Part I.

AN OVERVIEW OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

1.What Is Philosophy of Education?

Philosophy of education is that branch of philosophy that addresses philosophical

questions concerning the nature, aims, and problems of education. As a branch of practical
philosophy, its practitioners look both inward to the parent discipline of philosophy and outward
to educational practice, as well as to developmental psychology, cognitive science more
generally, sociology, and other relevant disciplines.

The philosophy of education examines the goals, forms, methods, and meaning of
education. The term is used to describe both fundamental philosophical analysis of these
themes and the description or analysis of particular pedagogical approaches. Considerations
of how the profession relates to broader philosophical or sociocultural contexts may be
included. The philosophy of education thus overlaps with the field of education and applied
philosophy.

A philosophy of education is a statement (or set of statements) that identifies and clarifies
the beliefs, values and understandings of an individual or group with respect to education.
Defined in this sense, it may be thought of as a more-or-less organised body of knowledge and
opinion on education, both as it is conceptualised and as it is practiced.

A philosophy of this sort is critical in defining and directing the purposes, objectives and
focus of a school.

It should also serve to inspire and direct educational planning, programs and processes
in any given setting.

A philosophy of education may influence what subjects or topics are taught, how they
are taught, and perhaps more importantly, the supporting beliefs and values that are taught,
both implicitly and explicitly, within and around the core curriculum.

2.Considerations on how the professions relate to broader philosophical or

sociocultural context

All educational activities, from classroom practice to curriculum decisions to the setting
of policies at the school, district, state, and federal levels, inevitably rest upon philosophical
assumptions, claims, and positions. Consequently, thoughtful and defensible educational
practice depends upon philosophical awareness and understanding. To that extent, the
philosophy of education is essential to the proper guidance of educational practice. Knowledge
of philosophy of education would benefit not only teachers, administrators, and policy makers
at all levels but also students, parents, and citizens generally. Societies that value education
and desire that it be conducted in a thoughtful and informed way ignore the philosophy of
education at their peril. Its relevance, reach, and potential impact make it perhaps the most
fundamental and wide-ranging area of applied philosophy.

3.Benefits of Studying Philosophy

Studying philosophy improves reasoning and critical skills. Skills gained by philosophy
majors are useful in almost any career.

•The ability to think logically

•The ability to analyze and solve problems

•The ability to assess proposed solutions

•The ability to write and speak clearly, attending to details. Students learn about questions.
How to ask good questions and distinguish the worthwhile from the worthless questions. How
to divide, prioritize, and simplify questions. Students are affected by learning about questions.

•Studying questions liberates us from prejudice

•It helps us to think independently, thus, promoting autonomy, self government, and
individuation

•It broadens our perspective on life. The study of philosophy benefits students intellectually,
spiritually, and morally.

•Students learn about the origins of those ideas and concepts that are our common intellectual
vocabulary.

•They learn that there is remarkable intellectual and spiritual connection between themselves
and people from different times and places. They see firsthand a common and rich humanity.

The advantages of those philosophers is that a lot of people who read their works would believe
that what they’re reading is not a pile of nonsense.
4.World Philosophers that contributed much on the field of Education

Philosophy, which literally means “the love of wisdom,” is one of the oldest disciplines in
history. There are many ideas about philosophers and what they do. Some have even
considered the field to be a science that deals with logic and reason. Either way, many famous
philosophers have made their contributions known to the world through their writings and their
students. Below is a list of the greatest thinkers of all time along with their most important
theories about human nature and other ponderings of the world.

Karl Marx (1818-1883)

Famous For: The Communist Manifesto, co-founder and father of Socialism & Communism

Karl Marx is better known as the “father of socialism and communism,” one follows the
other. Marx has been labeled as a “revolutionary socialist” for his belief in what has been called
dictatorship of the proletariat. In addition to espousing his own philosophies, he was also a
sociologist, economist, journalist, and historian.

Voltaire (1694-1778)

Famous For: his philosophical wit

French philosopher François-Marie Arouet was a well known during the 18th century.
He is better known under his pseudonym, Voltaire. Voltaire was an advocate of some of the
most basic freedoms, he believed in the freedom of expression, religion and voiced this through
his witty writing. One of his favorite targets was the Catholic church.

Louvre Socrates (c. 469-399 BC)

Famous For: the Socratic Method of logic and a founder of Western philosophy

His story began in his hometown of Athens, Greece but unfolded through the writings of
his students and fellow philosophers. The field of ethics was the specialty of Socrates and
introduced a concept that has been dubbed as elenchus, or the Socratic method. He
contributed much to the field of logic and epistimology.

Plato (c. 428-348 BC)

Famous For: Platonic idealism & the theory of forms

 Athenian native Plato, and his role in western philosophy can be traced back to when he
was student of Socrates. He also excelled in mathematics, logic, ethics, rhetoric, and religion.
He founded the Academy in Athens.

John Locke (1632-1704)

Famous For: theory of mind & Father of Classical Liberalism

The effect of English philosopher John Locke has on the world reverberates to this day.
His part on the idea of the social contract theory was one he shared with Sir Francis Bacon.
The likes of Rousseau, Voltaire, even American revolutionaries have been influenced by his
writings. He also offered the theory of mind wherein he states that knowledge is something you
are not born with, but learn and experience.

Simone de Beauvoir (1908-1986)

Famous For: existential feminism & ethics of ambiguity

Simone de Beauvoir is viewed as a philosopher, but she saw herself more as a political
activist, intellectual, and a writer. She authored numerous books which include The Second
Sex, The Mandarins, and She Came to Stay.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Famous For: General Will and the moral simplicity of humanity

The political philosophy of Rousseau became the basis of the French Revolution. His
ideas not only influenced nations, his work is reflected in the modern thinking in regards to
education, political, and sociological matters. Two of his books, Discourse on the Origin of
Inequality and On the Social Contract have had its effect on social and political thinking.

Adam Smith (1723-1790)

Famous For: father of modern economics

Best remembered for his writing of An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth
of Nations and The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Scottish philosopher Adam Smith was a
pioneer in the field of political economy. His ideas in the areas of moral philosophy and
economics have been studied throughout the years, and still is.

Aristotle (384–322 BC)

Famous For: Aristotelian logic & theory of soul

The third member who has greatly influenced western philosophy, Aristotle provided
ideas in the areas of aesthetics, ethics, logic, metaphysics, politics, and science. He was a
student of Plato and teacher to Alexander the great. Nicomachean Ethics is one of the treatises
that Aristotle wrote. He believed that ethics should be applied practically, not merely theorizing
it.

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

Famous For: the “Baconian” method of scientific investigation and creator of empiricism

The English Renaissance and Scientific Revolution benefitted from the work and ideas
of Sir Francis Bacon. In addition to being a philosopher, Bacon was likewise an author, jurist,
statesman, orator, and scientist. He was instrumental in advocating the use of the “inductive”
method when it came to scientific matters, this scientific method was also called “Baconian
method”.

Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716)

Famous For: Law of Continuity, Monads, and the Transcendental Law of Homogeneity

Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz holds a special place in the annals of philosophy and
mathematics. As a mathematician, he refined the use of infinitesimal calculus. As a philosopher,
he is best remembered for his “optimism” and as an advocate of rationalism along with
Descartes and Spinoza. He also presented the Law of Continuity.

Confucius (551-479 BC)

Famous For: The Golden Rule and Confucianism

Born during the Spring & Autumn era in Chinese history, Confucius and his ideas on
social and personal relationships became a school of thought that many Chinese embraced.
He was a voracious writer for which includes the Five Classics in Chinese literature. He believed
that proper moral behavior is best practiced, than morality being made a rule.

René Descartes (1596-1650)

Famous For: being the Father of Modern Philosophy, “Cartesian” coordinate system & “I think,
therefore I am”
 Rene’ Descartes influence on the world of philosophy is evident at today’s universities.
His book Meditations of First Philosophy is still being used. Perhaps this statement attributed
to Descartes will ring a bell, “I think, therefore I am.”

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

Famous For: transcendental idealism & metaphysics

This 18th century German philosopher, Immanuel Kant, contends that “reason is the
source of morality.” His ideas continue to resonate in the halls of academic philosophy. The
influence of these ideas is evident in present day thinking on the subject of ethics, epistemology,
aesthetics, politics, and metaphysics. In his publication of Critique of Pure Reason, this was his
attempt to combine reason with experience to prove failures of “traditional philosophy.”

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)

Famous For: life-affirmation & statement “God is dead”

German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche and his ideas covered a lot ground and as a
result, people began to raise questions they normally would not. The main crux of Nietzsche’s
work was the idea of life-affirmation, but he also presented ideas such as Will to power,
perspectivism, master-slave morality, and the Apollonian/Dionysian dichotomy.

Albert Camus (1913-1960)

Famous For: absurdism & 1957 Nobel Prize for literature

Albert Camus received a Nobel Prize for literature in 1957. The award was given in
recognition for his attempt to create awareness of the plight of “the human conscience”. Camus
is associated with the tenet known as “absurdism.” This French-Algeria born philosopher was
also an author and journalist.

C. S. Lewis (1898-1963)

Famous For: The Chronicles of Narnia, “Screwtape Letters” & “Mere Christianity”

C.S. Lewis was an academic scholar and Christian apologist. Some of his works are well
known, these include,The Chronicles of Narnia, The Screwtape Letters and The Problem of
Pain. He and J.R.R. Tolkien were friends and part of the English department at Oxford.

Hannah Arendt (1906-1975)

Famous For: being a political theorist & concept of “Homo faber”

Hannah Arendt refused to be labeled as a philosopher on the basis that her work
revolved around “men, not man.” Philosophy deals with man in the singular, solo, which is
different to what she was, a political theorist, dealing with men and the world around them.
Hanna’s passion involved work in the fields of authority, democracy, the nature of power,
politics, and totalitarianism.

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

Famous For: absolutism for the soveriegn & political philosophy

Thomas Hobbes is dubbed as the founder of the “social contract” tradition. This English
philosopher wrote in the mid 17th century, Leviathan, which laid the groundwork for the
introduction of the social contract theory. He also was an advocate of liberal thought and
“absolutism for the sovereign.”

Bertrand Russell (1872-1970)

Famous For: being one of the founders of analytic philosophy

Bertrand Arthur William Russell is remembered in the field of philosophy as a proponent

of analytic philosophy. One of his essays has been labeled as the ideal of philosophy, the essay
is entitled On Denoting. The British wanted to go against idealism, Russell was their leader.

Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980)

Famous For: the philosophy of existentialism

Jean Paul Sartre believed that “existence precedes essence.” Sartre did not shy from
being linked to the ideal of existentialism. He applied his ideals on other areas of his life.

Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)

Famous For: Pascal’s law in mathematics & Pascal’s wager in philosophy

The name of Blaise Pascal is frequently associated with mathematics. As a philosopher,

he proposed what we know as Pascal’s wager, in which people, in general, will bet their life on
the existence or non existence of God.
Michel Foucault (1926-1984)

Famous For: Structuralism and Genealogy

What does it take to make another man do your bidding? This was the goal of Michel
Foucault. Most of his theories touched on the topic of the “nature of power” and its purpose. His
writings revolved around the social institutions and “human science”. His published works, The
Birth of the Clinic and The Order of Things helped highlight his views on “structuralism.”

Albert Schweitzer (1875-1965)

Famous For: the idea of the Reverence for Life

Albert Schweitzer was a man with many facets. His goal and philosophy of life was to
have a “Reverence for Life”. He believed that civilization had cast aside its foundation in ethics.

David Hume (1711-1776)

Famous For: problem of causation & his book A Treatise of Human Nature

One of the pillars of the Scottish Enlightenment, philosopher David Hume is credited with
the “founding document of cognitive science” in his book A Treatise of Human Nature. Hume
made every attempt to establish a naturalistic approach in understanding “man”. One of his
arguments, “Reason is, and ought only to be slave of the passions,” is a longstanding idea that
says, “allow desires to dictate reason.”

Origen (c. 185-253)

Famous For: one of the early Church Fathers and theologian

Origen has been cited by scholars over the centuries, by academics, pastors, priests,
and students. He wrote several treatises that covered philosophical theology, exegesis of the
bible and textual criticism. He was influenced in his thinking by both Plato and Aristotle. In his
discussions and writings, he always alluded to scripture, which he believed is divinely inspired
by God.

Thomas Paine (1737-1809)

Famous For: writing Common Sense during the American Revolution

 As a political activist, Thomas Paine is regarded who helped two revolutionary wars. A
pamphlet he wrote in 1776, entitled Common Sense was instrumental in igniting the fires of
freedom and a reason to revolt during the American Revolution. Years later, he wrote Rights of
Man that justified the French Revolution.

Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862)

Famous For: his books Walden & Civil Disobedience

The book Walden was Thoreau’s attempt to express a desire towards living a simple life
in nature. Because of another book he wrote, Civil Disobedience, he had been viewed as an
anarchist. Thoreau’s idea of giving up illusory ideals in exchange for the true needs of life was
something he advocated throughout his life.

John Dewey (1859-1952)

Famous For: for his ideas on pragmatism & educational progressivism

One of the first men to present the idea of pragmatism as a philosophical concept, Dewey
also espoused Reflective Thinking. He believed in the philosophy of education, in which he
views education as a “social continuity of life.” This is why he championed Educational
Progressivism.

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)

Famous For: being the “most influential English speaking philosopher of the 19th century”

John Stuart is regarded as “the most influential English speaking philosopher of the 19th
century”. Mainly, he was a defender of political philosophy and he comes from the school of
utilitarianism. As a member of the British parliament, he played a role highlighting “liberal
political philosophy.”

William James (1842-1910)

Famous For: the philosophy of religion and theory of emotion

 William James was part of the philosophical school of pragmatism. More importantly was
his application of that school of thought on the philosophy of religion. He also attempted to
explain why, if we see a snake, we fear the snake and run. In his theory of emotion, James
contends that we see a snake, we run; therefore, we fear the snake.

Erich Fromm (1900-1980)

Famous For: orientation of character

As a humanistic philosopher, Erich Fromm has been linked to the school of critical
theory. Some of his exemplary ideas include “being and having modes of existence.” Escape
from Freedom is one of Fromm’s books which tries to explaing man’s changing view of freedom.

Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527)

Famous For: Machiavellianism & The Prince

Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolo Machiavelli is considered the founder of political

science and an expert in political ethics. His main cointributions include political philosophy and
realism. His book, The Prince has been viewed as a masterpiece that deals with political
philosophy.

John Calvin (1509-1564)

Famous For: Calvinism & Doctine of Predestination

Calvin developed a point of reference in Christianity the has been known as Calvinism.
His attempt to explain the “doctrine of predestination” as it pertains to God and salvation
continues to be debated to this day. The Congregational, Presbyterian, and Reformed church
base their tenets on the teaching of John Calvin.

Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855)

Famous For: father of existentialism

 The philosophy of religion and the idea of existentialism are two schools of thought that
has been linked to Kierkegaard. Most of his ideas revolve on the issue on how a person lives
as an individual.

Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910)

Famous For: War and Peace and Anna Karenina

As a social reformer and moral thinker, Leo Tolstoy is known for his novels, War and
Peace and Anna Karenina. He helped shape the idea of Christian anarchist thinking and even
pushed the idea of anarcho pacifism.

Parmenides (c. 515-450 BC)

Famous For: Eleatic school of philosophy

Parmenides founded the Eleatic school of philosophy sometime in the 5th century BC.
He presents us with two views of reality, “what is” and “the way of opinion.” A quote from him
is telling on how he affected western philosophy, “Thought and being are the same.”

Mozi (c. 470-391 BC)

Famous For: Mohism

Chinese philosopher Mozi was the moving force in the establishment of the school of
Mohism. Mozi was a proponent of moral philosophy and ethics. His teaching encouraged self-
reflection and being real, not just obedience and ceremony.

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)

Famous For: Thomism and Summa Theologica

Even though he was a priest, Thomas Aquinas and his philosophy have influenced
modern philosophy. He was the father of Thomism, he believed that the truth is true regardless
of the source. His work in Summa Theologica and Summa con Gentiles are important sources
of discourse that continue to be used today.

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)

Famous For: Feminist philosophy & A Vinidication of the Rights of Woman

 Mary Wollstonecraft believed that women should be treated equally the same way and
that the social order should be based on reason. She is considered as the earliest of feminist
philosophers. Her book A Vinidication of the Rights of Woman speaks of women not being
inferior to men.

Auguste Comte (1798-1857)

Famous For: Altruism & positivism

Comte was one of the founders of sociology and the principle of positivism, better known
as the positive philosophy. Historians view him as the first of the scientific philosophers. He
also conceived the word altruism, a doctrine that says people have an obligation to help or
serve others.

Avicenna (c. 980-1037)

Famous For: The Book of Healing

Persian philosopher Avicenna was a proponent of Islamic philosophy on which the

Avicennian philosophy is based. The Book of Healing is his most famous work that has become
an encyclopedia on philosophy and science. In that book he discusses the philosophy of
science.

Emma Goldman (1869-1940)

Famous For: anarchist political philosophy

Goldman comes from the philosophical school of of anarchism.She was a vocal

supporter of womens rights and other social issues. The school of anarchism believes a state
is harmful, unnecessary, and undesirable, making Goldman, anti-state.

Epicurus (341-270 BC)

Famous For: Epicurianism & Materialism

Epicurus’s philosophy is centered on two things, “peace and freedom from fear” known
as ataraxia and “the absence of pain”, aponia. In his view, pain and pleasure are barometers
of good and evil. This school of thought is known as Epicurianism.

Saint Augustine of Hippo (354-430)

Famous For: Catholic Church & City of God

The idea of the “Catholic Church” comes from the work of Saint Augustine. His writings,
City of God and Confessions have influenced western philosophy and are still read today. He
believed that man is the unity of soul and body, a perfect combination.

Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951)

Famous For: Philosophical Investigations & fideism

Wittgenstein was a man who buried himself in the philosophy of language, philosophy
of mathematics, and philosophy of mind. Two of his published works, Philosophical
Investigations and Tractatus are reflective of these beliefs he held. His ideas include the “picture
theory of language” and “logical necessity” to name a few.

5.Importance of Philosophy in the lives of teachers

The philosophy of education is an essential tool that every teacher should possess. It
gives the teachers multiple procedures and choices to react positively with the situations that
they face in their classes.

It also allows the teacher to understand the different mechanisms how learners get
knowledge and allows him to better use the appropriate method that facilitates the process of
learning. We should mention that learning process differs depending on the nature of the course
under discussion. Philosophy gives the teachers the required elements to master their classes
and lead them to the safe zone.

Sometimes, Teachers may deal with learners who have more mastery of the subject, but
the methods and strategies given to teachers by philosophy help him to face such challenges.
Meanwhile teacher deals with different mentalities, intelligences and understanding capacities.
In this case, philosophy is the tool that allows the teacher to understand his class well and adopt
the appropriate methods and strategy to do his job perfectly. Teachers are mentors and play
an active role in inculcating independent thinking in students. However, to do that as a teacher,
you must have a teaching philosophy of your own. Students always look up to their teacher and
therefore, it becomes necessary for you to have thoughts to inspire them.

Here are specific reasons why you should Study Philosophy of Education if you are a teacher.

Teaching philosophy has been defined as the map, which provides directions to move
ahead. One may feel lost without a map. In the same way, you are going to be missed while
teaching if a specific path is not decided. Hence, a map is always needed to make informed
movements.

It is not possible to make students learn something until the teacher knows why and how
he/she wants to teach. Once you know your path, you will be helping your students to plan to
reach their destinations.

Affects the Society

Teachers are termed as the future makers of the community. People like you are the
ones who help students choose different professions and identities.

A teacher can leave a profound impact on students and help them make independent
decisions in the near future. The core values that your students learn from you today are going
to be applied and used in the society as they grow up. A solid philosophical background will
help ensure that these values are all positive.

If you believe in breaking stereotypes, there are high chances your students will follow
the same philosophical path. If your philosophy is accepting the already existing theories, rather
than questioning them, your students might follow your path.

Understanding the philosophy of education will teach them the need to know the whys. Along
with the intellectual development of the students, it will also improve the standards of our
society and make us more rational.

To Be in Their Shoes

By learning philosophy, a teacher would be able to view and analyze from the
perspective of their students.
 Apart from understanding why students are behaving in a particular way, teachers would
also be able to know how students perceive their actions. This helps them adapt better teaching
strategies and guidance, eventually resulting in improved results. Best of all, a teacher would
be able to analyze his/her actions and understand the positives and negatives of their methods.
Just as if it helps student, it helps them as well. In other words, the educational curriculum
consisting of philosophy contributes to discovering the mind of the learner (student), thus aid
him/her in offering experiences and opportunities for cultivating his/her potential abilities.

To Avoid Being Judgemental

Philosophy of education also teaches a teacher the concept of not prejudicing the
personality of each student. Remember that you need to consider all students equal. But, this
should not affect the unique potential and capabilities of each student. As educators, you are
required to teach creativity, autonomy, and curiosity to all students without compromising with
their intellectual levels. The idea is to avoid giving up on a pupil, who is a low-level learner.
Philosophy teaches you that ideology, where you train with an unbiased attitude.

To Teach The Concept of Unification

Philosophy also teaches about unifying each pupil and the teacher as one body to
ensure harmony. The idea is to work together to create a better citizen, who diligently serves
his community and keeps check on his/her morality. Through the philosophy of education,
teachers can understand how to deal with the students and unite them as one. Even the
students will then be able to confidently speak to the teacher as if he/she is their friend.

The Verdict

Through philosophy, you can ensure that your student not only retains his academic
knowledge from all his completed grades but also develop a sense of humane values and
ethics. These personal values provide a better upbringing for them to cope in the later years of
their life. Thus, studying it is beneficial and significant for teaching students to learn
autonomously.
Part III. LEARNING, PERCEPTION AND ATTRIBUTION

1.What is Learning?

Learning is any process that in living organisms leads to permanent capacity change
and which is not solely due to biological maturation of ageing (, 2009). Learning involves
ongoing, active processes of inquiry, engagement and participation in the world around us
(Bransford, Brown, and Cocking, 2000). We do it from the moment we’re born and it takes place
in schools, beyond those walls and throughout our lives. Regardless of ability or background,
everyone has the potential to learn. Learning experiences literally shape the brain. So, it’s
important to know our abilities are not fixed, but continuously developing (Hinton, Fischer, and
Glennon, 2012, p. 4). Lifelong learning should be seen as the foundation of an effective school,
an active community, and a fulfilled and meaningful life.

Researchers, teachers, policy makers and parents have typically judged the success of
learning in terms of how much knowledge a student had acquired. Today, it’s understood the
quality of knowledge is just as important as the amount one can possess (De Corte, 2010, Linn,
2005).There was also a time when learning was understood as a linear process, a progression
through different ages and stages. Today, researchers and educators growth, development and
learning as a more dynamic system (Fischer and Heikkinen, 2010, p. 260). It’s influenced by
neurology, psychology, social and cultural factors. Learning is adaptive – we build new
knowledge and skills on the basis of what we already know (De Corte, 2010). Research has
also shown the changes that underlie learning in the brain do not occur when learning
experiences are not active (Hinton, Fischer, and Glennon, 2012, p. 5). We learn best by acting
on, thinking and actually participating in the world.

Learning solely through the direct transfer of information, then, needs to be replaced with
a focus on the active construction of knowledge (Fischer and Heikkinen, 2010, p. 253). This
involves work that is meaningful, has a necessary depth of study, and assesses students’ deep
understanding rather than factual memory (Bransford et al., 2000). The task has an authenticity
and a sense that what’s being accomplished in the classroom is real work that “reflects the
living realities of the discipline being taught” (Friesen and Jardine, 2011). When students and
teachers pose guiding questions, problems, or tasks that professionals in the field would
recognize as important, they can work and learn from experts towards responses and
performances of learning that are meaningful, sophisticated, and powerful.
2.Theories of Learning

Several ideas and priorities, then, affect how we teachers think about learning, including
the curriculum, the difference between teaching and learning, sequencing, readiness, and
transfer. The ideas form a “screen” through which to understand and evaluate whatever
psychology has to offer education. As it turns out, many theories, concepts, and ideas from
educational psychology do make it through the “screen” of education, meaning that they are
consistent with the professional priorities of teachers and helpful in solving important problems
of classroom teaching. In the case of issues about classroom learning, for example, educational
psychologists have developed a number of theories and concepts that are relevant to
classrooms, in that they describe at least some of what usually happens there and offer
guidance for assisting learning. It is helpful to group the theories according to whether they
focus on changes in behavior or in thinking. The distinction is rough and inexact, but a good
place to begin. For starters, therefore, consider two perspectives about learning, called
behaviorism (learning as changes in overt behavior) and constructivism, (learning as changes
in thinking). The second category can be further divided into psychological constructivism
(changes in thinking resulting from individual experiences), and social constructivism, (changes
in thinking due to assistance from others). The rest of this chapter describes key ideas from
each of these viewpoints. As I hope you will see, each describes some aspects of learning not
just in general, but as it happens in classrooms in particular. So each perspective suggests
things that you might do in your classroom to make students’ learning more productive.

Behaviorism:

Behaviorism is a perspective on learning that focuses on changes in individuals’

observable behaviors— changes in what people say or do. At some point we all use this
perspective, whether we call it “behaviorism” or something else. The first time that I drove a
car, for example, I was concerned primarily with whether I could actually do the driving, not with
whether I could describe or explain how to drive.

In classrooms, behaviorism is most useful for identifying relationships between specific

actions by a student and the immediate precursors and consequences of the actions. It is less
useful for understanding changes in students’ thinking; for this purpose we need theories that
are more cognitive (or thinking-oriented) or social, like the ones described later in this chapter.
This fact is not a criticism of behaviorism as a perspective, but just a clarification of its particular
strength or usefulness, which is to highlight observable relationships among actions, precursors
and consequences. Behaviorists use particular terms (or “lingo,” some might say) for these
relationships. One variety of behaviorism that has proved especially useful to educators is
operant conditioning,

Constructivism

Constructivist models of learning differ about how much a learner constructs knowledge
independently, compared to how much he or she takes cues from people who may be more of
an expert and who help the learner’s efforts (Fosnot, 2005; Rockmore, 2005). For convenience
these are called psychological constructivism and social constructivism (or sometimes
sociocultural theory). As explained in the next section, both focus on individuals’ thinking rather
than their behavior, but they have distinctly different implications for teaching.

The main idea of psychological constructivism is that a person learns by mentally

organizing and reorganizing new information or experiences. The organization happens partly
by relating new experiences to prior knowledge that is already meaningful and well understood.
Stated in this general form, individual constructivism is sometimes associated with a well-known
educational philosopher of the early twentieth century, John Dewey (1938–1998). Although
Dewey himself did not use the term constructivism in most of his writing, his point of view
amounted to a type of constructivism, and he discussed in detail its implications for educators.

Cognitivism

Cognitive theories grew out of Gestalt psychology. Gestalt psychology was developed
in Germany in the early 1900s by Wolfgang Kohler[23] and was brought to America in the
1920s. The German word Gestalt is roughly equivalent to the English configuration or
organization and emphasizes the whole of human experience.[24] Over the years, the Gestalt
psychologists provided demonstrations and described principles to explain the way we organize
our sensations into perceptions.[25] Max Wertheimer, one of the founding fathers of Gestalt
Theory, observed that sometimes we interpret motion when there is no motion at all.[26] For
example: a powered sign used at a convenience store to indicate that the store is open or
closed might be seen as a sign with "flashing lights". However, the lights are not actually
flashing. The lights have been programmed to blink rapidly at their own individual pace.
Perceived as a whole, the sign flashes. Perceived individually, the lights turn off and on at
designated times. Another example of this would be a brick house: As a whole, it is viewed as
a standing structure. However, it is actually composed of many smaller parts, which are
individual bricks. People tend to see things from a holistic point of view rather than breaking it
down into sub units.

In Gestalt theory, psychologists say that instead of obtaining knowledge from what's in
front of us, we often learn by making sense of the relationship between what's new and old.[26]
Because we have a unique perspective of the world, humans have the ability to generate their
own learning experiences and interpret information that may or may not be the same for
someone else.

Gestalt psychologists criticize behaviorists for being too dependent on overt behavior to
explain learning. They propose looking at the patterns rather than isolated events.[27] Gestalt
views of learning have been incorporated into what have come to be labeled cognitive theories.
Two key assumptions underlie this cognitive approach: that the memory system is an active
organized processor of information and that prior knowledge plays an important role in learning.
Gestalt theorists believe that for learning to occur, prior knowledge must exist on the topic.
When the learner applies their prior knowledge to the advanced topic, the learner can
understand the meaning in the advanced topic, and learning can occur Cognitive theories look
beyond behavior to consider how human memory works to promote learning, and an
understanding of short term memory and long term memory is important to educators
influenced by cognitive theory. They view learning as an internal mental process (including
insight, information processing, memory and perception) where the educator focuses on
building intelligence and cognitive development.[12] The individual learner is more important
than the environment.

3.Perception

Perception (from the Latin perceptio) is the organization, identification, and interpretation
of sensory information in order to represent and understand the presented information, or the
environment.All perception involves signals that go through the nervous system, which in turn
result from physical or chemical stimulation of the sensory system.[3] For example, vision
involves light striking the retina of the eye, smell is mediated by odor molecules, and hearing
involves pressure waves.Perception is not only the passive receipt of these signals, but it's also
shaped by the recipient's learning, memory, expectation, and attention.[4][5]

Perception can be split into two processes, [5]

(1) processing the sensory input, which transforms these low-level information to higher-level
information (e.g., extracts shapes for object recognition);

(2) processing which is connected with a person's concepts and expectations (or knowledge),
restorative and selective mechanisms (such as attention) that influence perception.

Perception depends on complex functions of the nervous system, but subjectively seems
mostly effortless because this processing happens outside conscious awareness. [3]

Since the rise of experimental psychology in the 19th century, psychology's

understanding of perception has progressed by combining a variety of techniques.[4]
Psychophysics quantitatively describes the relationships between the physical qualities of the
sensory input and perception.[6] Sensory neuroscience studies the neural mechanisms
underlying perception. Perceptual systems can also be studied computationally, in terms of the
information they process. Perceptual issues in philosophy include the extent to which sensory
qualities such as sound, smell or color exist in objective reality rather than in the mind of the
perceiver.[4]

Although the senses were traditionally viewed as passive receptors, the study of illusions
and ambiguous images has demonstrated that the brain's perceptual systems actively and pre-
consciously attempt to make sense of their input.[4] There is still active debate about the extent
to which perception is an active process of hypothesis testing, analogous to science, or whether
realistic sensory information is rich enough to make this process unnecessary.[4]

The perceptual systems of the brain enable individuals to see the world around them as
stable, even though the sensory information is typically incomplete and rapidly varying. Human
and animal brains are structured in a modular way, with different areas processing different
kinds of sensory information. Some of these modules take the form of sensory maps, mapping
some aspect of the world across part of the brain's surface. These different modules are
interconnected and influence each other. For instance, taste is strongly influenced by smell.[7]

4.Factors Affecting Perception:

 There are individual differences in perceptual abilities. Two people may perceive the
same stimulus differently.

The factors affecting the perceptions of people are:

a. Perceptual learning:

Based on past experiences or any special training that we get, every one of us learns to
emphasize some sensory inputs and to ignore others. For example, a person who has got
training in some occupation like artistry or other skilled jobs can perform better than other
untrained people. Experience is the best teacher for such perceptual skills.

For example, blind people identify the people by their voice or by sounds of their footsteps.

b. Mental set:

Set refers to preparedness or readiness to receive some sensory input. Such expectancy keeps
the individual prepared with good attention and concentration. For example, when we are
expecting the arrival of a train, we listen to its horn or sound even if there is a lot of noise
disturbance.

c. Motives and needs:

Our motives and needs will definitely influence our perception. For example, a hungry person
is motivated to recognize only the food items among other articles. His attention cannot be
directed towards other things until his motive is satisfied.

d. Cognitive styles:

People are said to differ in the ways they characteristically process the information. Every
individual will have his or her own way of understanding the situation. It is said that the people
who are flexible will have good attention and they are less affected by interfering influences and
to be less dominated by internal needs and motives than or people at the constricted end.

This article throws light on the three important factors influencing the perceptual set, i.e, (a)
Characteristics of the Perceiver, (b) Characteristics of the Perceived, and (c) Characteristics of
the Situation.

A. Characteristics of the Perceiver:

When a person looks at a target and attempts to interpreter what he sees, his interpretation is
greatly influenced by his personal characteristics which are discussed as follows:

1. Needs and Motives:

Our need pattern play an important part in how we perceive things. A need is a feeling of
discomfort or tension when one things he is missing something or requires something.
Therefore, unsatisfied needs or motives stimulate individuals and may exert a strong influence
on their perception. When people are not able to satisfy their needs they are engaged in wishful
thinking which is a way to satisfy their needs not in the real world but imaginary world. In such
cases, people will perceive only those items which suit their wishful thinking. Motives also
influence the perception of people. People who are devious are prone to see others as also
devious.

2. Self Concept:

Self concept indicates how we perceive ourselves which then influences how we perceive
others and the situation we are in. The more we understand ourselves, the more we are able
to perceive others accurately. For example, secure people tend to see others as warm and
friendly. Less secure people often find fault with others. Perceiving ourselves accurately and
enhancing our-self concept are factors that enhance accurate perception.

3. Past Experience:

Our perceptions are often guided by our past experiences and what we expect to see. A
person’s past experiences mould the way he perceives the current situation. If a person has
been betrayed by a couple of friends in the past, he would tend to distrust any new friendship
that he might be in the process of developing.

4. Current Psychological State:

The psychological and emotional states of an individual are likely to influence how things are
perceived. If a person is depressed, he is likely to perceive the same situation differently than
if he is elated. Similarly, if a person is scared out of wits by seeing a snake in the garden, she
is likely to perceive a rope under the bed as a snake.

5. Beliefs:
A person’s beliefs influence his perception to a great extent. Thus, a fact is conceived not on
what it is but what a person believes it to be. The individual normally censors stimulus inputs to
avoid disturbance of his existing beliefs.

6. Expectations:

Expectations affect the perception of a person. Expectations are related with the state of
anticipation of particular behaviour from a person. For example, a technical manager will expect
that the non- technical people will be ignorant about the technical features of the product.

7. Situation:

Elements in the environment surrounding an individual like time, location, light, heat etc.,
influence his perception. The context in which a person sees the objects or events is very
important.

8. Cultural Upbringing:

A person’s ethics, values and his cultural upbringing also play an important role in his perception
about others. It is difficult to perceive the personality of a person raised in another culture
because our judgement is based upon our own values.

B. Characteristics of the Perceived:

Characteristics of the person who is being observed can affect what is perceived. Though, it
may go against logic and objectivity, but it cannot be denied that our perceptions about others
are influenced by their physical characteristics such as appearances, age, gender, manner of
communication as well as personality traits and other forms of behaviour. For example, loud
people are more likely to be noticed in a group than are quite ones. So too are extremely
attractive or extremely ugly individuals.

C. Characteristics of the Situation:

The context in which we see objects or events is very important. The surrounding environment
and the elements present in it influence our perception while perceiving a particular situation or
event, its physical, social and organisational setting can also influence the perception. For
example, if you meet a person for the first time and he is with a person whom you respect and
admire, you will create a favourable image about him in your mind as compared to a situation
in which you see him with another person whom you intensely dislike. Of course, the initial
impressions may change with the passage of time, but the saying that “First impression is the
last impression” is very valued.

5.Attribution

Attributions are inferences that people make about the causes of events and behavior.
People make attributions in order to understand their experiences. Attributions strongly
influence the way people interact with others.

Types of Attributions

Researchers classify attributions along two dimensions: internal vs. external and stable
vs. unstable. By combining these two dimensions of attributes, researchers can classify a
particular attribution as being internal-stable, internal-unstable, external-stable, or external-
unstable.

Internal vs. External

Attribution theory proposes that the attributions people make about events and behavior
can be classed as either internal or external. In an Internal, or dispositional, Attribution, people
infer that an event or a person’s behavior is due to personal factors such as traits, abilities, or
feelings. In an External, or situational, Attribution, people infer that a person’s behavior is due
to situational factors.

Stable vs. Unstable

Researchers also distinguish between stable and unstable attributions. When people
make a Stable Attribution, they infer that an event or behavior is due to stable, unchanging
factors. When making an Unstable Attribution, they infer that an event or behavior is due to
unstable, temporary factors.

7.Fundamental Attribution Error

The fundamental attribution error (also known as correspondence bias or overattribution

effect) is the tendency for people to over-emphasise dispositional, or personality-based
explanations for behaviours observed in others while under-emphasizing situational
explanations.

In other words, people have a cognitive bias to assume that a person's actions depend
on what "kind" of person that person is rather than on the social and environmental forces that
influence the person.

The term was coined by Lee Ross some years after the now-classic experiment by Jones
and Harris. Ross (1977) argued in a popular paper that the fundamental attribution error forms
the conceptual bedrock for the field of social psychology.

We tend to see others as internally motivated and responsible for their behavior. This
could be because of perceptual salience, that is, the other person is what we see most of when
we look at them; or it could be that we lack more detailed information about what causes their
behavior.

6. Common attribution Errors

Attribution theory is the general principles that govern how we select and use information
to arrive at causal explanations for behavior in a wide variety of situations, proposed by Fritz
Heider (1958). The two types of attribution are dispositional factors and situational factors.
Dispositional factors have to do with personal (internal) factors, and situational factors have to
do with external factors. This theory suggests that people are more likely to explain another
person’s actions by pointing to dispositional factors, rather than to the situation; and tend to
attribute it to situational factors when discussing their behavior. It was discovered that when
attributing behaviors, people tend to make errors and biases, known as attribution errors.
Attribution errors are false assumption or judgement made, caused by our own or other people’s
behavior. In this essay the two attribution errors, Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE) and self-
serving bias (SSB) will be discussed.

First error in attribution open to debate is the Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE). FAE
occurs when people overestimate another person’s behavior with dispositional factors. It
reveals an absence of consideration of some situational factors that may also affect a person’s
behavior.

Supporting Study: Ross et al. (1977).

 The aim of this study was to see if student participants would make the fundamental
attribution error even when they knew that all the actors were simply playing a role. In their
study, participants were randomly assigned to one of three roles: a game show host,
contestants on the game show, or members of the audience. The game show hosts were
instructed to design their questions; then the audience watched the game show through series
of questions. When the game was over, the observers were asked to rank the intelligence of
the people who had taken part. They ranked the game show host as the most intelligent, even
though they knew that this person was randomly assigned to this position, and he or she had
written the questions. This study demonstrates fundamental attribution error because
participants attributed the behaviour of hosts and contestants to dispositional factors, which is
intelligence, rather than situational factors, which is the roles.

The second error in attribution that is open to debate is the Self-serving bias. SSB is the
tendency to attribute dispositional factors to take credit for their success, and situational factors
for failures.

Supporting study: Lau & Russell (1980).

The aim of this study is to investigate the attributions made in the sports pages of
American newspapers. They compared the explanations of sportswriters’ interviews with the
American Football coaches and players. They found that the coaches and players were more
likely to credit their wins to internal factors such as hard work, the good shape of the team,
natural talent; and losses to external factors such as injuries, weather, foul play from the
opposing team. This study demonstrates the use of self-serving bias

7.What factors influence attribution?

Ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck are the most important factors affecting attributions
for achievement. Attributions are classified along three causal dimensions: locus of control,
stability, and controllability

8.Shortcuts Used In Forming Impression Of Others

2 types of Contrast Effect

Halo Effect
Contrast Effect

a type of cognitive bias in which our overall impression of a person influences how we feel and
think about his or her character.

Perceptual Vigilance

Perceptual Defense

Positive Contrast Effect

Selective Perception

- when something was perceived as worse than it actually is because it was compared to
something better.

refers to the process in which the individual notices and recognizes the stimuli that may be
significant to him at some degree.

Negative Contrast Effect

occurs in an attempt of a person to create a barrier betweehim and the stimuli so that he could
protect himself from having awareness of it.

refers to judging someone on th basis of one's perception of the group to which that person
belongs.

occurs when one attribute of a person is used to develop an overall impression of the person.

Stereotyping

Projection

evaluations of a person's characteristics that are affected by comparisons with other

people recently encountered who rank higher or lower the same characteristic.

a perceptual process in which a person only perceives what he desires to and sets aside
or ignores other perceptions or viewpoints.