or shortening in anyone of the cycle can
produce a different effect in our body.
Similarly, all the stages of one respiratory cycle have their own names and these are the essential
component of pranayama. To understand Pranayama, one needs to understand the breathing
process thoroughly. Breathing is a process that includes these four basic steps:
1. Puraka (Inhalation):The process of inhaling air gently and smoothly is known as ‘Puraka’. It is
a process of drawing in the air; it is expected to be smooth and continuous. If a person should pause
one or more times during the process of a single inhaling, the process might be spoken of as a
broken Puraka rather than as a series of Puraka.
2. Abhyantara Kumbhaka (Pause After Inhalation):This stage of pranayama consists of holding
the breath for a short while after inhalation of air. Kumbhaka consists of a deliberate stoppage of
the flow of air and retention of the air in the lungs, without any movement of lungs or muscles or
any part of the body and without any incipient movements. A beginner may experiment by using
some force to keep such pause motionless. Quite elaborate instructions and techniques have been
worked out for this purpose.
3. Rechaka (Exhalation):The simple process of exhalation is known as ‘Rechaka’. Moreover, in
simple pranayama expiration is done without using any muscular force, as due to the recoil of
alveoli and the air pressure, the air from the lungs should be released freely.Like inhalation, it too
should be smooth and continuous, though often the speed of exhaling is different from that of
inhaling. Normally, muscular energy is used for inhaling whereas exhaling consists merely in
relaxing the tensed muscles. Such relaxing forces air from the lungs as they return to an untensed
condition.
However, a person can force air out with muscular effort; so when he sits or stands erect and has
his abdominal muscles under constant control, a muscular effort may be used for both inhaling and
exhaling.Especially if one deliberately smoothes the course of his breathing and holds the cycles in
regular or definitely irregular patterns, he is likely to use muscular energy at each stage, including
the pauses. However, in a condition of complete relaxation, one should expect an effort to be
needed only for inhaling.
4. Bhaya Khumbaka (Pause After Exhalation):This component is a pause after expiration, which
mostly goes unnoticed in normal physiological respiration. The fourth stage, the empty pause,
completes the cycle which terminates as the pause ends and a new inhalation begins.

Kundalini yoga:
Kundalini Yoga is a combination of movement, breath (pranayama), meditation, and chanting. Its
goal is not only to make the body stronger and more energetic, but also to increase your level of
self-awareness and consciousness.The Kundalini is untapped energy, coiled at the base of the
spine.1 This energy can be drawn up through the body, awakening each of the seven chakras. Full
enlightenment occurs when this energy reaches the crown chakra at the top of the head.Kundalini
energy is often represented as a snake coiled at the bottom of the spine.
Because Kundalini Yoga is more spiritual, it is different than exercise-based forms of yoga such as
Iyengar Yoga, Bikram Yoga, and Power Yoga. Although Hatha Yoga also involves some level of
self-reflection, it doesn't have the chanting of Kundalini Yoga.
When practicing Kundalini, it's helpful to know what certain terms mean. This includes kriyas,
mudras, mantras, and chakras.
Kriyas:Kundalini Yoga asana sequences are called kriyas. Each kriya is a preset series of poses
done with a specific breathing technique, blocking energy flow to certain areas of the body (called
a bandha) to intensify the effects of the pose.Some kriyas may consist of rapid, repetitive
movements. In others, the poses are held for several minutes. In a group class situation, the teacher
will typically pick a set of kriyas beneficial to most people.
Mudras:Mudras are the gestures you make when doing yoga, generally with your hands. Each
gesture gives a different message to the mind and body.The Anjali mudra is perhaps the best
known. This is sometimes referred to as the prayer position and involves placing the palms of the
hands together with your thumbs resting against your chest. This mudra calms the mind while
bringing harmony to both sides of the body.The Gyan mudra is the most common Kundalini Yoga
mudra. To do it, you put your thumb and index finger together, applying pressure, while the
remaining fingers are extended. This mudra helps to promote knowledge and encourage
receptiveness.
Mantras:Part of the Kundalini practice is to chant mantras or positive affirmations. Often, these
mantras are chanted in Gurmukhi, though they are also sometimes spoken in English. Some of the
mantras you may use in a Kundalini Yoga session include:
Sat Nam, which means "I am truth" or "Truth is my identity"
Ong So Hung, which means "Creator, I am Thou"
Guru Guru Wahe Guru Guru Ram Das Guru, which means "Wise, wise is the one who serves
Infinity"
Ong Namo Guru Dev Namo, which means "I bow to the Creative Wisdom, I bow to the Divine
Teacher within"
Chakras:Each kriya is associated with a particular chakra. There are seven chakras, or energy
points, in the body.2 Opening these chakras helps keep the mind and body aligned, creating optimal
mental and physical health and well-being.
Benefits of Kundalini
Kundalini Yoga offers benefits for people of all ages. Some of these benefits are mental, whereas
others are physical.
a.Reduced Stress and Anxiety
One study involving elementary and middle school students found that, after 10 weeks of Kundalini
Yoga, students had "significantly improved" levels of stress and resilience.3 Similar results have
been found on the stress levels of adults.Another piece of research reports that this style of yoga
may also be helpful for people with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).5 Other studies have
connected Kundalini Yoga with lowering anxiety for people with generalized anxiety disorder.6
b.Improved Cognition and Mood
A 2017 study notes that, though cognitive decline is common as we grow older, a 12-week
Kundalini Yoga program helps improve age-related cognitive impairment (both memory and
executive functioning). And it does so both short and long-term.This study further found that
Kundalini Yoga also has positive effects on mood. Subjects engaged in this yoga style had
improvements in their feelings of depression and apathy, in addition to reporting higher levels of
resilience.
c.Healthier Blood Sugar Levels:Approximately one in ten Americans have diabetes, with a large
majority diagnosed with type 2.8 If you have type 2 diabetes, your body doesn't respond to insulin
as it should. This causes it to make more, increasing your blood sugar levels.
Research indicates that Kundalini Yoga may help by reducing these blood sugar levels, partially by
reducing hormones that increase blood glucose secretions. It also helps to reduce weight, which is
beneficial for people with type 2 diabetes as obesity contributes to this disease.9
d.Better Flexibility:If you want to be more flexible, Kundalini Yoga may help. One study
involving 60 college women found that 16 weeks of 60-minute training sessions held six times per
week "significantly improved" the participants' flexibility.Increased flexibility can potentially help
reduce back pain by stretching the muscles and ligaments. This is enhanced by yoga's ability to
increase circulation, allowing the body to get healing oxygen and nutrients to the pained area.11

Yoga therapy:
Yoga therapy is a type of therapy that uses yoga postures, breathing exercises, meditation, and
guided imagery to improve mental and physical health. The holistic focus of yoga therapy
encourages the integration of mind, body, and spirit. Modern yoga therapy covers a broad range of
therapeutic modalities, incorporating elements from both physical therapy and psychotherapy.

ISSUES TREATED BY YOGA THERAPY

Yoga therapy is a growing field and scientific evidence has begun to emphasize its efficacy. It is
used to treat existing mental and physical health issues, but can also be used as a self-care strategy
for prevention and maintenance.Yoga therapy is well established as a treatment for depression and
anxiety. A meta-analysis cited in the Primary Care Companion for CNS Disorders found that yoga
therapy also shows promise for the treatment of posttraumatic stress (PTSD) and schizophrenia.
Additionally, yoga therapists have begun to develop treatment modalities to suit children with
autism. The book Yoga Therapy for Children with Autism and Special Needs, written in 2013 by
yoga teacher Louise Goldberg, is already considered a critical text for novice and experienced yoga
therapists alike.According to a 2012 article in Social Work Today magazine, yoga therapy is also
emerging as an effective treatment for substance abuse issues. Mental health professionals point out
the way yoga positively impacts the parts of the mind and body susceptible to addiction. Studies
have shown that yoga boosts the neurotransmitter GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), which is
important because GABA levels are statistically low in people who experience substance abuse,
anxiety, and depression.Because of its concentration on mind and body integration, yoga therapy is
also used to address many physical health issues. It has been effectively used to treat back pain,
heart conditions, asthma, chronic fatigue, hypertension, multiple sclerosis, and side effects of
chemotherapy.
PRACTICE AND BENEFITS OF YOGA THERAPY: Yoga therapy is practiced in a wide range of
formats. Physical therapists, for example, often implement yoga techniques in their delivery of
massage and other treatments. Yoga therapy practice can resemble physical therapy, rehabilitative
therapy, and/or psychotherapy. Unlike a standard yoga class, yoga therapy sessions are typically
conducted in one-on-one or small group settings. Yoga therapy can be provided as an adjunct
therapy to complement other forms of treatment, or it can be used to directly treat a specific issue.
Yoga techniques range from simple to advanced, and can be enjoyed by people of all ages.
Potential benefits from yoga therapy include stress reduction, psychological well-being, improved
diet, and efficient functioning of bodily systems. A 2011 qualitative study from Inkanyiso: Journal
of Humanities and Social Sciences examined the effects of yoga therapy on anxiety. The findings
not only indicated that yoga therapy effectively reduced subjects' anxiety, but improvement across
several dimensions of physical and mental health including physicality, relaxation, and
mindfulness.
HISTORY OF YOGA THERAPY: Yoga therapy is rooted in the ancient practice of yoga, which
originated thousands of years ago in India. Yoga made its way to the United States in the late
1800s, but yoga therapy emerged in a formal manner in the 1980s as the result of a study conducted
by Dr. Dean Ornish. The study illustrated how the implementation of a healthy lifestyle program
could reverse heart disease. Ornish’s program included therapeutic yoga and was the first of its
kind to highlight the benefits of using yoga in this way. This program for treating heart disease was
approved for insurance coverage in 1990 and it marked the beginning of the medical field's
acceptance of yoga as a treatment option.In 1983, the Biomedical Yoga Trust was founded to
further develop and standardize the field of yoga therapy. The International Association of Yoga
Therapists (IAYT) was founded in 1989 and has since hosted yoga conferences, published the
Journal of the International Association of Yoga Therapists, and contributed to the creation of yoga
therapy training standards. Both organizations have facilitated research to explore the extent of
yoga therapy's potential.
WHAT TO EXPECT FROM YOGA THERAPY
When a person decides to initiate yoga therapy, the therapist will first conduct an initial assessment.
This assessment is designed to do the following:
● Identify health problems
● Assess lifestyle and physical capability
● Discuss reasons for seeking therapy
● Create a course of treatment
Once the treatment plan is established in this first consultation, the frequency of sessions is
agreed upon and sessions are scheduled. From this point, therapy sessions will most likely
include the following components:
a.Breathing Exercises (Prayanama): The therapist will guide the person in therapy through a
series of breathing exercises ranging from energizing breaths to balancing breaths.
Physical Postures (Asana): The therapist will teach the person in treatment appropriate yoga poses
that address problem areas. For example, the “Legs Up the Wall” pose is used to treat things like
anxiety and insomnia. In this pose, the person lays on his or her back with legs positioned up
against the wall.
b.Meditation: Relaxation and mindfulness are the focus of meditation when it is combined with
yoga poses.
c.Guided Imagery: The yoga therapist attempts to calm the body and mind by providing a guided
visualization intended to bring inner peace.
d.Homework: An important element for any yoga practice is to find a way to incorporate it into
daily life. Yoga therapists provide instructions on how to use what has been learned in treatment at
home.
Nadis and Chakras:
Instead, they are subtle energy channels through which prana or life-force energy flows. In the
same way our physical veins carry blood through our circulatory system, the nadis are believed to
be subtle channels that carry energy through our being.Despite there being an uncountable number
of nadis in the body, there are three that are said to be of the utmost importance.
These three major “rivers” criss-cross around each other to create a double helix pattern (similar to
the shape of our DNA). At each point that all three major nadis intersect, a major chakra is formed
These Are the 3 Most Important Nadis of the Body:
All three of these major channels begin at the base of the spine and run up or along the central axis
of the body (the spine).
1. Sushumna Nadi:Sushumna Nadi is considered to be the single most important energy channel
within the body. This central channel runs from the base of the spine up to the crown of the head –
along the central axis of the core.It is believed that there is a sacred, coiled serpent energy that lives
in each and every one of us. Typically, this energy (known as Kundalini Shakti) lies dormant at the
base of the spine, coiled three and a half times around the Muladhara Chakra (Root Chakra).
Once awakened, Kundalini Shakti rises up the central channel of Sushumna, activating every
chakra in its path, to reach its true home at the Sahasrara Chakra (Crown Chakra). When this
happens, we reach enlightenment.Ultimately, it’s believed that when Sushumna Nadi is balanced
and active, we find true harmony in ourselves and we are fully awakened to the Divine.
2. Ida Nadi:Ida Nadi begins at the base of the spine and then runs up the central axis of the spine
criss-crossing over Sushumna Nadi at each major chakra, and eventually, terminates in the left
nostril.Ida is associated with the lunar side of our bodies and our beings. It is the “yin” side that is
considered to be softer, darker, more feminine, and more mysterious.Because it terminates in the
left nostril, it is also associated with right brain dominance, which is theorized to lean toward
creativity and artistry.
3. Pingala Nadi:Pingala Nadi also begins at the base of the spine at the Root Chakra. It then runs
up the central column of the spine, criss-crossing around Sushumna and Ida Nadis at every major
chakra. Pingala eventually terminates in the right nostril.This channel is associated with the solar
side of our bodies and our beings. It is the “yang” side that is considered to be stronger, lighter,
more masculine, and more obvious.Because it terminates in the right nostril, it is also associated
with left brain dominance, which is theorized to learn toward analytical and methodical thinking.

Any practice that utilizes the concepts of sun and moon energies (sometimes called yin and yang or
ha and tha) would manipulate and activate the nadis.Slower, more lunar practices like Yin Yoga
would target the Ida Nadi, whereas more active, solar practices like Ashtanga Yoga would target
the Pingala Nadi.Also, pranayama practices such as Nadi Shodhana (literally meaning “channel
cleansing breath” or often called Alternate Nostril Breath) specifically target the nadis – they’re
even in the name!By alternating which nostril we breathe through, we isolate the Ida and Pingala
Nadis to create greater balance between them.
We can also target the nadis by working with the chakras in our practice. By awakening and
activating specific chakras, we inevitably also awaken and activate the nadis that intersect at that
energy center.Furthermore, Ida and Pingala Nadi are also associated with our sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous systems – respectively our fight-or-flight and rest-and-digest
responses.When we are more activated (such as when exercising), our fight-or-flight response kicks
in and we stimulate Pingala Nadi. When we are more relaxed (such as when practicing Restorative
Yoga), our rest-and-digest response turns on and we stimulate Ida Nadi.

Chakras -refer to various energy centers in your body that correspond to specific nerve bundles
and internal organs. The seven major chakras run from the base of your spine to the top of your
head. If these energy centers get blocked, you may experience physical or emotional symptoms
related to a particular chakra.When a chakra i.e. wheel of energy is stuck, movement can help
release the prana (energy). Yoga postures are a great way to release stale or stuck energy from the
body because they invite fresh, vital energy back in through poses and the breath.The practice of
yoga ultimately leads us to a state of union, which is possible when we create a state in our body
where energy can flow freely from the base of the spine (the Root Chakra), through and beyond the
top of the head (the Crown Chakra). When energy can flow freely through us like this, we can
achieve a state of union with the cosmic energy, which flows through all living things. When each
chakra is unblocked, it spins like a wheel, hence the word ‘chakra’ meaning ‘wheel’ in
Sanskrit.Since yoga is both a physical and spiritual practice, yoga poses are not only exercises for
your body but also your mind, emotions, and spirit, making it the perfect practice for balancing
your chakras.
The 7 chakras & yoga asanas to balance them
● Muladhara Chakra
● Swadishthana Chakra
● Manipura Chakra
● Anahata Chakra
● Vishuddhi Chakra
● Ajna Chakra
● Sahasrara Chakra
1. Muladhara Chakra
Element: Earth
Color: Red
Mantra: LAM
Location: Base of the spine between the anus and genitals
How it affects the body: The Muladhara Chakra influences the health of the bones, teeth, nails,
anus, prostate, adrenals, kidneys, lower digestive functions, excretory functions, and sexual
activity.Imbalance in the chakra leads to tiredness, poor sleep, lower back pain, sciatica,
constipation, depression, immune-related disorders, obesity, and eating disorders.

The behavioral impact of the imbalance - Traits of a balanced chakra:

ungrounded fear a feeling of being grounded and centered
anger sense of commitment and independence
low self-esteem energy and vitality
insecurity strength and stillness
obsession with comfort ability to digest food well

Postures that balance chakra: Grounding-into-feet poses like

o Mountain Pose
o Side-Angle Pose
o Warrior Pose
o Standing Forward Bend
o Bridge Pose

2. Swadishthana Chakra
Element: Water
Color: Orange
Mantra: VAM
Location: Situated at the base of the pubis between the genitals and the sacral nerve plexus
How it affects the body: The Swadishthana Chakra deals with the individual’s emotional identity,
creativity, desire, pleasure and self-gratification, procreation, and personal relationships.
It governs the sexual organs, stomach, upper intestines, liver, gallbladder, kidney, pancreas, adrenal
glands, spleen, middle spine, and autoimmune system.
An unbalanced Swadishthana Chakra leads to lower back pain, sciatica, decreased libido, pelvic
pain, urinary problems, poor digestion, low resistance to infection and viruses, tiredness, hormonal
imbalances, and menstrual problems.

The behavioral impact of imbalance - Traits of a balanced chakra:

irritability a feeling of compassion and friendliness
shyness intuitiveness
guilt vitality
tendency to blame sense of belonging
sexual obsession good sense of humor

Postures that balance chakra: Hip opening poses like

o Standing Wide Forward Bend
o Sitting Wide Forward Bend
o Bound Angle Pose

3. Manipura Chakra
Element: Fire
Color: Yellow
Mantra: RAM
Location: At the level of the umbilicus corresponding to the gastric or solar plexus
How it affects the body: Manipura Chakra deals with a sense of belonging, mental understanding of
emotions, and defines self-esteem in an individual.
It governs the effective functioning of the upper abdomen, gallbladder, liver, middle spine, kidney,
adrenals, small intestines, and the stomach.
An unbalanced Manipura Chakra may lead to diabetes, pancreatitis, adrenal imbalances, arthritis,
colon diseases, stomach ulcers, intestinal tumors, anorexia/bulimia, or low blood pressure.

The behavioral impact of the imbalance - Traits of a balanced chakra:

 lack of self-esteem energetic and confident nature
timidness intelligence
sense of depression high productivity
fear of rejection improved focus
inability to make decisions good digestion

Postures that balance chakra: Heat-building poses like

o Sun Salutation Pose
o Warrior Pose
o Backbends like Bow Pose
o Twists like Sitting Half-spinal Twist
o Abdominal-strengthening poses like Boat Pose

4. Anahata Chakra
Element: Air
Colors: Green or pink
Mantra: YAM
Location: On the cardiac plexus in the region of the heart
How it affects the body: Anahata Chakra affects a person’s social identity and influences traits like
trust, forgiveness, unconditional love, wisdom, compassion, and issues of the soul.
It deals with the functioning of the heart, rib cage, blood, circulatory system, lungs and diaphragm,
thymus gland, breasts, esophagus, shoulders, arms, hands.
An imbalance can cause issues related to the thoracic spine, upper back and shoulder problems,
asthma, heart conditions, shallow breathing, and lung diseases.

The behavioral impact of the imbalance - Traits of a balanced chakra:

difficulty with love the feeling of completeness and wholeness
lack of hope, compassion, and confidence compassion
feeling of despair empathy
mood variations friendliness , optimism
Postures that balance chakra: Chest-openers like
o Camel Pose
o Cobra Pose
o Fish Pose
o Pranayamas like Alternate Nostril Breathing or Bellow breath

5. Vishuddhi Chakra
Element: Sound or Ether
Color: Blue
Mantra: HAM
Location: On the level of the throat, the nerve plexus of the pharynx region
How it affects the body: Vishuddhi Chakra deals with personality traits like communication,
creativity, faith, truthfulness, self-awareness, and expression.
It governs the throat, the thyroid, and parathyroid gland, trachea, cervical vertebrae, vocal cords,
neck and shoulders, arms, hands, esophagus, mouth, teeth, and gums.
An unbalanced Vishuddhi Chakra causes thyroid dysfunctions, sore throat, stiff neck, mouth ulcers,
gum or tooth problems, laryngitis, and hearing problems.

The behavioral impact of the imbalance - Traits of a balanced chakra:

shaken faith Increased creativity and expressiveness
indecisiveness effective communication skills
weak will-power contentedness
lack of expressiveness good listening abilities

Postures that balance chakra:

o Fish Pose
o Cat Stretch
o Neck stretches like Balasana and Supported Shoulder Stand
o Bridge Pose
o Plow Pose

6. Ajna Chakra
Element: Light
Colors: Indigo
Mantra: AUM or OM
Location: Between the eyebrows (third eye)
How it affects the body: Ajna Chakra deals with self-awareness, wisdom, intellect, clairvoyance,
implementation of ideas, detachment, insight, understanding, and intuitive reasoning.
It governs the functions of the brain, eyes, ears, nose, pituitary gland, pineal glands, and the
neurological system. Any imbalance could lead to headaches, nightmares, eyestrain, learning
disabilities, panic, depression, blindness, deafness, seizures, or spinal dysfunctions.

The behavioral impact of the imbalance: - Traits of a balanced chakra:

poor judgment clear thinking
confusion healthy imagination
fear of truth strong intuition power
indiscipline good concentration
concentration issues improved focus
Postures that balance chakra:
o Child Pose
o Meditation
o Seated Yoga Mudra
o Eye exercises like palming the eyes and rotational viewing

7. Sahasrara Chakra
Element: Conscience
Colors: Violet or White
Mantra: Silence
Location: Crown of the head
How it affects the body: Sahasrara Chakra influences intuitive knowledge, connection to
spirituality, integration of mind-body-spirit, and conscious awareness.
It governs the center of the head and midline above the ears, brain, nervous system, and the pineal
gland.
An imbalance in the Sahasrara Chakra causes chronic exhaustion and sensitivity to light and sound.

The behavioral impact of the imbalance - Traits of a balanced chakra:

lack of purpose a feeling of oneness with the universe
identity crisis open-mindedness
disbelief in any spiritual practices,
or devotion intelligence
lack of inspiration thoughtfulness
sense of fear receptivity to thoughts and ideas
materialistic nature an overall harmonious personality
Postures that balance chakra:
o Balancing poses like Tree Pose that bring awareness to the body
o Yoga Mudra
o Meditation

Yoga and stress:

Yoga encourages mental and physical relaxation, which helps reduce stress and anxiety. The
physical postures promote flexibility, relieve tension, and alleviate pain.Yoga poses may help you
release physical blockages like muscle knots, helping release emotions and tension. They also
promote the release of mood-boosting endorphins, which are the feel-good hormones that can
positively affect how you handle stress.Focusing on the present moment during your yoga practice
enhances your awareness, boosts your concentration, and centers your mind.As you become aware
of the transitory nature of your bodily sensations, thoughts, and feelings, you may find it easier to
let go of attachments to positive, negative, and neutral experiences. You may also learn to cultivate
feelings such as love, joy, and serenity.Breathing exercises, known as pranayama in Sanskrit, teach
you to relax, regulate your breath, and breathe deeply. This helps reduce stress and calm your body
and mind. Breathing techniques can also enhance your sleep quality and encourage mindfulness.
You can do breathing exercises during your yoga practice or when you want to focus on relaxation
throughout the day. These techniques are also useful when you experience uncomfortable emotions
or difficult situations.
A few popular types of pranayama include:
● alternate nostril breathing (nadi shodhana)
● ujjayi breathing
● breath of fire (kapalabhati)
● lion’s breath (simhasana)
● sitali breath
● humming bee breath (bhramari)
Yoga poses for stress relief
a.Cat-Cow Pose (Marjaryasana to Bitilasana):This pose allows you to connect your breath to your
movements as you calm your mind and release stress. Allow your breath to guide each movement.
● Begin in a tabletop position.
● Place your wrists underneath your shoulders and your knees underneath your hips.
● As you inhale, turn your gaze toward the ceiling and allow your belly to move toward
your mat, arching your back. This is Cow Pose.
● As you exhale, draw your chin in toward your chest and bend your spine toward the
ceiling, like a cat.
● Continue to flow between these two positions for 1 minute.
b.Child’s Pose (Balasana):Child’s pose helps create an inward focus and restore energy. It also
supports mental and physical relaxation.
● For more support, place a cushion under your forehead, torso, or thighs.
● From a kneeling position, place your knees together or slightly apart.
● Sit back on your heels.
● Hinge at your hips as you fold forward, resting your forehead on your mat.
● Extend your arms in front of you or alongside your legs.
● Allow your torso to sink into your thighs.
● Breathe deeply and focus on relaxing your body.
● Hold this pose for up to 5 minutes.
c.Legs-Up-the-Wall Pose (Viparita Karani):Legs-Up-the-Wall Pose provides deep relaxation while
boosting lymph flow and circulation.
● Sit on the floor facing the wall, with your body as close to the wall as possible.
● Lie on your back and place your legs up the wall with straight knees.
● Position your hips next to the wall or a few inches away.
● Place your arms alongside your body, or place one hand on your belly and one hand
on your chest.
● Hold this pose for up to 15 minutes.
d.Corpse Pose (Savasana):During this pose, focus on breathing deeply as you calm your mind and
let go of tension.
● Lie flat on your back with your feet slightly wider than your hips.
● Allow your toes to splay out to the sides.
● Position your arms next to your body at a 45-degree angle.
● Align your head, neck, and shoulders with your spine.
● Breathe deeply as you allow your body to fully relax.
● Stay in this pose for 10–20 minutes.
e.Yoga meditation for stress relief:You can practice meditation on its own or include it as part of
your asana routine. Meditation positions include sitting on a chair or on the floor. You can also do
standing, walking, and lying-down meditation.Experiment with a few types of meditation on your
own or seek the guidance of a teacher who can help you create a structured, consistent routine.
Once you’ve established a meditation practice, stick to this routine for some time instead of
changing regularly.Yoga nidra, known as yogic sleep, is a guided meditation that you do in-person
with a teacher or via a recording. It promotes deep relaxation, alleviates stress, and helps you sleep
better.Yoga nidra is a fantastic option when you’re too tired for an asana (moving through poses) or
seated meditation practice but still want to dedicate time to your yoga routine.

Tips when using yoga for stress relief

Yoga can be very effective when trying to calm your body and mind. To get the most out of your
stress relief, remember these tips.
● Release negativity during your yoga practice:Negative thoughts are bound to arise
when you do yoga. You can practice awareness, acceptance, and detachment to create
positive mental patterns. This may help you have fewer negative thoughts and be less
affected by them.Learn to focus on the present moment and bring your attention to
your thoughts as they arise and pass, which helps you recognize their fleeting
nature.Each time you find yourself getting lost in your thoughts — whether they’re
positive or negative — bring your awareness back to your breath and body. Over time,
you can make it a habit to detach from both positive and negative states of mind.
● Employ stress relief techniques off the mat:To manage stress off the mat, take a look
at your schedule and lifestyle to see where you can make changes. This may include
allowing yourself more free time, developing a healthy eating plan, or spending more
time in nature.While yoga can provide tremendous benefits, it’s important to
remember that you will still experience the ups and downs of life. It’s natural to
experience a wide range of feelings and emotions.If you find your yoga practice
creates more stress in your life, talk to an instructor who can help you develop a
routine tailored to your needs.

UNIT 5: ALTERNATIVE HEALING TECHNIQUES:

1.Meditation -can be generally defined as mind and body techniques intended to bring about a
heightened state of awareness and focused attention. Depending on the type of meditation, these
heightened states are aimed at creating changes in consciousness that lead to outcomes including:
● Deep relaxation
● Reduced stress
● A calm mind
● Insight into the nature of reality
● Liberation from suffering
● Awakening physical and spiritual energies
● Communing with god, the universe, or nature
● Numerous meditation techniques have been clinically shown to result in a wide
variety of physical and psychological benefits.
9 Types of Meditation Practiced Today
● Mindfulness
● Vipassana
● Mettā (Loving kindness)
● Zen
● Mantra meditation
● Transcendental Meditation
 ● Chakra meditation
● Visualization
● Gratitude meditation
Not all of these types of meditation are right for everyone. Each type fits with different
temperaments, skill sets, and goals. Let’s take a closer look at each type and find the type that fits
you.
1.Mindfulness :One of the most well-known definitions of mindfulness is the awareness that arises
through “paying attention in a particular way: on purpose, in the present moment, and
nonjudgmentally.”
Origins:Mindfulness meditation encompasses a set of techniques adapted from Buddhist traditions
dating back over 2500 years. Though practiced for centuries in South and East Asia, it wasn’t until
the 1970s that mindfulness was introduced to the West in spiritual, medical, and mental health
contexts by pioneers like biologist John Kabat-Zinn and others. [7]
How to Practice:Practicing mindfulness begins at the most obvious levels of experience, often by
noticing sounds in the room, your breath, or the sensations in your body. In the early stages of
practice, the focus is on strengthening your ability to focus your attention. This entails learning how
to switch your attention from one part of the experience to another. As you get better at focusing
your attention—not through perfect focus, but by being willing to start over, again and again—you
begin to notice subtler aspects of experience. This simple act of noticing breaks patterns of how we
identify with and react to our experiences. These changes are deep, affecting how your nervous
system responds to things that would normally feed anxiety, addictive behaviors, and depression.
After only a few weeks of practice, mindfulness can help you to see people—including yourself—
more clearly, without thick layers of judgment and bias.
Orientation:In mindfulness your orientation or the way you look at your experience is important.
Think of it as your attitude. In mindfulness practice, you cultivate an attitude of curiosity, openness,
and acceptance.Brain scans of meditators who were intentionally curious show that curiosity
dramatically quiets the brain systems that correspond with our experience of being an “I” or ego.
This is important because these are the systems responsible for addictive and destructive habits.
Acceptance:This experience is often called “acceptance”. But it’s not passive or resigned. Mindful
acceptance is your ability to experience things fully, without suppressing any part of it, even if it’s
uncomfortable. It also means not getting too preoccupied with, and attached to good experiences.
● Benefits of Mindfulness PracticeMindfulness is the most researched type of
meditation with over 1000 studies to date. These studies show consistently positive
effects on many factors of health and wellbeing. Here are just a few:
Studies show that mindfulness improves many markers of cognitive function,
including enhanced attention and memory, age-related memory loss, and increased
attention and mental quickness even in older people. [9] [10] [11]
● A review of more than 200 studies found mindfulness practices to be especially
effective for reducing stress, anxiety, and depression. [12]
● Mindfulness has also been shown to help people with specific problems including
pain, smoking, and addiction. [13] [14]
● Mindfulness-based interventions can also improve physical health. Studies show that
it can boost the immune system while reducing the severity of diseases including
 irritable bowel syndrome, post-traumatic stress disorder, and fibromyalgia. [15] [16]
[17] [18]
2.VipassanaThis ancient type of meditation is aimed at using focused awareness to intensely
examine certain aspects of your existence. This examination is intended to liberate you from the
suffering caused by false perceptions. Vipassana is a Buddhist term often translated as “insight”,
which is expanded on as, “insight into the true nature of reality.” The key areas of contemplation in
vipassana include:
● Suffering/unsatisfactoriness: we desire what we don’t have, and are never fully
gratified by the things we do have.
● Impermanence: everything is constantly changing.
● “Non-self”, or “emptiness”: There is no essential “you”. Your thoughts, sensations,
and desires are always changing. The sense of an intrinsic individual experiencer, an
“I” or self, is an illusion.
Origins:From the earliest period of Buddhism over 2500 years ago, vipassana was one element of a
collection of practices and qualities of mind seen as important for spiritual awakening. Though
vipassana disappeared in the 10th century, it was revived in the 18th century in Burma, and
eventually popularized in the West in non-religious forms, most popularly S. N. Goenka. Each year
hundreds of thousands of people around the world undertake 10-day retreats at centers founded by
Goenka. [19] Vipassana is the form of meditation that many Western mindfulness teachers studied
in places like Burma and SouthEast Asia. Many of the principles and techniques of what we think
of today as mindfulness, is derived from traditional vipassana practices, specifically concentration
on breath.
The Practice:The aim of vipassana practice is to bring “insight into the true nature of reality,” via
contemplation of several key areas of human existence: “suffering, unsatisfactoriness,”
“impermanence,” “non-self,” and “emptiness.”The discipline is rooted in the idea that we as
humans have the capacity to overcome our impulses, reactivity, pain, and conflicts.
Though the specifics of practicing vipassana can differ between communities and teachers, it
generally begins with mindfulness of breath as a way to stabilize the mind and strengthen your
faculties of focusing and noticing. On a standard 10-day retreat, the first two to three days can be
spent focusing only on your breath for 8-10 hours a day in a seated posture. Once you’ve achieved
what is called “access concentration”, you then turn your attention to sensations on the body.
Beginning at the head and continuing down to your toes, and back up, you bring awareness to every
sensation–subtle, intense, painful, pleasant etc.– without judgment or attachment.
Noticing your changing sensations along with your moment-by-moment reactions, resistances, and
desires, gives you a direct experiential insight into realty. You experience how attachment causes
suffering, the impermanent nature of all phenomena, and the liberating principle of non-self.
Benefits of Vipassana:Vipassana is another widely studied type of meditation. Some of the most
notable findings come from research conducted in prison settings. A 4-year trial of Vipassana
practice at King County Jail, showed that participating inmates were 20% less likely to return to
prison. Another study looking at numerous vipassana program found that inmate meditators used
less alcohol, marijuana, and crack cocaine, while improving social and psychological functioning,
showed higher optimism. Among inmates with mental illness, vipassana meditators showed less
severe psychiatric symptoms. [21]
3.Mettā (Loving-Kindness):Mettā meditation is often referred to as loving-kindness. Associated
mainly with Buddhism, mettā aims to cultivate unconditional kind and loving attitudes toward
oneself and others. Doing mettā generally consists of silently repeating phrases expressing kindness
and compassion. These phrases are often directed at internal visualizations of the people you are
wishing well.
Origins:Though mostly associated with Buddhist traditions, principles of mettā pre-exist Buddhism
and can be found in early Indian texts associated with Jainism and Hinduism.
The word mettā is from the Pali language of 5th century Buddhism, and is derived from Sanskrit,
an even older language of India. Mettā means benevolence, loving-kindness, friendliness, goodwill,
and active interest in others.
How to Practice:A common way to practice mettā begins with holding the image or the feeling of
another person in your mind. Then you begin to offer positive wishes or intentions to the person.
This could take various forms including:Silently reciting the phrase, “May you be safe, happy, and
healthy.” Visualizing a beam of warm light extending from your body to theirs, carrying these
wishes to them. Holding the person in your mind with a feeling of appreciation, compassion, or
generosity. The practice becomes progressively more difficult. You start by visualizing someone
who it’s easy to feel love and compassion towards–maybe your mother, or a mentor. Then you
progress to a person you feel neutral towards, and on to people who have done you wrong, to
people who have harmed many others. However, not all versions of metta arrive at the most
difficult target of your well-wishes. Though not technically mindfulness, mettā is often used to
support mindfulness practice.
Benefits of Mettā:Studies show that metta meditation can improve wellbeing in many areas
including:
● Making people less critical towards themselves. [24]
● Decreasing PTSD symptoms while increasing self-compassion in people with PTSD.
[25]
● Improves longevity by increasing telomere length. [26]
● Reducing physical pain and migraines. [27]
Zen:Zen meditation, also known as Zazen, is a Japanese type of Buddhist meditation that aims at
achieving a direct insight into the nature of reality.
Origins:The word Zen is Japanese, though it’s derived from the Chinese word Chan, which itself is
a transliteration of the Sanskrit word dhyana–the ancient Indian word for meditation. [28]
Though zen (as chan) was part of Chinese Buddhist practice beginning 2000 years ago, it did not
enter Japan and become zen, until the 13th century. After arriving in Japan, zen was absorbed into
and blended with pre-existing Japanese cultural aesthetics and norms.
The Practice:There are ways of practicing zen meditation. Two of the most common include:
● Observation of breath: Sitting in a seated meditation posture with a straight spine and
focusing on your breath entering and exiting your nostrils. When starting out this is
aided by counting the breath in your mind. With each combination of inhale and
exhale you count once, from 1-10. Then start over again, or count backwards.
● Shikantaza (“just sitting”): With this technique there is no specific object of focus.
You simply remain aware of the thoughts spontaneously passing through your mind,
sensations in the body, and observation of the world around you.
Benefits of Zen meditation :Though zen has not been as formally researched as mindfulness, it is a
similar form of meditation and offers many similar benefits including reductions of stress and
emotional regulation.

Mantra Meditation :A mantra is a syllable or word that meditators repeat. Mantra meditation is
similar to other forms of focused attention meditation. But instead of focusing on the breath, you
focus on a syllable, word, or phrase.In some types of mantra meditation, the word is believed to
have specific meaning, or that the vibrations of certain mantras help specific types of people. In
these schools, such as Transcendental Meditation, it is important to receive your mantra from a
certified teacher trained in matching you with the right mantra.
Origins:One of the oldest forms of meditation, the earliest mantras were composed in India 3500
years ago in a language called Vedic Sanskrit. [29] That’s where the word ॐ (Aum, Om) comes
from. Often referred to as the “root mantra”. In Hindu traditions Om is believed to be the first
sound on earth.Mantra practices appear in Buddhist, Jain, Sikh, Islamic, Eastern Orthodox
Christian, and Taoist traditions.
How to Practice:Mantra meditation is usually practiced sitting with a straight spine and closed eyes.
You then repeat the mantra in your mind throughout the entire session.
In other versions of mantra meditation, you softly whisper the mantra, as a way to aid your
concentration. Mantra meditation can also take a more devotional form called japa, where you
lovingly repeat sacred sounds associated with the name of God, or gods.
Common mantras include:
● om
● so-ham
● om namah shivaya
● om mani padme hum
● rama
● yam
● ham
Benefits of Mantra Meditation:Most studies looking at mantra meditation have been done on
groups practicing Transcendental Meditation. Some of the most striking outcomes including: [30]
● 21% increase in highschool graduation rate
● 40-55% reduction in symptoms of PTSD and depression for military veterans
● 47% reduced risk of cardiovascular-related mortality
● Decreased high blood pressure–on par with first-line antihypertensives.

Tanscendental Meditation:Transcendental meditation is a specific form of mantra meditation. It is

taught one-on-one by teachers who are trained and licensed by Maharishi Foundation .The teacher
chooses a mantra specifically for you and trains you in how to use it. Your mantra is determined by
factors, including the year you were born, and the year the teacher was trained.
Origins:Transcendental Meditation was created by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in India in the
mid-1950s and became popular in the West in the 1960s. Perhaps the most famous and outspoken
practitioner of TM is film director David Lynch. [33]
How to Practice:The practice is described as effortless and is done with eyes closed, twice a day for
20 minutes each session. There is also an advanced form of TM called Yogic-flying, where mantra
repetition is done in a way that produces an upwelling of energy. This energy allows the
practitioner to literally hop around in a seated posture. To this day there are yogic flying
competitions for the height and length of hops.
Yogic Flying-Authors of Men are from Mars, Women are from Venus Johnny Gray (right) doing
yogic flying at Maharishi’s school in Switzerland.

Chakra meditation:Chakra meditation is aimed at opening and aligning the body’s seven chakras,
or energy centers. Practitioners believe that blocked and unbalanced chakras are associated with
physical and mental disorders.
Origins:Chakra is an ancient Indian Sanskrit word that means circle or wheel. Working with
chakras as energy centers in the body has been part of both Hindu and Buddhist traditions for
millennia. Western system of 7 chakras was developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
How to practice:Familiarize yourself with each chakra, its properties and qualities. Bring your
awareness to the chakras that need to be opened or re-balanced. Focus on each location in the body
while picturing energy flowing through that area. Each chakra has a corresponding color that can be
visualized as energy flowing to and from those areas.
Benefits of Chakra Meditation :Potential benefits include self-healing, greater awareness of subtle
body cues, and deep relaxation.

Visualization Meditation:Visualization meditation is about manifesting things you want in life

through an intentional process of bridging them into consciousness with intense focus. This type of
meditation is also known as Creative Visualization.
Origins:Visualization meditation practices have likely been around for centuries. They are often
linked to the idea of the mind’s eye developed by The Roman statesman Cicero. This is the part of
the mind that can focus and change internal images.
In the late 1970s, New Age author Shakti Gawain [34] wrote a manual for the use of visualization
meditation for personal growth. More recently, visualization meditation has received attention from
positive psychologists and physicians.
How to Practice:Sit comfortably with your eyes closed. Bring into your mind an image of someone
or something that you either want to bring into your life, or let go of. Keep your focus on this
image, gently returning your focus each time it wanders. Allow your awareness to notice any
physical sensations that arise. Heat associated with anger, or involuntary twitches, increased heart
rate. Just notice, building your tolerance without resistance or attachment. Continue to hold the
image in your mind
Benefits:The potential benefits of visualization meditation include greater clarity around desires,
increased tolerance around discomfort, and improved focus and follow through with life goals.

Gratitude Meditation:Gratitude meditation is the focused and intentional experience and

expression of gratitude.
Origins:Gratitude meditations have been a part of all religions and cultures for millennia. Speaking
to the universality of gratitude meditation, mindfulness teacher and psychologist Jack Kornfield
states: “Buddhist monks begin each day with a chant of gratitude for the blessings of their life.
Native American elders begin each ceremony with grateful prayers to mother earth and father sky,
to the four directions, to the animal, plant, and mineral brothers and sisters who share our earth and
support our life. In Tibet, the monks and nuns even offer prayers of gratitude for the suffering they
have been given”
How to Practice:To practice gratitude, you have to first get into a gratitude attitude or grateful
orientation to life. Researchers identify a two-step process. (1)“recognizing that one has obtained a
positive outcome” and (2) “recognizing that there is an external source for this positive outcome.”
There are numerous guided meditations that involve visualizing and expressing gratitude. Here are
3 proven gratitude practices that you can try right now.
Benefits of Gratitude Meditation:Practicing gratitude has been shown to benefit our physical and
mental health, [35] improve our careers, deepen our relationships [36] , help us follow through
with healthy habits, and instill a durable sense of optimism and happiness. [37]