The Scientific Revolution

 What is Scientific Revolution?

- It is the emergence of science of modern science during the early modern period. It is when the
developments of mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology and chemistry transformed societal
views about nature.
- It began in Europe toward the end of the Renaissance period and it has influenced the intellectual
social movement known as the Enlightenment.
- The publication of Copernicus’ De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the
Heavenly Spheres) on 1543 was considered as the beginning of this period.

 The Four Reasons of Change to Medieval Idea of Science

- Collaboration: The 17th century scientists were able to collaborate with the mathematical and
astronomical society.
- Derivation of New Experimental Methods
- The Ability to Build on the Legacy of Existing Scientific Philosophy
- Institutions that Enabled Academic Publishing

 The Scientific Method

- In the beginning of the 17th century, scientific method was defined and applied by the scientific
community.
- The traditional way of using deductive reasoning was abandoned.
- It is uses empiricism.
- Empiricism: introduced by Francis Bacon, an English philosopher. This way emphasizes the
importance of investigating things through a planned and organized procedure.

 The New Ideas that Emerged during this Period

- The Heliocentric Theory: a theory by Nicolaus Copernicus which stated that the sun is the center of
the universe.
- The study of human anatomy by dissecting a human corpse rather than using animal corpse which
was practiced for centuries.
- Discovering and studying magnetism and electricity.
- Modernization of disciplines, such as dentistry, physiology, chemistry and optics, making them what
they are today.
- Invention of tools such as the mechanical calculator and steam engines.
  The Enlightenment

- Scientific revolution is the foundation of the Enlightenment Age. During this age, the scientific
method became of investigation became more popular and became the bases of validity and
legitimacy.
- The displacement of religious authority and disciplines on the 18th century began. They were not
proven legit unless there is a scientific proof.

Mikolaj Kopernik February 19, 1473-May 24, 1543

When he was still a kid, his father was a rich merchant and died at an early age, he was took cared by his
uncle who was a bishop of the church that time. He sent Nicolaus to a university.
He used his latin name “Nicolaus Copernicus” when he started schooling at the university of Cracow in
Italy with Mathematics and Astronomy. Unfortunately, he failed then enrolled again with Medicine and Law.
Unfortunately, he did not even got a bachelor’s degree. *
While there he performed church duties, practiced medicine and studied astronomy. In Copernicus' time
most astronomers believed the theory the Greek astronomer Ptolomy had developed more than 1,000 years
earlier. Ptolomy said the Earth was the center of the universe and was motionless. He believed all other
heavenly bodies moved in complicated patterns around the Earth. Copernicus felt that Ptolomy's theory was
incorrect.
Contribution to Society
Copernicus hadn’t put his thoughts out into the public until the year of his death in fear of prosecution
from the Catholic Church. The reaction from society at the time was that the heliocentric theory was not even
worth talking about. Everyone had evidence to prove that the Earth was the center because if the sun started at
one point in the morning and ended at another at night, it was common sense that we were obviously the center.
Society used logic, there logic was that the Earth was in the middle. That’s what they believed so that
they kept on that belief, instead of listening to an ‘illogical’ theory, which later turned out to be logical.
Copernicus didn’t have much authority telling the world a new surprising theory, because he didn’t even earn a
bachelor’s degree.
Eventually, people became upset with Copernicus’ theories. In 1616, leaders in the Catholic Church
banned his book for more than 200 years because they felt it didn’t follow the bible’s teachings. But
Copernicus’ ideas made people realize they were part of something much bigger than just the Planet Earth. His
book was the beginning of modern astronomy. Today, we not only believe in Copernicus’ theories but have the
technology to prove them. COPERNICUS’ began a scientific revolution because his work inspired further
scientific exploration, rather than a continuation of long-held beliefs. He gave scientists and others the courage
to state their findings, even if they were different from what was accepted.
Contribution to Science
1. Heliocentric model of the universe.
The most recognized and revolutionary contribution of Nicholas Copernicus is undoubtedly the theory
of heliocentrism. Up to this point, Ptolemy's model had been followed, which proposed that the earth was the
center of the universe ( Geocentrism ).
 Copernicus proposed a model of a spherical universe, in which both the Earth and the planets and stars
revolved around the Sun. This contribution of Copernicus to science is perhaps the most revolutionary in the
history of mankind, A paradigm shift for the sciences.
And it is that from that moment, the science began to be based on observations and mathematical
measurements, and is not beliefs and simple theoretical affirmations.
And this could be corroborated with the physical phenomena that occurred here.
If the center of gravity is no longer the earth, why then do things within the earth fall to its center?
Copernicus's response to this was one of his great contributions to the world of science:
All matter has gravity, and the heavy matter will attract and be attracted by similarly heavy matter, just
as the smaller matter will be attracted to the larger matter.
The fact that the center of the universe was the earth implied that the center of gravity of the universe
was the Earth. In this way, the small things that are on the earth, are attracted to the earth. For example, the
moon, being smaller than the earth, revolves around it, and the earth, being smaller than the sun, does the same.
Copernicus explains his idea of gravity as follows:"All celestial bodies are centers of attraction of matter."
2. The axis and movement of the Earth
His model of the universe implied that Earth possesses three movements: rotation, translation and a
conical oscillation motion of its own axis. The first has a duration of one day, the second of a year, and the third
occurs also in a year progressively. This latter movement is what modern eyes may seem strange. But it was the
way in which Copernicus explains the variation of temperature in the different seasons of the year.
3. Order of alignment of the planets.
The translation movement causes the order in which the celestial spheres are arranged to be the
following:
The supreme and immovable sphere is the Sun, which contains all things situated in the universe. In the
farthest orbit is Saturn, then comes Jupiter and Mars is nearer.
In the next orbit moves on the Earth, then Venus and finally Mercury. The Moon revolves around the
center of the Earth, and moves with the Earth, as an epicycle.

4. Relationship between philosophy and natural sciences.

Nicholas Copernicus provided fundamental knowledge about the relationship between mathematics and
the natural world.
Some historians of science seem to ignore the fundamental role of mathematics, and it is often said that
the philosophical and scientific thought of the sixteenth century is based on heliocentrism as if it were not a
natural consequence.
However, it can not be ignored that heliocentrism, besides solving an astronomical problem, was solved
with a mathematical technique.
5. Theory of price increase.
Copernicus became interested in monetary matters when King Sigismund I of Poland asked him to make
a proposal to reform the currency of his community.
 Copernicus's analysis showed that it is impossible to have two types of currency in one government, one
more valuable to foreign trade, and another less valuable to local transactions (as Sigismund suggested).
He then formulated the"quantity theory of money"which stipulates that prices vary proportionately with
the supply of money in society. He explained this before the term"inflation"was invented
In very simple terms, for Copernicus one should avoid putting too much money into circulation, because
the supply of money determines the value of the coin, the more money the value of the coin is reduced. This is
the main and direct cause for prices of goods to increase.

CHARLES DARWIN

BASIC PERSONAL INFORMATION:

 FULL NAME:
Charles Robert Darwin
 BIRTHDATE:
February 12, 1809
 BIRTHPLACE:
Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England.
 DIED ON:
April 19, 1882
 PARENTS:
o Father:
Robert Waring Darwin
o Mother:
Susannah Wedgwood

EARLY LIFE
 Darwin was the second son of a society doctor, Robert Waring Darwin, and of Susannah Wedgwood.
 His mother died when Charles was still Eight (8) years old after which his three elder sisters took care of
Charles in their mother’s stead.
 Although Charles’ father was overbearing, his father’s astute medical observations taught Charles much
about the Human Psychology.

EDUCATION
 Charles’ studied medicine at Edinburgh University in 1825.
 He was taught to understand the chemistry of cooling rocks on the primitive Earth.
 He was also taught how to classify plants by the modern “natural system”.
 At the Edinburgh Museum, Darwin learned many things under the teachings of John Edmonstone, a
freed South Americal slave. Many of the things he learned under Edmonstone were how to stuff birds,
identifying rock strata, and colonial flora and fauna.
 Darwin was not a great student. He preferred to spend time doing outdoor activities. This included
examining natural science and beetle collecting.
  Thanks to his increasing passion for the natural sciences he was offered a place on the HMS Beagle to
act as their natural scientist on their voyage to the coast of South America.

NATURAL SCIENCE AND RELIGION

 At the time, religion was a powerful force in society and many took the Bible as an infallible, literal
word of God.
 This includes the creationist theory in the Bible and how the world is only a few thousand years old.

THE VOYAGE, THE GALAPAGOS, AND EVOLUTION

 During Darwin’s stay with the HMS Beagle, he started to believe that the world is much older than what
the Bible stated. Finding evidences as he went through with the voyage.
 In particular, Darwin used Charles Lyell’s “Principles of Geology” in which it suggested the fossils were
evidence of animals living hundreds of thousands of years ago.
 During the voyage, Darwin made copious notes about specimens he found during the voyage. In
particular, at the Galapagos Islands, 500 miles west of South America.
 Darwin noticed how the Finch was different on each individual island, having slight alterations to their
adaptations to increase their survivability in their designated islands.
 Over the next 20 years, Darwin worked on the dilemma of how species evolve and can end up being
quite different on different islands.
 Influenced by the work of Thomas Malthus, Darwin came up with a theory of natural selection and the
gradual evolution of species over time.

DARWIN’S CONTRIBUTION TO SCIENCE

 Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection
 Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection.
 The Voyage of the Beagle 1831-1836
o The voyage was done to:
 Conduct a hydrographic survey in order to produce accurate nautical charts showing
navigational and sea depth information for the navy and for commerce.
 Carry a chain of chronometrical measurements around the world.
o Darwin’s collection of specimens of plants, animals, rocks, and fossils wherever the expedition
went ashore is documented in this book.
 Other Works/Books
o The Descent of Man
o Introduction to the Zoology of the Voyage of the H.M.S. Beagle.
o The Journal of Researches
o The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs
o Geological Observations on South America
o A Monograph of the Sub-class Cirripedia
o A Monograph of the Fossil Lepadidae
o On the Tendency of Species to form varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species
by Natural Means of Selection
DARWIN’S IMPACT ON THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
 Before Darwin, most naturalists believed that all organisms are created as they are observed.
 Darwin’s theory of evolution changed the perspective of many scientists and naturalists on how present
organisms came to be.
 Darwin’s theory challenged the already established notion of naturalists that believes that creatures that
exists are created to be as perfectly suited for their environment.
 Darwin’s theory of evolution states that organisms adapt to their environment in order to be more
efficient in surviving.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

Biography
Born on May 6, 1865 to a wool merchant in Movaria and was raised most of his life in Vienna, Austria. He was
married to Martha Barnays and had six children. He studied in University of Vienna Medical School in the year 1873 and
eventally became a clinical assistant at a General Hospital in Vienna. He completed an important research on the brain’s
medulla and was appointed lecturer in Neuropathology. He is the founder of Psychoanalysis which is a method in treating
mental illness and also a theory explaining about the human behavior. He believed that the events of our childhood have a
great influence in our adult lives, shaping our personalities. He published works such as “Interpretation of Dreams”,
“Studies in Hysteria” and “Psychopathology of Everyday Life” The Nazzi burned most of Freud’s work because it was
opposing to the ideologies of the Nazzi.He became a professor in the University of Vienna and died in the year 1939 in
England.

Contribution to Science
The Unconscious Mind
Freud developed a topographical model wherein he used the analogy of an iceberg to describe the three levels of the mind.
1. Consciousness (tip of the iceberg)- consist of those thoughts that are the focus of our attention now.
2. Preconscious- consist of all which can be retrieve from the memory
3. Unconscious (the part that is unseen)- it takes the larger part of the iceberg therefore influences most of our
behavior. It consists of the processes that are the real cause of most behavior; acts as a repository, a cauldron of
primitive wishes and impulses kept at bay
The Psyche
He developed the Psychic Apparatus which proposed the three essential parts of the human personality- the id, ego and
superego
1. The Id (instincts)- operated at an unconscious level according to the pleasure principle. It is further subdivided
into two biological instincts, Eros (life instinct) and Thantos (death instinct)
2. The Ego (reality)- satisfy the demands of the id in a safe and socially acceptable way.
3. Superego (moral)- responsible for ensuring moral standards are followed
Psychosexual Stages

Dream Analysis
According to Freud, dreams perform important functions for the unconscious mind and serve as valuable clues to how the
unconscious mind operates. Freud interpreted dreams as a way to fulfill our wishes.

Sigmund Freud’s Impact to the Society

Before Freud developed his theories, the society’s perspective of mental illness is that “it is organic and is a deterioration
or disease of the brain”
The Case of Anna O. “To make the unconscious, conscious”
Freud’s teacher and a close friend, Dr. Josef Breuer, had once a patient named Anna O. (Bertha Pappenheim) who
experienced Hysteria having the symptoms of convulsions, paralysis, hallucinations, loss of speech without any apparent
physical cause. Through Breuer and Freud, they helped Anna O. in recalling her repressed experienced hoping that it
could help her unload the things inside. Through time, they were successful in making Anna remember her past
experiences (which was sexual abuse and fear of drinking) and the symptoms of her hysteria eventually declined. This led
Freud in pioneering his Psychoanalytic approach in mental illness through the Talk Therapy which is widely used
throughout the psychological world today. Its main purpose is to help the patient remember his/her past experiences in
which he /she repressed because it was unbearable or too painful t handle. In this way, the patient is able to face those
experiences and help them recover from illness.
Over time, with Freud’s basis of Psychoanalysis, research was done more of this things and developed the method of
Catharsis (cleansing or purification). This is a collective method of how to address mental illness or deep sadness.
Out of your vulnerabilities, comes your strength
–Sigmund Freud