ENGLISH

A Course Handout for Students of Computer Science

Compiled and Adapted by: Arcci Tusita, Aris Siswanti, Fariska

Pujiyanti, Hasbulah Isnaini, Melania Shinta H, Yulia Hapsari
UNIVERSITAS BRAWIJAYA 2017
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
Table of Contents ……………………………………………………………. i
History of Computers ……………………………………………………………. 1
How to Give a Successful Presentation ……………………………………. 8
Software Development Process ……………………………………………. 12
Cyber Warfare : Reality or Box Office Hit? ..……………………………………. 22
Quake-Game Engine ……………………………………………………………. 28
REFERENCES ……………………………………………………………. 32
MEETING 2-3: HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

Roderick Hames

Number of words 1050

Computer science content Low
Math content Low
English language complexity Low

Learning objectives
• to acquire basic knowledge about computer history

Sub-areas covered
• Computer history

Keywords
• punched card - a card on which data can be recorded in the form of punched holes
• binary code - code using a string of 8 binary digits to represent characters

Summary
A short article which describes the history of computers and their precursors. It briefly
mentions important events from 1600 up to the times when the first computer was built. A
nice text written in a simple language. It could be used as a lead-in to interesting discussions
about the future of computers or the pace of their evolution.

Pre-reading questions
1. Why do so many people not know how the modern computer began?
2. Why do you think the computer has changed more rapidly than anything else?
3. How do you think W.W.II might have been different if the ENIAC, the first all
electrical computer, whose first job was to calculate the feasibility of a design for
the hydrogen bomb, had not been invented then?

Did you know?

Punched card : a card on which data can be recorded in the form of punched holes

1
 History of Computers

Early Start
Computers have been around for quite a few years. Some of your parents were probably
around in 1951 when the first computer was bought by a business firm. Computers have
changed so rapidly that many people cannot keep up with the changes. One newspaper tried to
describe what the auto industry would look like if it had developed at a similar pace to
changes in computer technology:

“Had the automobile developed at a pace equal to that of the computer during the past twenty
years, today a Rolls Royce would cost less than $3.00, get 3 million miles to the gallon,
deliver enough power to drive (the ship) the Queen Elizabeth II, and six of them would fit on
the head of a pin!” These changes have occurred so rapidly that many people do not know
how our modern computer got started.

The First Computing Machines “Computers”

Since ancient times, people have had ways of dealing with data and numbers. Early people
tied knots in rope and carved marks on clay tablets to keep track of livestock and trade. Some
people consider the 5000-year-old ABACUS - a frame with beads strung on wires - to be the
first true computing aid.

As the trade and tax system grew in complexity, people saw that faster, more reliable and
accurate tools were needed for doing math and keeping records.

In the mid-600’s, Blaise Pascal and his father, who was a tax officer himself, were working on
taxes for the French government in Paris. The two spent hours figuring and refiguring taxes
that each citizen owed. Young Blaise decided in 1642 to build an adding and subtraction
machine that could assist in such a tedious and time-consuming process. The machine Blaise
made had a set of eight gears that worked together in much the same way as an odometer
keeps track of a car’s mileage. His machine encountered many problems. For one thing, it was
always breaking down. Second, the machine was slow and extremely costly. And third,
people were afraid to use the machine, thinking it might replace their jobs. Pascal later
became famous for math and philosophy, but he is still remembered for his role in computer
technology. In his honor, there is a computer language named Pascal.
Did you know?
Binary code : code using a string of 8 binary digits to represent characters

2
The next big step for computers arrived in the 1830s, when Charles Babbage decided to build
a machine to help him complete and print mathematical tables. Babbage was a mathematician
who taught at Cambridge University in England. He began planning his calculating machine,
calling it the Analytical Engine. The idea for this machine was amazingly like the computer
we know today. It was to read a program from punched cards, figure and store the answers to
different problems, and print the answer on paper. Babbage died before he could complete the
machine. However, because of his remarkable ideas and work, Babbage is known as the
Father of Computers.

The next huge step for computers came when Herman Hollerith entered a contest organised
by the U.S. Census Bureau. The contest was to see who could build a machine that would
count and record information the fastest. Hollerith, a young man working for the Bureau, built
a machine called the Tabulating Machine that read and sorted data from punched cards. The
holes punched in the cards matched each person’s answers to questions. For example,
married, single, and divorced were answers on the cards. The Tabulator read the punched
cards as they passed over tiny brushes. Each time a brush found a hole, it completed an
electrical circuit. This caused special counting dials to increase the data for that answer.

Thanks to Hollerith’s machine, instead of taking seven and a half years to count the census
information it only took three years, even with 13 million more people since the last census.
Happy with his success, Hollerith formed the Tabulating Machine Company in 1896. The
company was later sold in 1911 and in 1912 his company became the International Business
Machines Corporation, better known today as IBM.

The First Electric Powered Computer

What is considered to be the first computer was made in 1944 by Harvard Professor Howard
Aiken. The Mark I computer was very much like the design of Charles Babbage’s Analytical
Engine, having mainly mechanical parts but with some electronic parts. His machine was
designed to be programmed to do many computing jobs. This all-purpose machine is what we
now know as the PC or personal computer. The Mark I was the first computer financed by
IBM and was about 50 feet long and 8 feet tall. It used mechanical switches to open and close
its electric circuits. It contained over 500 miles of wire and 750,000 parts.

The First All Electronic Computer

The first all electronic computer was the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer). ENIAC was a general purpose digital computer built in 1946 by J. Presper Eckert
and John Mauchly. The ENIAC contained over 18,000 vacuum tubes (used instead of the
mechanical switches of the Mark I) and was 1000 times faster than the Mark I. In twenty
seconds, ENIAC could do a math problem that would have taken 40 hours for one person to
finish. The ENIAC was built at the time of World War II and as its first job had to calculate
the feasibility of a design for the hydrogen bomb. The ENIAC was 100 feet long and 10 feet
tall.

Did you know?

ENIAC: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer

3
More Modern Computers
A more modern type of computer began with John von Neumann’s development of software
written in binary code. It was Von Neumann who began the practice of storing data and
instructions in binary code and initiated the use of memory to store data, as well as programs.
A computer called the EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Computer) was built using
binary code in 1950. Before the EDVAC, computers like the ENIAC could do only one task;
then they had to be rewired to perform a different task or program. The EDVAC’s concept of
storing different programs on punched cards instead of rewiring computers led to the
computers that we know today.

While the modern computer is far better and faster than the EDVAC of its time, computers
of today would not have been possible without the knowledge and work of many great
inventors and pioneers.

Did you know?

EDVAC: Electronic Discrete Variable Computer

Reading skills

Exercise 1. Scanning
Scanning a text is a reading technique where the reader looks for specific information rather
than trying to absorb all the information. If you are reading a time table, for example, you
usually want specific information and so look for something that is convenient for your
journey plans; when you do this, you are scanning.

Please locate in which line are the following words located.

1. pace :line.... 9. beads : line...
2. feasibility : line... 10. keep up : line...
3. brushes : line... 11. reliable : line...
4. occured : line... 12. livestock : line...
5. initiated : line... 13. tedious : line...
6. strung : line... 14. substraction : line...
7. look like : line... 15. carved : line...
8. owed : line...

Exercise 2. Vocabulary
Please find the meaning of the words listed in Exercise 1. Use the context in the reading text
to help you.
1. pace :....
2. feasibility :...
3. brushes :...
4. occured :...
5. initiated :...
6. strung :...
4
7. look like : ...
8. owed : ...
9. beads : ...
10. keep up : ...
11. reliable : ...
12. livestock : ...
13. tedious : ...
14. substraction : ...
15. carved : ...

Exercise 3. Skimming
Speed is often very important when you are reading. You may have a lot to read, but not
much time. For this kind of reading you usually do not want to know and remember
everything. You only want to find out something about it. You can do this by skimming.

Read the reading text about ‘History of computers’ above. What information can you get
about:
1. The First Computing Machines “Computers”
2. The First Electric Powered Computer
3. The First All Electronic Computer
4. More Modern Computers

Exercise 4. Comprehension questions

1. Why was Pascal honored with a computer language named for him?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
2. Who was the first to invent a machine whose operating principle is very similar to present-
day computers? Describe these similarities.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
3. In which process was Hollerith’s machine involved and what was its role?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
4. Describe all the technical parameters of the first electric powered computer.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
5. What were the differences between the Mark I and the ENIAC?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
6. What is the main advantage of using binary code in storing data and instructions?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

5
Grammar focus: The Present Perfect & Simple Past

Points Present Perfect Simple Past

Use  It talks about an action in the past  Just talk about an action in the past
and its consequence in the present  Details about the time or place that an
is important action occured are given or requested.
 It is about the result of an activity  A certain action took place
 The time of an action is not
important or not specified
 How often an action has happened
till now

Form They/we/I/you have V3 OR S V2

he/she/it has V3

They/we/I/you have NOT V3 OR S did NOT V0

he/she/it has NOT V3

Have they/we/I/you V3? OR Did S V0?

has he/she/it V3?

Example They have (just) painted the bench They painted the bench
 (the paint on the bench might  (they did it sometime ago)
still be wet)  (the color of the painted bench might
fade away)
 (the color of the painted bench
is still strong)

Lala has been a teacher for 10 years Lala was a teacher a year ago.
now.  Now it is 2017. Lala was a teacher in
 (Lala started to be a teacher in 2016.
2007. Lala continues being a
teacher until now (2017).
Lala’s future whether she
wants to be a teacher or stop
being a teacher is not
discussed)

Exercise 5. Writing
1. Write down 10 sentences describing your past.
2. Write down 5 sentences describing what you have done in your life.
3. Writedown 5 sentences describing what you have not done in your life.

6
Exercise 6. Speaking
Find a partner. Ask your partner about:
1. His/her past
2. What he/she has done in his/her life.
3. What he/she has not done in his/her life.

Exercise 7. Identifying the present perfect and the simple past tenses
1. Underline the Present Perfect sentences in the text entitled ‘History of computer’
above.
2. Circle the Simple Past sentences in the text entitled ‘History of computer’ above.

Exercise 8. Grammar in context

Put the verbs into the correct tense (simple past or present perfect simple).
A: (you / buy) ____________ the tickets for our journey yet?
B: Yes, I (go)_________ to the station yesterday and (buy) _________ the tickets.
A: What time (you / go) __________ there?
B: I (take) _______ a friend to the station in the morning. His train (leave) _____ at 9:45.
A: (you / pack) ________ your bags yet?
B: Of course. And I (ask / already) ______ my neighbour to empty my letter box. What
about you?
B: I (pack) __________ my bags two days ago.

Possible topics for discussion

1. The future of computers
2. The effects computers have on society

7
MEETING 4
How to Give a Successful Presentation?
Practical information

A. Pre-Reading Activity
Answer the following questions.
1) Have you ever delivered a speech in public?
2) What was it about?
3) What kind of preparation did you make?
4) What made your presentation successful (or not)?

B. Reading Activity
Read the following article on how to give a successful presentation thoroughly.

How to Give a Successful Presentation?

An essential task in a pre-preparatory phase is to ask you the following

questions:
1) What is the purpose of my presentation?
2) What are the main points that I would like to get across?

I. Pre-preparation. Selecting the topic and materials

 Start getting ready for your presentation a few weeks before you are due to speak.
 Collect the materials based on which you would like to prepare the presentation.
 Make a wise choice out of the collected materials.
 Prepare reliable bibliography (the author’s name, the title of the article/book, a year of its
publication, the website address, when the material was retrieved, etc.).
 From the material, select the keywords for your presentation and do not forget to put
them on the handout.

II. Preparation
 Make the first plan of the presentation (you can modify it later)
 Remember about a logical structure of the presentation:
Introduction - say, what you are going to say
Main Body - say it; develop the above-mentioned issue(s).
Conclusions - sum up what you’ve just said
 Make the first draft of your presentation. Read it carefully. If there is information not
related to the topic, remove it.
 If there are issues, which you cannot express in a precise or clear way, probably it is
because you do not really understand them yourself. Therefore, it is better not to talk
about them.

8
 Never read from your notes. You should know well the material you want to present. If
you do not know it, maybe you should not go for giving a presentation.
 Prepare a set of numbered clue cards, on which you can write the main points or/ and
keywords and which will help you during the presentation. Make sure that on your clue
cards you have marked an appropriate visual aid (a transparency or slide), which you are
going to refer to in your presentation.
 Find time to rehearse repeatedly!
By doing that you are going to make yourself familiar with your own voice, to check and
adjust the presenting time, to see whether visual aids (if you use them) actually illustrate
your presentation and whether you coordinate well their usage with what you say. If you
have problems with a foreign language in which you present the material, it could be
better not to use visuals at all. Otherwise, the chance that something goes wrong is bigger
than when you concentrate solely on the oral aspect of the presentation.
 Keep to the time! Do not exceed the time limit.
It is better to shorten the presentation by two minutes rather than extend it by two
minutes. Remember that exceeding the time limit may mean taking the next speaker’s
time. Moreover, this is unfair!
 Follow the plan of your presentation!
Do not digress! Usually digressions take more time than we think. Successful presenters
have “spontaneous digressions” well thought over and well planned.
 Leave time for questions from the audience.
Questions may help you to get your message across better.
 Design good visuals to help you get your message across more efficiently.
Remember that tatty visuals will leave a similar impression on the listeners. Visual aids
should speak for themselves illustrating your point. Give listeners time to take them in.
Reading out what you have written on a transparency or slide is counterproductive.
Visuals are always welcomed – they may help to catch the audience’s attention, but if
you do not feel comfortable with them, give yourself more time for practice.

9
III. Visual aids

Remember that badly prepared and/or badly used visuals can ruin your presentation!

Make sure you know in advance how to connect the equipment and what to do to have a
desired slide or diagram on the screen. Sometimes, during real presentations a technician is
designated to operate the equipment. In that case, make sure that he understands your signals,
which you are going to send when you wish, for example, to change a slide.

Slides should contain minimum

information, which is needed to illustrate
There are different types of visuals. The choice
your point. Too much on a slide makes it
depends on the type of presentation and your
unreadable and diverts audience’s
needs.
attention from what you say.  Presentations in PowerPoint
 Flipcharts
A slide is said to be readable if it  Whiteboard and marker
contains no more than ten words in 18pt  Video
Times Roman font or bigger and which  Short episodes or scenes from films
can be read without a projector from the  Real objects, which you can provide
listeners with to explore them
distance of two meters. Never use as
your visuals pages photocopied from
books or other materials. They are not
adapted for such usage, not to mention
the fact that they do not prove your professionalism.

While speaking avoid indicating with your finger or a marker. A pointer and the screen do
that job much better.

Turn off a projector if you do not need it for the next few minutes. Two minutes is the
maximum time that the same slide should be shown on the screen.

IV. Presentation - dress rehearsal

Presentation should not take place without practicing it earlier many times in front of a mirror
or/and with a tape recorder. Observing yourself and listening to you “in action” is stressful,
but very formative. It provides you with the material on which you can gradually develop
your presentational skills and competencies.

V. A couple of final tips:

 Speak clearly.
 Avoid raised voice, whispering or mumbling “under your nose”.
 Try to maintain your natural pace of speaking typical for an official, not everyday
situation.
 Make pauses in places, which you consider critical for your presentation; this treatment
emphasizes the crucial information you wish to transmit to the audience.

10
 Try to control your body language; avoid excessive gesticulation.
 Keep an eye contact with your listeners but do not focus on one person only.
 Don’t turn back to the audience if you want to show something on the screen and don’t
‘talk to the screen’ either.
 Don’t stand in the light of a projector covering the screen.
 Observe your audience’s reactions – maybe you should shorten the presentation by two
minutes and move on to conclusions.
 Don’t forget to thank the audience for their attention and encourage them to ask
questions. If you are not sure about the answer of if you simply do not know it, don’t be
afraid to admit that, but suggest the source in which the answer can be found.
 Enjoy your presentation. Try to treat it as your new experience and show your
enthusiasm!

C. EXERCISES

Exercise 1. Analyzing A Presentation

Watch a presentation video from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YHFKyuu6clg, and
answer the following questions.
1) What is the presenter talking about?
2) What do you like from the performance of the presenter?
3) What can you learn from the way the presenter performs?
4) What can be improved from the presentation?

Exercise 2. Presentation Outline

Choose a topic that you think is interesting to deliver in public and create an outline from the
chosen topic. Make sure that your outline have an introduction, main body, and conclusion.
List what preparation you may need for the presentation. Share your outline with your friends
and ask for what improvement you probably need for a better presentation.

Good luck!

11
MEETING 5-6: SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

Wikipedia
 Number of words 2330
 Computer science content High
 Math content Low
 Business content Medium
 English language complexity High

Learning Objectives
 to recognize differences between the Iterative and Waterfall Process of software
development
 to be able to give examples of the Iterative Process
 to understand the whole process from the customer’s order to implementation
 to acquire basic vocabulary linked with the software development process

Sub Areas Covered

 Software engineering
 Software development methodologies

Keywords
 software - in general, computer programs
 hardware - all the physical parts of the computer
 developer - person who develops the software
 agile development - a way of building software
 code - (coding) refers to the process of transforming a concept into a program code
 maintenance - “looking after” the written software
 bug - an error in software, something that spoils the flow of the program
 up-front (design, analysis, requirements) - the oldest method of building software

Pre-reading Questions
 What kind of job do you see yourself holding five years from now?
 Do you know any companies developing software? Would you like to join any of
them?
 How do you imagine work is organized in these companies? What software
development methods do you know?
 Have you used any of these methods so far?

12
Text
Software Development Process

A software development process is a structure imposed on the development of a software

product. Synonyms include software life cycle and software process. There are several models
for such processes, each describing approaches to a variety of tasks or activities that take
place during the process.

A growing body of software development organizations implement process methodologies.

Many of them are in the defense industry, which in the U.S. requires a rating based on
‘process models’ to obtain contracts. The international standard for describing the method of
selecting, implementing and monitoring the life cycle for software is ISO 12207.

The Capability Maturity Model (CMM) is one of the leading models. Independent
assessments grade organizations on how well they follow their defined processes, not on the
quality of those processes or the software produced. CMM is gradually being replaced by
CMMI. ISO 9000 describes standards for formally organizing processes with documentation.

ISO 15504, also known as Software Process Improvement Capability Determination (SPICE),
is a “framework for the assessment of software processes”. This standard is aimed at setting
out a clear model for process comparison. SPICE is used much like CMM and CMMI. It
models processes to manage, control, guide and monitor software development. This model is
then used to measure what a development organiza-tion or project team actually does during
software development. This information is analyzed to identify weaknesses and drive
improvement. It also identifies strengths that can be continued or integrated into common
practice for that organization or team.

Six Sigma is a methodology to manage process variations that uses data and statistical
analysis to measure and improve a company’s operational performance. It works by
identifying and eliminating defects in manufacturing and service-related processes. The
maximum permissible defects is 3.4 per one million opportunities. However, Six Sigma is
manufacturing-oriented and needs further research on its relevance to software development.

Software : in general computer programs

13
in general computer programs
The Main Steps of Software Development
Domain Analysis
Often the first step in attempting to design a new piece of software, whether it be an addition
to an existing software, a new application, a new subsystem or a whole new system, is, what
is generally referred to as “Domain Analysis”. Assuming that the developers (including the
analysts) are not sufficiently knowledgeable in the subject area of the new software, the first
task is to investigate the so-called “domain” of the software. The more knowledgeable they
are about the domain already, the less the work required. Another objective of this work is to
get the analysts (who will later try to elicit and gather the requirements from the area) experts
or professionals to speak with them in the domain’s own terminology and to better understand
what is being said by these people, otherwise they will not be taken seriously. So, this phase is
an important prelude to extracting and gathering the requirements. The following quote
captures the kind of situation an analyst who hasn’t done his homework well may face in
speaking with a professional from the domain: “I know you believe you understood what you
think I said, but I am not sure you realize what you heard is not what I meant.”

Software Elements Analysis

The most important task in creating a software product is extracting the requirements.
Customers typically know what they want, but not what software should do, while
incomplete, ambiguous or contradictory requirements are recognized by skilled and
experienced software engineers. Frequently demonstrating live code may help reduce the risk
that the requirements are incorrect.

Specification
Specification is the task of precisely describing the software to be written, possibly in a
rigorous way. In practice, most successful specifications are written to understand and fine-
tune applications that were already well-developed, although safety-critical software systems
are often carefully specified prior to application development. Specifications are most
important for external interfaces that must remain stable.

Software Architecture
The architecture of a software system refers to an abstract representation of that system.
Architecture is concerned with making sure the software system will meet the requirements of
the product, as well as ensuring that future requirements can be addressed. The architecture
step also addresses interfaces between the software system and other software products, as
well as the underlying hardware or the host operating system.
Hardware : all the physical parts of the computer

Implementation (or coding)

Reducing a design to code may be the most obvious part of the software engineering job, but
it is not necessarily the largest portion.
all the physical parts of the computer
Testing
Testing of parts of software, especially wherein general
code by two different engineers must work
computer programs
together, falls to the software engineer.
14
Documentation
An important (and often overlooked) task is documenting the internal design of software for
the purpose of future maintenance and enhancement. Documentation is most important for
external interfaces.

Software Training and Support

A large percentage of software projects fail because the developers fail to realize that it
doesn’t matter how much time and planning a development team puts into creating software if
nobody in an organization ends up using it. People are occasionally resistant to change and
avoid venturing into an unfamiliar area so, as a part of the deployment phase, it is very
important to have training classes for the most enthusiastic soft-ware users, shifting the
training towards the neutral users intermixed with the avid supporters, and finally incorporate
the rest of the organization into adopting the new software. Users will have lots of questions
and software problems which leads to the next phase of software.

Maintenance
Maintaining and enhancing software to cope with newly discovered problems or new
requirements can take far more time than the initial development of the software. Not only
may it be necessary to add code that does not fit the original design but just determining how
software works at some point after it is completed may require significant effort by a software
engineer. About 60% of all software engineering work is maintenance, but this statistic can be
misleading. A small part of that is fixing bugs. Most maintenance is extending systems to do
new things, which in many ways can be considered new work.
developer : person who develops the software

Waterfall processes
The best-known and oldest process is the waterfall model, where developers (roughly) follow
these steps in order: in general computer programs
 state requirements
 analyze requirements
 design a solution approach
 architect a software framework for that solution
 develop code
 test (perhaps unit tests then system tests)
 deploy
 post-implementation.

After each step is finished, the process proceeds to the next step, just as builders don’t revise
the foundation of a house after the framing has been erected. There is a misconception that the
process has no provision for correcting errors in early steps (for example, in the
requirements). In fact this is where the domain of requirements management comes in which
includes change control. This approach is used in high risk projects, particularly large defense
contracts. The problems in waterfall do not arise from “immature engineering practices,
particularly in requirements analysis and requirements management”. Studies of the failure
rate of the DOD-STD-2167 specification, which enforced waterfall, have shown that the more
15
closely a project follows its process, specifically in up-front requirements gathering, the more
likely the project is to release features that are not used in their current form.

Iterative processes
Iterative development prescribes the construction of initially small but ever larger portions of
a software project to help all those involved to uncover important issues early before
problems or faulty assumptions can lead to disaster. Iterative processes are preferred by
commercial developers because it allows a potential of reaching the design goals of a
customer who does not know how to define what they want.
Agile software development processes are built on the foundation of iterative development.
To that foundation they add a lighter, more people-centric viewpoint than traditional
approaches. Agile processes use feedback, rather than planning, as their primary control
mechanism. The feedback is driven by regular tests and releases of the evolving software.
agile development : a way of building software

Agile processes seem to be more efficient than older methodologies, using less programmer
time to produce more functional, higher quality software, but have the drawback from a
business perspective that they do not provide long-term
in generalplanning
computercapability.
programs However, polls
show gains, sometimes significant. For example, a survey, published in August 2006 by
Version One and Agile Alliance and based on polling more than 700 companies shows the
following benefits of Agile approach (http://www.agilejournal.com/articles/from-the-
editor/agile-survey-results%3a-solid -experience-and-real-results.html). The survey was
repeated in August 2007 with about 1,700 respondents
(http://www.agilejournal.com/articles/from-the-editor/ agile-survey-results%3a-widespread-
adoption-emphasis-on-productivity-and-quality. html). Here are some results:
1. Accelerated time to market.
 2006: 10% or higher improvements reported by 86% of respondents
 2007: 10% or higher improvements reported by 90% of respondents
 2006: 25% or higher improvements reported by 60% of respondents
 2007: 25% or higher improvements reported by 54% of respondents
2. Increased productivity.
 2006: 10% or higher improvements reported by 87% of respondents
 2007: 10% or higher improvements reported by 83% of respondents
 2006: 25% or higher improvements reported by 55% of respondents
 2007: 25% or higher improvements reported by 55% of respondents
3. Reduced software defects.
 2006: 10% or higher improvements reported by 86% of respondents
 2007: 10% or higher improvements reported by 85% of respondents
 2006: 25% or higher improvements reported by 55% of respondents
 2007: 25% or higher improvements reported by 54% of respondents
4. Reduced cost.
 2006: 10% or higher improvements reported by 63% of respondents
 2007: 10% or higher improvements reported by 28% of respondents
 2006: 25% or higher improvements reported by 26% of respondents

16
 2007: 25% or higher improvements reported by 28% of respondents
The stability of results on a broader set of respondents suggests that we see the actual trend.

code (coding) : refers to the process of transforming a concept into a program

code

Among other interesting improvements reported were:

 Enhanced ability to manage changing priorities
 Alignment between IT and
in general business
computer goals
programs
 Improved team morale
 Reduced product risk
There is also an interesting chart at http://versionone.com/Resources/ AgileBenefits. asp that
shows Agile development value proposition in comparison to traditional development.

Extreme Programming, XP, is the best-known iterative process. In XP, the phases are carried
out in extremely small (or “continuous”) steps compared to the older, “batch” processes. The
(intentionally incomplete) first pass through the steps might take a day or a week, rather than
the months or years of each complete step in the Water-fall model. First, one writes automated
tests, to provide concrete goals for develop-ment. Next is coding (by a pair of programmers),
which is complete when all the tests pass, and the programmers can’t think of any more tests
that are needed. Design and architecture emerge out of refactoring, and come after coding.
Design is done by the same people who do the coding. (Only the last feature - merging design
and code - is common to all the other agile processes.) The incomplete but functional system
is deployed or demonstrated for (some subset of) the users (at least one of which is on the
development team). At this point, the practitioners start again on writing tests for the next
most important part of the system.

Test Driven Development (TDD) is a useful output of the Agile camp but raises a conundrum.
TDD requires that a unit test be written for a class before the class is written. Therefore, the
class firstly has to be “discovered” and secondly defined in sufficient detail to allow the write-
test-once-and-code-until-class-passes model that TDD actually uses. This is actually counter
to Agile approaches, particularly (so-called) Agile Modeling, where developers are still
encouraged to code early, with light design. Obviously, to get the claimed benefits of TDD, a
full design down to class and responsibilities (captured using, for example, Design By
Contract) is necessary. This counts towards iterative development, with a design locked
down, but not iterative design - as heavy refactoring and re-engineering negate the usefulness
of TDD.
Maintenance : “looking after” the written software

While iterative development approaches have their advantages, software architects are still
faced with the challengetheof written
creatingsoftware
a reliable foundation upon which to develop. Such a
foundation often requires a fair: amount of up-front
: refers analysis
to the process and prototyping
of transforming to build a
a concept
development model. Theinto development
a program model
code often relies upon specific design patterns and
entity relationship diagrams (ERD). Without this upfront foundation, iterative development
can create long term challenges that are significant in terms of cost and quality.

in general computer programs

17
Critics of iterative development approaches point out that these processes place what may be
an unreasonable expectation upon the recipient of the software: that they must possess the
skills and experience of a seasoned software developer. The ap-proach can also be very
expensive if iterations are not small enough to mitigate risk; akin to... “If you don’t know
what kind of house you want, let me build you one and see if you like it. If you don’t, we’ll
tear it all down and start over”. By anal-ogy the critic argues that up-front design is as
necessary for software development as it is for architecture. The problem with this criticism is
that the whole point of iterative programming is that you don’t have to build the whole house
before you get feedback from the recipient. Indeed, in a sense conventional programming
places more of this burden on the recipient, as the requirements and planning phases take
place entirely before the development begins, and testing only occurs after development is
officially over.
bug : an error in software, something that spoils the flow of the program

In fact, a relatively quiet turn around in the Agile community has occurred on the notion of
“evolving” the software without the requirements locked down. In the old world this was
called requirements creep and never made commercial sense. The Agile community has
similarlythe
been “burnt”
written because, in the end, when the customer asks for something that breaks
software
the architecture, and won’t pay for the re-work, the project terminates in an Agile manner.
: : refers to the process of transforming a concept into a program code

These approaches have been developed along with web based technologies. As such, they are
actually more akin to maintenance life cycles given that most of the architecture and
capability of the insolutions is embodied
general computer within the technology selected as the back bone of the
programs
application.

Exercises
Exercise 1. Comprehension Questions
1. What is the idea behind Test Driven Development?
2. What are the main benefits of using Agile Methods?
3. What is the main aim of introducing the SPICE standard?
4. What is the aim of utilizing the Six Sigma methodology, and how can it help the
performance of some kinds of companies?
5. Which of the software development steps involve most contact with the customer?
(possible topic for discussion)
6. What kind of projects often requires the use of the Waterfall Process of software
development?
7. What is the function of requirements management, mentioned in reference to
Waterfall Process?
8. With reference to iterative processes, what is agile development mainly based on?
9. What condition must the coding process fulfil before it can be completed?

18
Grammar focus: Sentence

A sentence consists of subject and predicate:

SENTENCE

Subject Predicate
The subject of the sentence is generally what the sentence is about—its topic. The predicate is
what is said about the subject.

Exercise 2. Identifying Correct Sentences

Put a tick (√) beside the correct sentences.
1. Made in Germany. ___
2. This car was made in Germany.___
3. To write a letter.___
4. I want to write a letter.___
5. Standing in the rain. ___
6. Is tall. ___
7. Do you like? ___
8. The train has arrived. ___
9. Have finished my work. ___
10. Dream high. ___

Exercise 3. Revising Sentences

Rewrite the sentences that don’t make sense. Then Mark all the sentences in the exercises with
S and V to show the Subject and Verb.
1. Has set John Bailey a new high-jump record.
2. The passport examined the passport officer.
3. The biscuits don’t like the dogs.
4. The shop assistant is wrapping the parcel.
5. Have seen the visitors the new building.
6. My father didn’t wash the dishes.
7. The pipe is going to clean the plumber.
8. Will the goalkeeper catch the ball?
9. Has the meal enjoyed the guest?
10. Can’t play John the game.

Grammar focus: The Simple Present Tense

There are some situations that use simple present:
 Facts or things that always happens
 The earth is round
 Water boils at 100º C
 The sun rises in the east

19
 Routine and habits
 The bird returns to the island every spring.
 The students go to school by bus.
 We always wash our hands before meals.
 Timetable events
 The drama club meets every Thursday at 07.30
 English Club gathers every Saturday at computer laboratory.
 My favorite TV programme starts at half past seven.
 Plots of film, stories and play
 In the film, the tea lady falls in love with the Prime Minister.
 At the party, Romeo sees Juliet and falls in love with her.
 Pinocchio’s nose grows longer when he says untruth.
 Give instruction or direction
 You go down to the traffic lights, then you turn left.
 To starts the program, first you click on the icon.
 For preventive purpose, you drink it twice a day.
 Talks about things that are planned in the future
 My big brother leaves school at 4 o’clock.
 We fly to London next Friday.
 The new cinema opens next Monday.

Exercise 4. Sentence completion

Select one answer from the choices provided.
1. Either the physicians in this hospital or the chief administrator (is / are) going to have to
make a decision.
2. (Is / are) my boss or my sisters in the union going to win this grievance?
3. Some of the votes (seem / seems) to have been miscounted.
4. The tornadoes that tear through this county every spring (are / is) more than just a
nuisance.
5. Everyone selected to serve on this jury (have / has) to be willing to give up a lot of time.
6. Kara Wolters, together with her teammates, (present / presents) a formidable opponent
on the basketball court.
7. He seems to forget that there (are / is) things to be done before he can graduate.

Exercise 5. Sentence completion

Complete these sentence with appropriate verbs.
1. a. It … us a fortune at the moment to send our daughter to dance classes.
b. It … a fortune to fly first class to Japan.
2. a. I … sitting down at the end of a long day and reading a good book.
b. It's a wonderful book. I … every moment of it.
3. a. We've always wanted a house in the country, but we … on where it should be.
b. When they agree with each other on so many important issues, I can't understand why
they … now on this relatively minor matter.

20
4. a. With growing concerns about the environment, people … to use recycled paper
products,
b. He doesn't like publicity, and … to stay firmly in the background.
5. a. 'Can I speak to Dorothy?' 'She … a shower. Can I take a message?'
b. My brother … three children, all girls.
6. 6. a. Although he … three cars, all of them are extremely old.
b. In the north of the country, fewer and fewer people … the houses they live in.

Exercise 6. Sentence completion

Fill in the gaps with the correct Present Tense of the verb

agree catch up cause have go up know

think use

We 1 … energy for three main things: electricity production, heating, and transport. For the
first two, we 2 … options such as solar and wind power, or natural gas. But oil is still the
world’s number one source of energy, and for transport at least, there is currently no
alternative. In China, domestic energy consumption 3 … year by year and demand in similar
region 4 … fast. We 5 … how to use energy more efficiently now than in the past but the
worldwide rise in demand 6 … concern amongst experts. Some experts 7 … that oil supplies
will start to fall the nest twenty years. Most experts 8 … that we need to find a new source of
energy soon.

Further Exercises
Students work in two teams: A/B. Group A are the customers, group B the developers.
Imagine how the iterative process of development works on any application (e.g. building a
house) and simulate it. Prepare a very short report which sums up the negotiations between
the teams. Prepare a comparison between iterative and waterfall processes. Write it down in a
table form. Focusing on the differences, answer the following questions:
 Which features of these techniques do you think are better?
 Do you use any of them? Which ones and why?

21
MEETING 9 – 10: CYBER WARFARE: REALITY OR BOX OFFICE HIT?

Randy Nash

Number of words : 1600

Computer science content : Medium
English language complexity : Medium

Learning Objective
1. to acquire basic knowledge about cyber threats
2. to acquire knowledge about types of cyber attacks

Sub-Areas Covered
1. Network safety
2. cyber attacks

Keywords
 cyber war - the usage of computers and the Internet in conducting warfare in the
cyberspace
 cyber vandalism - cyber attacks that deface web pages
 hacktivism - combination of words: “hack(er)” and “activism”
 Denial of Service - a kind of cyber attack which results in unavailability of service. It uses
two methods: forcing the targeted computer(s) to reset, thus consuming its resources so
that it can no longer provide its intended service; or obstructing the communication media
between the intended users and the victim so that they can no longer communicate
adequately.
 mainframe - computer used by large companies for critical operations like financial
transaction processing
 bot - a program used on the Internet that performs a repetitive function such as posting a
message to multiple newsgroups or searching for information or news
 botnet - a collection of software robots, or bots linked and cooperating with each other

Summary
A short text, which is a good introduction to the topic of network security. There is a
presentation of cyberterrorism as a new threat. The majority of people are not yet aware of
how dangerous this phenomenon is. The author gives examples of the largest attacks in the
past and describes the most popular techniques. The article is also a good introduction to a
long discussion about prevention, awareness of the threat and the future.

Pre-reading Questions
1. What does the threat of cyber terrorism mean to you?
2. Where, in your opinion, does the main threat of cyber terrorism come from?
3. Have you thought about the threat of cyber terrorism?

22
 Cyber Warfare: Reality or Box Office Hit?

The specter of cyber warfare has reared its ugly head in the media again. Some experts
seem to think that the future is here, and battles will be fought and won via the Internet. But
how much of this can be considered actual warfare, and how much is hype? Randy Nash
searches for a working definition of cyber warfare, looks at the historical profile of attacks,
and discusses the potential of a devastating electronic Pearl Harbor.
The threat of cyber warfare has been brought forth again by the media; not only in
news outlets but also in the entertainment industry. But is this threat real or imagined?

What Is Cyber Warfare?

To properly assess the risk, we first need a working definition of what cyber war is
and how it might manifest. There is much disagreement about the term and its actual
definition, and varying degrees in the types of cyber attacks that might be perpetrated. I think
cyber warfare has some critical characteristics. First, warfare is considered the process of
military struggle between two nations or groups of nations. Warfare generally includes attacks
against critical communications channels, and against the military and civilian population
resulting in loss of life. Next, the cyber aspect can be considered to refer to the realm of
electronic communication. So I think we can summarize the definition of cyber war as
follows: cyber war (Cyber warfare): the process of military struggle between two nations or
groups of nations conducted via various forms of electronic communications, or the Internet,
resulting in the disruption of communications and/or loss of life.

What Is It Not?
Okay, we have a definition of cyber war, but what are other forms of cyber threats that
would not fit into the definition of cyber warfare? Here’s a list of some online threats that I
don’t feel fall into the warfare category:
Cyber vandalism: This is primarily the “script kiddies” that consider defacing a
website to be “hacking.” I think of this as electronic graffiti. This is low-level harassment.
Civil disobedience or hacktivism: Hacktivism or Electronic Civil Disobedience (ECD)
generally takes some form of Denial of Service (DoS) attack against the website of some
target, usually political in nature. Those who consider themselves hactivists claim that
hacktivism is the fusion of hacking and activism; politics and technology. More specifically,
hacktivism is described as hacking for a political cause. Furthermore, hacktivists claim that
Electronic Civil Disobedience (ECD) is a legitimate form of nonviolent, direct action utilized
to bring pressure on institutions engaged in unethical or criminal actions. Within the
electronic environment, ECD aims to disrupt the operation of information and capital flows of
carefully selected target sites without causing serious damage.

Cyber crime: Cyber crime can take many different forms; theft of intellectual property,
extortion based on the threat of DDOS attacks, fraud based on identity theft, espionage, and
so on.
While each of these types of activities is criminal in nature and might constitute an
aspect of cyber warfare actions, they do not constitute cyber war by themselves. These
actions, while criminal in nature, are generally not going to cost lives or affect military
operations.

What is the Real Threat?

The threat comes primarily from nation states with the will, motive, and technology to
launch attacks against the United States. In fact, nations that do not possess a powerful
military are probably more likely to choose this form of attack because of its much lower cost
of implementation (think “asymmetric warfare”). The most obvious avenues of attack would
23
be against our nation’s critical infrastructure, so the government formed a body to analyze any
threats against our infrastructure. This body, originally known as the President’s Critical
Infrastructure Protection Board (PCCIB), is now known as the National Infrastructure
Advisory Council (NIAC) and operates within the U.S. Department of Homeland Security.
This council provides the President with advice on the security of the critical infrastructure
sectors and their information systems. Over time, the sectors identified as belonging to the
critical infrastructure have changed.

Historical Precedents
Just as our understanding of this critical infrastructure has changed and matured over
time, so has the threat. These threats have existed for some time. Back in May 1998, all seven
members of the L0pht (Brian Oblivion, Kingpin, Mudge, Space Rogue, Stefan Von Neumann,
John Tan, and Weld Pond) famously testified before the Congress of the United States that
they could shut down the entire Internet in 30 minutes.

NOTE Selected transcripts are in the section entitled “WEAK COMPUTER SECURITY IN
GOVERNMENT: IS THE PUBLIC AT RISK?” MAY 19–20, 1998—COMMITTEE ON
GOVERNMENTAL AFFAIRS.

Shortly after this testimony, the first distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks
appeared. The first well-documented DDoS attack appears to have occurred in August 1999,
when a DDoS tool called Trinoo (described below) was deployed in at least 227 systems, of
which at least 114 were on Internet2, to flood a single University of Minnesota computer.
This system was knocked off the air for more than two days. In the following months,
Yahoo!, Amazon, Buy.com, CNN, and eBay were all hit with similar attacks. These
commerce sites suffered large financial losses during the downtime because of these attacks.
Today, incredibly large and complex botnets exist that can be used to launch a variety of
attacks against multiple targets.
The current focus of these botnets appears to be primarily SPAM and DDoS attacks,
but they could easily be used in cyber warfare activities. Other attacks of historic significance
include the following:
Solar Sunrise: Solar Sunrise is the name given to a series of attacks against the
Pentagon and MIT in February 1998. The Department of Defense called these attacks “the
most organized and systematic attack to date.” The DoD actually declared the U.S. to be in a
state of “cyber war.” These attacks appeared to be originating from Russian-owned IP address
space, so the attack was considered to be “state-sponsored.”
Moonlight Maze: Moonlight Maze refers to an incident in which U.S. officials
accidentally discovered a pattern of probing of computer systems at the Pentagon, NASA,
Energy Department, private universities, and research labs that began in March 1998 and went
on for nearly two years. It seems that these hackers had been able to access tens of thousands
of files (including maps of military installations, troop configurations, and military hardware
designs). The Defense Department traced the attacks back to a mainframe computer in the
former Soviet Union.
Titan Rain: Titan Rain is the name given to a well-organized Chinese military hacking
effort against the U.S. military. The hackers, believed to have been based in the Chinese
province of Guangdong, are thought to have stolen U.S. military secrets, including aviation
specifications and flight-planning software. These attacks apparently started in 2003 and
lasted until 2005.

24
Current Situations
Much of the news related to cyber warfare tends to be a bit “sensational”. For
example:

Russia accused of unleashing cyber war to disable Estonia, Estonia hit by

“Moscow cyber war”, Cyber war: Russia vs. Estonia.

All this sounds very dramatic and serious, but let’s look at the details. On April 27,
officials in Estonia relocated the “Bronze Soldier,” a Soviet-era war memorial
commemorating an unknown Russian who died fighting the Nazis. This led to political furor
among ethnic Russians and to the blockading of the Estonian Embassy in Moscow.
The event also marked the beginning of a large and sustained distributed denial-of -
service attack on several Estonian national Web sites, including those of government
ministries and the prime minister’s Reform Party. There were no attacks against any critical
infrastructure or services. This was simply a political statement. At the most, I’d refer to this
event as hacktivism, and most likely launched by a group of hackers that have no affiliation
with any government agency. It seems there was no cyber war after all. But wait, that’s not
all: America prepares for “cyber war” with China!
Is Cyber war really that imminent? Are we about to fall under an attack of bits and
bytes? A report in the UK branch of ZDNet proclaimed Cyber warfare “a reality in 12
months.”
Unfortunately, that report was back in January 2004. The article is a good source of
information about the types of vulnerable systems that may be attacked, but their predicted
timeline is way off.
Cyber Warfare—An analysis of the means and motivations of selected nation states
For a more measured appraisal, I recommend this report, which was written in response to a
grant provided by the Department of Homeland Security. This report is an assessment of
potential foreign computer threats to information technology networks in the United States.
This is one of the most level-headed write-ups I’ve seen to-date.

Looking to the Future

There should be little doubt that future wars will inevitably include cyber warfare
tactics. It is increasingly apparent that other nations are gearing up to take advantage of the
ever-increasing complexity and inter-connected nature of various national infrastructures.
Current efforts at security computer systems and networks will likely prove to be
insufficient to prevent such future attacks. The U.S. military has been developing cyber
warfare strategies for some time.
It appears that even Al Qaeda has been developing cyber war capabilities. With our
enemies working toward this goal, we obviously cannot overlook the possibilities. The
scenario in the movie Live Free or Die Hard might seem farfetched, but the potential exists
for some of the attacks portrayed in that movie (although it won’t be nearly as easy as it
seemed on the big screen). I’m hoping that somewhere in either our government or military
cyber-defense forces we have our own John McClane?

Exercise 1. Vocabulary
Read passage above carefully. Without using dictionary, match the vocabularies below with
their meaning according to the context given in the passage.
1. Cyber : ____________________________
2. Hype : ____________________________
3. Systems : ____________________________
4. Appraisal : ____________________________
5. Imminent : ____________________________
25
6. Hackers : ____________________________
7. Defacing : ____________________________
8. Unleashing : ____________________________
9. Government : ____________________________
10. Software : ____________________________

Definitions:
a. Increasing
b. The program that run on a computer and perform certain functions
c. A person who secretly gets access to computer system in order to get information/cause
damage
d. Involving computer network
e. Interdependent group of items forming a unified whole
f. The act of judging the value, conditon, or importance of something
g. To let something happen sudenly
h. To ruin the surface of something, usually with writing/picture

Exercise 2. Comprehension questions

Answer these following questions based on information from the text
1. Using the information in the text about the first DDoS attack and your own knowledge, try
to explain how DDoS works?
2. Can you name the large-scale attacks and who they were directed against?

Exercise 3. Vocabulary
In groups, explain the meaning of the following words.
 hacktivism
 mainframe
 cyberdefense
 bot
 botnet
Compare your answers with other groups.

Exercise 4. Discussion
1. Do you know of any other kinds of cyber attacks or threats? Which do you think, are the
most dangerous for you?
2. Are you afraid of this kind of threat? Do you think you might lose something in a cyber
attack?

Summarizing
In short, summarizing is is the retelling of the important parts of a passage in a much
shorter form. Summarizing teaches students how to discern the most important ideas in a text,
how to ignore irrelevant information, and how to integrate the central ideas in a meaningful
way. Summarization strategies can be used in almost every content area.

26
Exercise 5. Summarizing
Reread the text on Cyber Warfare. Summarize the passage based on the topic below.

What is Cyber-Warfare

What Is It Not?

What is The real Threat?

Historical Precedents

Current Situations

Looking to the Future

27
MEETING 12-13: QUAKE - GAME ENGINE

Wikipedia

Number of words 700

Computer science content Medium
Math content Low
English language complexity Medium

Learning objectives
• to understand pre-rendering process
• to acquire technical vocabulary associated with computer graphics
• to recognize differences between true 3D games and the earliest 2D or pseudo-3D games
• to learn why Quake became a milestone in game history

Sub-areas covered
• Computer graphics
• Computer games
• Computer animation
• Game engine

Keywords
• rendering - the process of generating an image from a three dimensional object by means of
computer programs
• to prune - to cut parts of the map invisible for the player
• skybox - a method to create a background to make a computer and video game location
look bigger than it really is
• sector-based static lighting – the texture with information about lighting which is not
affected by the angle or position of the light source
• CAD - Computer Aided Design

Pre-reading questions
What you know about the following:
1. the difference between true 3D and “2.5D” games
2. optimizing the rendering process
3. preprocessing the rendered world
4. hardware acceleration
5. various problems in games modelling and scientific design

Quake - Game Engine

Quake popularized several major advances in the 3D game genre: it uses 3-dimensional
models for players and monsters instead of 2-dimensional sprites; and the world in which play
takes place is created as a true 3 dimensional space, rather than a 2-dimensional map. Some
previous 3D games, such as Duke Nukem 3D, Doom and Wolfenstein 3D used some
28
mathematical tricks to simulate the 3-dimensional world. This allowed a true 3D view, but
was so restricted that only looking straight ahead would give a sense of 3 dimensions.

Reducing 3D complexity to increase speed

Quake was the first true 3D game to use a special map design system that preprocessed and
pre-rendered the 3D environment to reduce the load when playing the game on the 50-75
MHz CPUs of the time. The 3D environment in which the game takes place is referred to as a
map, even though it is three-dimensional in nature rather than a flat 2D space. The map editor
program uses a number of simple convex 3D geometric objects known as brushes that are
sized and rotated to build the environment. The brushes are overlapped in order to create an
enclosed, empty, volumetric space, and when the design is complete the map is run through
the rendering preprocessor. The preprocessor is used to locate two types of empty space in the
map, the empty space enclosed by brushes where the game will be played, and the other
empty space outside the brushes that the player will never see. The preprocessor then strips
away the back-faces of the individual brushes which are outside the game-space, leaving only
the few polygons that define the outer perimeter of the enclosed game space.

1. Use brushes to make an enclosed play area

2. Processor finds the inside and outside spaces

3. Processor cuts away faces not visible inside maps

4. Finished low-polygon, fast-rendering game map

INSIDE
It was possible to edit a processed map by opening it in a special vertex editor and editing the
raw vertex data, or to add or remove individual triangle faces. Though difficult, this technique
was occasionally used by cheaters to create windows in walls, to see normally hidden enemies
approaching from behind doors and walls, and resulted in an anti-cheat mechanism used in
recent 3D games that calculates a checksum for each file used in the game, to detect players
using potentially hacked map files. Once the map had been pruned of excess faces that the
player inside will never see anyway, the polygon count can be reduced by 50% to 80%
compared to an original unprocessed map. On the 50-75 MHz PCs of the time, it was
common for this pruning step to take many hours to complete on a map, often running
overnight if the map design was extremely complex.

29
Hardware 3D acceleration

Quake was also one of the first games to support 3D hardware acceleration. While initially
released with only software rendering, John Carmack created a version of the Quake
executable that took advantage of Rendition’s Vérité 1000 graphics chip. OpenGL support
was soon added in the form of the GLQuake executable for Windows 95 and higher. Many
believe that this kick-started the independent 3D graphics card revolution, “GLQuake” being
the first application to truly demonstrate the capabilities of the 3dfx “Voodoo” chipset at the
time. The only two other cards capable of rendering GLQuake were a professional (very
expensive) Integraph 3D OpenGL card, and, later, the PowerVR cards.

Impact on modern game design

Nearly all the games created after Quake have used this 3D preprocessing optimization, which
enhanced the speed of the game on a personal computer or gaming console. 3D games are
therefore able to push the limits of visual styles and effects because so much excess modelling
data was stripped out before the end-user ever saw the game. In this way, most games are
significantly different from professional 3D CAD and design problems, where there is no time
available to do preprocessing between an engineer making a change and seeing it on the
screen. Nothing can be thrown away to increase the rendering speed of a 3D engineering
model, since any part of the design can change at any moment. For this reason, professional
3D graphics cards are significantly more expensive and powerful than the 3D cards used in
home computers simply for playing games, because the professional 3D card needs far greater
processing power to deal with the full complexity of an un-preprocessed 3D render space.

Exercise 1. Comprehension questions

1. What did “shooter” games look like before the Quake revolution?
2. What is graphic preprocessing in general?
3. How could players see their opponents through a wall?
4. What does the Quake pre-rendering process depend on?

Grammar focus: The passive: the Present Simple and Past Simple
FORM = noun/pronoun + to be + past participle

Active Passive
Someone washes the car every week. The car is washed every week.
They make these televisions in Japan. These televisions are made in Japan.
Someone painted the house last week. The house was painted last week.
They taught the children to be polite. The children were taught to be polite.

Use
• The passive is used to describe actions:
a) when we don't know who does, or did the action:
My briefcase was stolen last night. (I don't know who stole it.)
b) when it is not important to know who does, or did the action:
The cars are taken to Europe every week. (It doesn't matter who takes them.)
These televisions are made in Japan. (It doesn't matter who makes them.)

30
Exercise 2. Identifying passive voice
Identify the passive form of the following sentences.
1. The 3D environment in which the game takes place is referred to as a map
2. The map editor program uses a number of simple convex 3D geometric objects known as
brushes
3. The brushes are overlapped in order to create an enclosed, empty, volumetric space, and
when the design is complete the map is run through the rendering preprocessor
4. The preprocessor is used to lo cate two types of empty space
5. Though difficult, this technique was occasionally used by cheaters to create windows in
walls
6. Once the map had been pruned of excess faces that the player inside will never see anyway
7. 3D games are therefore able to push the limits of visual styles and effects because so much
excess modelling data was stripped out before the end-user ever saw the game
8. Nothing can be thrown away to increase the rendering speed of a 3D engineering model

Exercise 3. Writing passive sentences

Rewrite these sentences in the passive.
1. Someone broke this mirror last night. = This mirror was broken last night.
2. Someone washes the towels in the hotel every day. = The towels in the hotel are
washed every day.
3. Someone built the house ten years ago.
4. They grow this fruit in very hot countries.
5. They pay the office workers weekly.
6. Someone bought all this cheese in France.
7. Someone found Emily's bike in the river.
8. Someone visits most of the prisoners once a week.
9. Someone cleans this car every week.
10. They play a lot of sport on the beach.
11. Someone stole all my best jewellery.
12. They carried the children all the way home.

Exercise 4. Discussion
Which games, in your opinion, were a milestone in game development and why?

31
 REFERENCES

Jagiellonian Language Center. (2008). English ++: English for computer science students.
Cracow: Jagiellonian University.

32