CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM AND IT’S BACKGROUND

“Tell me and I may forget.

Show me and I may remember.
Involve me and I understand forever.”

- Ben Franklin

INTRODUCTION

Research consistently has shown that traditional lecture methods, in which teachers talk

and students listen, dominate classrooms. It is therefore important to know the nature of active

learning, the empirical research on its use, the common obstacles and barriers that give rise to

faculty members' resistance to interactive instructional techniques, and how faculty, faculty

developers, administrators, and educational researchers can make real the promise of active

learning. The invitation to develop a module on active learning was very compelling. We are

curriculum specialists with a longstanding interest in and love of active learning. The possibility

that our experience might be of some help to other educators is exciting, yet humbling. We

cannot truly comprehend the conditions under which teachers and students are striving to live

and learn. As we tried to imagine teaching children in the aftermath of war, we questioned what

part of our knowledge and experience might possibly be relevant to the challenges you face.

We have been told that traditional instructional materials are scarce and that you are

looking for ways in which to improvise educational activities. A number of our colleagues have

prepared modules that focus either on specific subject areas (e.g., math, science) or specific types

of learning activities (e.g., creative dramatics, journal writing). It is assumed that teachers will

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have to adapt these ideas to fit their unique, and perhaps volatile, circumstances. The purpose of

this module is to provide a framework for helping teachers to reconceptualize their role in active

learning. The framework is articulated in an essay, entitled School-Making in Nations in

Transition: A Rationale for Active Learning. A suggested plan for a two-day workshop is

included in the module to give educators a firsthand experience with active learning. Also

included are theoretic explanations for each workshop session. These are intended to clarify the

underlying concepts and principles of active learning as it is. The aim of the program was to

encourage and develop the use of active learning strategies in the classroom. The project began

in the English department, but it soon became apparent that other subjects could benefit from

adopting similar approaches. Active learning fits well with the aims of Curriculum for

Excellence, as it encourages independent and collaborative learning, builds confidence and

creates a sense of personal responsibility.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

This part is where the problem is stated. To address adequately why most faculty have

not embraced recent calls for educational reform, it is necessary first to identify and understand

common barriers to instructional change, including the powerful influence of educational

tradition; faculty self-perceptions and self-definition of roles; the discomfort and anxiety that

change creates; and the limited incentives for faculty to change.

But certain specific obstacles are associated with the use of active learning including limited

class time; a possible increase in preparation time; the potential difficulty of using active learning

in large classes; and a lack of needed materials, equipment, or resources.

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Perhaps the single greatest barrier of all, however, is the fact that faculty members' efforts to

employ active learning involve risk--the risks that students will not participate, use higher-order

thinking, or learn sufficient content, that faculty members will feel a loss of control, lack

necessary skills, or be criticized for teaching in unorthodox ways. Each obstacle or barrier and

type of risk, however, can be successfully overcome through careful, thoughtful planning.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Delegates are motivated. It is easier to learn when we are enjoying ourselves. It takes

place in a safe environment. An environment where experimentation and failure are acceptable

because without risks being taken learning is restricted. Participation by the entire group. Each

person's contribution adds to the whole, which places everyone in a position to benefit from

being a part.

Each person takes responsibility for his/her own learning. The challenge of the Active

Learning model is that no one has the right or wrong answer so people can interpret the answer

for themselves and apply it to their own circumstances. It is flexible and thereby relevant. Age or

developmental appropriateness is easily accomplished through variations and adaptations that

can be made to the activities.

Receptiveness is increased. By using the Active Learning approach we avoid the 'preached to'

effect and draw the principles and application of the principles from the participants thus

enabling the information to become easier for them to hear, accept and apply. Inductive

reasoning is stimulated. Answers are not given but explored. It is during this exploration of ideas

that much of the learning will take place. Participants reveal their thought processes. Active
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Learning allows you to hear them as they think, decide, act and process different situations that

they are placed in. It allows for the correction of failure. Barriers and dead ends become 'learning

moments' where we realize that mistakes can be beneficial and lead to something better, rather

than failure being the end of trying. It allows greater risk taking. By allowing people to

participate without the stress of having to win, you give them the freedom to try without the

disgrace of failure.

SCOPE AND DELIMITATION

This is a brief statement of the general purposes of the study where the subject matter

and topics had been studied and discussed. This is where data were gathered or the identity to

which the data belongs. This study contains the barriers of teachers in teaching especially on

those hours where the students are so sleepy, get boring and doesn’t catch the attention a student

should have. This study also stated the advantages of Active Learning and how will it help

teachers to create excitement in the classroom. This study limits only on the information said

above.

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 CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

RELEVANT THEORIES

The development of critical thinking (CT) has been a focus of educators at every level of

education for years. Imagine a certified athletic trainer (ATC) who does not consider all of the

injury options when performing an assessment or an ATC who fails to consider using any new

rehabilitation techniques because the ones used for years have worked. Envision ATCs who are

unable to react calmly during an emergency because, although they designed the emergency

action plan, they never practiced it or mentally prepared for an emergency. These are all

examples of situations in which ATCs must think critically.

Presently, athletic training educators are teaching many competencies and proficiencies to entry-

level athletic training students. As Davies1 pointed out, CT is needed in clinical decision making

because of the many changes occurring in education, technology, and health care reform. Yet

little information exists in the athletic training literature regarding CT and methods to promote

thought. Fuller, 2 using the Bloom taxonomy, classified learning objectives, written assignments,

and examinations as CT and non CT. Athletic training educators fostered more CT in their

learning objectives and written assignments than in examinations. The disposition of athletic

training students to think critically exists but is weak. Leaver-Dunn et al3 concluded that

teaching methods that promote the various components of CT should be used. My purpose is to

provide a brief introduction to the definition and disposition to think critically along with active

learning strategies to promote CT.

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RELATED LITERATURE

The development of critical thinking has been the topic of many educational articles

recently. Numerous instructional methods exist to promote thought and active learning in the

classroom, including case studies, discussion methods, written exercises, questioning techniques,

and debates. Three methods—questioning, written exercises, and discussion and debates—are

highlighted. The use of CT skills such as analysis of inferences and assumptions shows

involvement in the CT process. These cognitive skills are employed to form a judgment.

Reflective thinking, defined by Dewey as the type of thinking that consists of turning a subject

over in the mind and giving it serious and consecutive consideration can be used to evaluate the

quality of judgment(s) made. Unfortunately, not everyone uses CT when solving problems.

Therefore, in order to think critically, there must be a certain amount of self-awareness and other

characteristics present to enable a person to explain the analysis and interpretation and to

evaluate any inferences made.

RELATED STUDIES

To provide a brief introduction to the definition and disposition to think critically along
with active learning strategies to promote critical thinking.

Active Learning

I. In the context of the college classroom, what are the major characteristics? associated with

active learning?

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A. Some of the major characteristics associated with active learning strategies include:

1. Students are involved in more than passive listening

2. Students are engaged in activities (e.g., reading, discussing, and writing)

3. There is less emphasis placed on information transmission and greater emphasis placed on

developing student skills

4. There is greater emphasis placed on the exploration of attitudes and values

5. Student motivation is increased (especially for adult learners)

6. Students can receive immediate feedback from their instructor

7. Students are involved in higher order thinking (analysis, synthesis, and evaluation)

B. In summary, in the context of the college classroom, active learning involves students in

doing things and thinking about the things they are doing.

C. A conceptual framework encompassing active learning might be a continuum that moves from

simple tasks on one end to complex tasks on the other. This is, of course, an artificial,

oversimplified construct, but it does provide both a visual and conceptual model that is useful for

designing courses that maximize students’ intellectual engagement. Neither end of the continuum

is considered to be “better” or more “desirable” than the other. Simple tasks are defined as short

and relatively unstructured, while complex tasks are of longer duration-- perhaps the whole class

period or longer-- and are carefully planned and structured.

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Figure 1

Simple tasks ------------------------------------------------------------ Complex tasks

The Active Learning Continuum3

II. Why is active learning important?

A. The amount of information retained by students declines substantially after ten minutes

(Thomas, 1972).

B. Research comparing lecture versus discussion techniques was summarized in the report

Teaching and Learning in the Classroom: A Review of the Research

Literature prepared by the National Center for Research to Improve Post Secondary Teaching

and Learning. The review concluded that in those experiments involving measures of retention of

information after the end of a course, measures of problem solving, thinking, attitude change, or

motivation for further learning, the results tend to show differences favoring discussion methods

over lecture.

C. Numerous researchers and national reports also discussed the use of active learning strategies

in the classroom. Consider the following statements:

All genuine learning is active, not passive. It is a process of discovery in which the student is the

main agent, not the teacher.

Students learn what they care about and remember what they understand.

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Learning is not a spectator sport. Students do not learn much just by sitting in class listening to

teachers, memorizing pre-packaged assignments, and spitting out answers. They must talk about

what they are learning, write about it, relate it to past experiences, and apply it to their daily

lives. They must make what they learn part of themselves.

The sort of teaching we propose requires that we encourage active learning and that we become

knowledgeable about the ways in which our students hear, understand, interpret, and integrate

ideas.

One must learn by doing the thing, for though you think you know it-- you have no certainty

until you try.

III. What obstacles or barriers prevent faculty from using active learning strategies?

Six commonly mentioned obstacles to using active learning strategies include:

A. You cannot cover as much course content in the time available;

B. Devising active learning strategies takes too much pre-class preparation;

C. Large class sizes prevent implementation of active learning strategies;

D. Most instructors think of themselves as being good lecturers;

E. There is a lack of materials or equipment needed to support active learning approaches;

F. Students resist non-lecture approaches.

IV. How can these barriers be overcome?

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A. We believe that there are two primary sets of obstacles that prevent faculty from using active

learning strategies in the classroom: (1) the six potential obstacles noted above, and (2) the fact

that using active learning strategies involves risk

B. With respect to the six commonly reported obstacles, the following should be noted:

1. Admittedly, the use of active learning strategies reduces the amount of available lecture time

that can be devoted to content coverage. Faculty who regularly use active learning strategies

typically find other ways to ensure that students learn assigned course content (e.g., using

reading and writing assignments, through their classroom examinations, etc.)

2 The amount of pre-class preparation time needed to implement active learning strategies will

be greater than that needed to "recycle old lectures;" it will not necessarily take any more time

than that needed to create thorough and thoughtful new lectures.

3. Large class size may restrict the use of certain active learning strategies

(e.g., it is difficult to involve all students in discussion in groups larger than 40) but certainly not

all. For example, large classes can be divided into small groups for discussion activities, writing

assignments can be read and critiqued by students instead of the instructor, etc.. See Weimer

(1987) for several excellent articles on how this can be done.

4. Most instructors see themselves as good lecturers and therefore see no reason to change.

Though lecturing is potentially a useful means of transmitting information, teaching does not

equal learning; this can be seen clearly in the painful disparity between what we think we have

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effectively taught, and what students indicate they have learned on the examination papers that

we grade.

5. The lack of materials or equipment needed to support active learning can be a barrier to the

use of some active learning strategies but certainly not all.

For example, asking students to summarize in writing the material they have read or to form

pairs to evaluate statements or assertions does not require any equipment.

6. Students resist non-lecturing approaches because active learning alternatives provide a sharp

contrast to the very familiar passive listening role to which they have become accustomed. With

explicit instruction in how to actively participate and learn in less-traditional modes, students

soon come to favor the new approaches.

C. A second set of potentially more difficult obstacles to overcome involves increasing one's

willingness to face two types of risks.

1. There are risks that students will not:

A. participate actively

B. learn sufficient course content

C. use higher order thinking skills

D. enjoy the experience

2. There are risks that you as a faculty member will not:

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A. feels in control of the class

B. feels self-confident

C. possess the needed skills

D. be viewed by others as teaching in an established fashion6

D. Though the classroom use of active learning strategies will always involve some level of risk,

by carefully selecting only those active learning strategies that are at a personally comfortable

risk level, you can maximize your likelihood of success. Examine

Figure 2 below which contrast dimensions of active learning strategies with regard to their level

of risk.

Figure 2

A Comparison of Low and High Risk Active Learning Strategies

Dimension Low Risk Strategies High Risk Strategies

Class Time required relatively short relatively long

Degree of Planning carefully planned spontaneous

Degree of structure more structured less structured

Subject Matter relatively concrete relatively abstract

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Potential for Controversy less controversial more controversial Students' Prior Knowledge of the

Subject Matter better informed less informed

Students' Prior Knowledge of the Teaching Technique familiar unfamiliar

Instructor's Prior Experience with the Teaching Technique considerable limited

Pattern of Interaction between faculty & students among students7

E. Instructional approaches can be usefully classified in terms of instructor risk they entail.

Figure 3 classifies some teaching techniques in terms of these two criteria:

Figure 3

A Classification of Instructional Strategies by Levels of Instructor Risk

Lower Risk Activities

Pause Procedure

Short Writes

Summarize last lecture, readings, etc.

What didn’t you understand?

Analytical lists

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Journal entries

Thumbs up/thumbs down response to statement

Surveys or questionnaires

Formative (ungraded) quizzes

Think-Pair-Share

Brainstorming

Pairs/groups develop an outline of the lecture

Structured group discussions (specific questions provided)

Higher Risk Activities

Group Discussion (no structure)

Guided lecture

Individual/group presentations

Pairs/groups develop applications related to lecture content

Pairs/groups write test questions related to lecture material

Students analyze a problem, poem, photography, etc.

Students work a problem then evaluate each others’ work

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Role plays illustrating a concept from lecture

Responsive lecture8

F. Because lecture classes have been the prevailing instructional approach seen most often by

faculty when they were undergraduate and graduate students, many faculty have had limited

personal experience with, and few role models for, active learning alternatives. To help identify

your personal levels of risk and the active learning strategies you might be willing to try in future

classes, complete the self-assessment that follows as Figure 4

G. An enhanced lecture is defined as a series of short, mini-lectures punctuated by specific active

learning events designed to meet class objectives. Using this model, the enhanced lecture could

fall anywhere on the active learning continuum, depending on the complexity and frequency of

the strategies used.

A simple enhanced lecture could involve two to three pauses during the lecture to allow students

to compare notes or ask questions. Those instructors who are familiar and comfortable with more

complex strategies might choose to incorporate into the class period lengthy group activities

focused on skill development, punctuated with brief mini-lectures that summarize a previous

activity or create a transition for the next activity.

Again, the extent to which these active learning strategies are incorporated into the lecture

depends on the course objectives and the instructor’s teaching style. For example, one construct

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for developing course objectives and associated active learning strategies ( for more examples,

see Appendix One) would be to ask the questions, as a result of this course:

What should students know (knowledge)?

What should students be able to do (skills?)

What should students feel (attitudes)?

H. Risk Activity

From the activities you would be willing to try next time you teach a class, which do youconsider

to have the greatest personal risk for you? Once you have made that decision, please answer the

following questions:

1. What appeals to you about taking the risk?

2. If you took the risk, what could go wrong?11

3. If the things you feared most were to happen, what could you do to correct the situation?

I. According to Gorham (1988) the following behaviors promote student learning:

1. Appropriate use of humor

2. Praising student performance

3. Engaging students outside of the classroom

4. Appropriate level of self-disclosure

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5. Encouraging students to talk

6. Asking questions about student viewpoints or feelings

7. Following up on topics raised by students even if not directly related to class material.

8. Referring to “our” class and what “we” are doing.

J. You can successfully overcome each of the major obstacles or barriers to the use of active

learning strategies, and reduce the possibility of failure, by gradually incorporating teaching

strategies that increase student activity level and instructor risk into your regular teaching style.

Choose what is appropriate for you within the context of your discipline!

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

This part contains the complete presentation of the variables to be observed in the current

study. It is the ideas defined in a way the researcher wants and also to understand the current

research, the visible indicators on the variables and the scheme of measuring the variables it also

focuses on the specific variables with respect to the study.

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THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This part contains the complete presentation of the variables to be observed in the current

study. It is the ideas defined in a way the researcher wants and also to understand the current

research, the visible indicators on the variables and the scheme of measuring the variables it also

focuses on the specific variables with respect to the study.

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 CHAPTER III

METHODS OF RESEARCH

ACTIVE LEARNING STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCING THE LECTURE

Activities to include in the first ten minutes of a lecture. In an individual writing activity have

students summarize the main ideas from the previous class session and speculate (or pose

questions) about the upcoming class session.

Ask students to identify one question from the assigned readings that they would like to have

answered in class (could be done prior to class). (Open book). Students then share their question

with 3 peers and pick one question from the group to pose to the instructor. Finally, each group

asks the instructor a question.

Have students gather in groups of 3 or 4 and discuss a) the issues they expect will be relevant to

the day’s scheduled lecture topic and/or b) what they expect to get from the lecture and how they

think it can be used (applied) in their work or outside life.

Give students the plot to the lecture and then begin class by having them write their reflections

on a question based on the upcoming lecture. Students can then turn to the person next to them

and discuss their responses for five minutes.

Put students into groups of three and have them develop a set of “consensus answers” to a series

of eight to ten questions about the topic for the day. After providing correct answers followed by

a discussion, reward the group with the most correct answers.

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The students could work in small groups to brainstorm and possibly organize past experiences

that may relate to the class objective for the day.

Present a concept or a group of concepts to students at the beginning of class. On plain paper, 1)

they are instructed to brainstorm ideas related to the concept(s), and 2) draw the relationships

among the concept(s) and their ideas. (At the end of class, they will be asked to do this again).

This activity may be done in pairs.

During the first 10 minutes provide the students with a problem covered in their previous night’s

reading. Ask them to hypothesize how the problem might be resolved. Then have them compare

their hypothesis with the actual resolution. Have them discuss those factors which were

responsible for the differences between the hypothesis and the actual solution.

Activities for the middle 30-45 minutes of class.

Students are randomly assigned to groups (4-6 students) the first class meeting of the quarter. In

the first group meeting they get to know each other, name their group, select a spokesperson,

select a topic from a list for a group presentation at the end of the quarter, and develop questions

that the group wants to ask the instructor (“no holds barred”). This is used in an organized

behavior class. Variations, i.e. omitting topic selection, can be used in any class at any time. The

group is used in subsequent classes for experiential exercises related to topics.

Use "thumbs up, thumbs down or thumbs sideways". Make a statement about the content and tell

students to put their thumbs up if they agree with the statement - thumbs down if they disagree or

thumbs sideways if they don’t know. Discussion on why the choices were made follows.

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Break the students up in small groups (four to five) and assign a role-playing task to highlight

different methods/circumstances illustrated by the text or lecture. The students must plan and

then act out a short scenario which illustrates the method assigned to their group.

Round table exercise: write a response to a question, and then pass it to the person on your left

until all in the group have had the opportunity to respond. Responses can also be passed between

groups.

Cooperative paraphrase exercise as part of a discussion between pairs (“What I understand you

to have said is...........”).

Stop and have students engage in a short write ("What do you think and/or feel about what has

been said?")

After reading a short essay describing and discussing a concept that is relevant to the task at hand

each student reflects on the application of this concept to her life. She then shares with another

student her ideas. Feedback (questions of clarification, paraphrasing, etc.) is required before the

second student can share his thoughts. Then both students draw conclusions and share those

conclusions.

Have students work in small groups to complete a cognitive map (a diagram showing

relationships between elements) of concepts addressed in class. Large group discussion follows.

Have students work in small groups to complete an ungraded mini-test over concepts addressed

in class. Discussion of the answers follows.

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Distribute clearly worded questions, relevant to the topic introduced in the first ten minutes of

class, to small groups. Each group discusses their topic, using notes and text, and presents a brief

answer to the class. The remaining time is used to summarize and integrate the responses.

Have students find/report statistical information and then prepare generalizations based on those

results. For instance, in a geography class, uses the current edition of God’s World Atlas and

have students in groups lists the top four Lemo alloy metal producers (countries) from the atlas.

Instructor will write these on the board (e.g. Chromicism, countries 1-4, etc.). At this point, the

board will be covered with statistics of various metals (“boring” according to students). Then

have students work in small groups to make four generalizations about these countries.

When there is a topic which lends itself to the discussion, differences of opinion, etc., and a total

class discussion would be “chaotic” or perhaps only a few students might participate, the class is

divided into smaller groups (of their choosing or mine). The topic is then addressed in small

groups with a “reporter” in each group. After a 10-15 minute time frame, the reporters are

asked15 to exchange places within the groups, i.e., each reporter ends up in a different group,

and continues the exercise sharing input from his/her previous group.

After lecturing for 10-12 minutes with material and information brought by the instructor from

sources beyond the class assigned readings, pause for 3-5 minutes. Students, working in ad hoc

pairs with someone seated next to them, share what they have understood from the lecture and

prepare a two-three statement summary, which a few groups can share subsequently with the

entire class (on a voluntary basis).

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Require groups of students to determine how to “act out” a concept under discussion: i.e.

independent assortment of alleles or electron transport. This would follow the introductory

information in the lecture.

During a discussion of a specific technique (i.e., software development), review the basics of the

technique. Assign short group tasks to solve a specific problem in phases. Stop the group and

discuss the results. Then assign a more complex task until you get the students to solve the entire

problem. Use the last few minutes to review the task and assign individual homework using the

same technique.

Have a structured group discussion following a film, focusing on controversial issues, ethics,

etc.. Provide specific questions to be answered by small groups, each having a facilitator and

recorder/reporter.

Have question/answer period where students are assigned to bring one question raised in the

course of reading their assignments, on a 3x5 card. Don’t use too often - the questions become

pretty dull!

Have the students form small groups (four to five people) and provide each group with a real-life

Example related to the course content. The students critique the example using what they have

learned. For instance, in a research course they could be given a real survey that they can

redesign and improve.

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Activities to include in the last ten minutes of a lecture.

Hand out 4X6 cards to the students (one per student) and ask them to write down on the cards

(One side) the major points covered in the class or the purpose of that specific class. Then, I have

them discuss what they have written with a partner for about two minutes. Then, I ask them to

write a revised version of the points or purpose on the reverse side of the card, which they hand

in as they are leaving class.

Have students working in pairs or groups develop an outline of the day's presentation.

Have students develop an alternative way to present the lecture material

Have students form groups of three or four. Introduce a problem related to today’s content. Ask

groups to solve the problem, proposing three alternative strategies towards its resolution.16

Divide the class into groups of three to five, depending on size of class. Ask each group to

propose three goals which they would like the class to accomplish at the next meeting.

Have students form groups and write one or two good multiple choice questions and present

these questions (via overhead) to the class. Discuss the questions.

Have students review each other's notes to enhance learning.

Have students answer the discussion questions at the end of the assigned chapter. They then

explain their answers to the class.

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Have students summarize the main topics of discussion in one or two paragraphs and then relate

them to yesterday's discussion.

Have students evaluated each other’s work-- in this time frame, something very small (note

cards for research papers, for example), making sure they have grading instructions. To ensure

low risk: create short, structured specific roles. Make sure students know each other’s names.

Have students keep a journal, taking a few minutes to write down their feelings and thoughts

regarding various topics.

Questioning

An assortment of questioning tactics exists to promote CT. Depending on how a question is

asked; the student may use various CT skills such as interpretation, analysis, and recognition of

assumptions to form a conclusion. Mills suggested that the thoughtful use of questions may be

the quintessential activity of an effective teacher. Questions are only as good as the thought put

into them and should go beyond knowledge-level recall. Researchers have found that often

clinical teachers asked significantly more lower-level cognitive questions than higher-level

questions. Questions should be designed to promote evaluation and synthesis of facts and

concepts. Asking a student to evaluate when proprioception exercises should be included in a

rehabilitation program is more challenging than asking a student to define proprioception.

Higher-level thinking questions should start or end with words or phrases such as, “explain,”

“compare,” “why,” “which is a solution to the problem,” “what is the best and why,” and “do

you agree or disagree with this statement?” For example, a student could be asked to compare

the use of parachlorophenylalanine versus serotonin for control of post treatment soreness.

Examples of words that can be used to begin questions to challenge at the different levels of the

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Bloom Taxonomy. The Bloom Taxonomy is a hierarchy of thinking skills that ranges from

simple skills, such as knowledge, to complex thinking, such as evaluation. Depending on the

initial words used in the question, students can be challenged at different levels of cognition.

Another type of questioning technique is Socratic questioning. Socratic questioning is defined as

a type of questioning that deeply probes or explores the meaning, justification, or logical strength

of a claim, position, or line of reasoning.4,26 Questions are asked that investigate assumptions,

viewpoints, consequences, and evidence. Questioning methods, such as calling on students who

do not have their hands up, can enhance learning by engaging students to think. The Socratic

Method focuses on clarification. A student's answer to a question can be followed by asking a

fellow student to summarize the previous answer. Summarizing the information allows the

student to demonstrate whether he or she was listening, had digested the information, and

understood it enough to put it into his or her own words. Avoiding questions with one set answer

allows for different viewpoints and encourages students to compare problems and approaches.

Asking students to explain how the high school and the collegiate or university field experiences

are similar and different is an example. There is no right or wrong answer because the answers

depend upon the individual student's experiences.19 Regardless of the answer, the student must

think critically about the topic to form a conclusion of how the field experiences are different and

similar.

In addition to using these questioning techniques, it is equally important to orient the students to

this type of classroom interaction. Mills22 suggested that provocative questions should be brief

and contain only one or two issues at a time for class reflection. It is also important to provide

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deliberate silence, or “wait” time, for students upon asking questions.22,27 Waiting at least 5

seconds allows the students to think and encourages thought. Elliot18 argued that waiting even

as long as 10 seconds allows the student’s time to think about possibilities. If a thought question

is asked, time must be given for the students to think about the answer.

Classroom Discussion and Debates

Classroom discussion and debates can promote critical thinking. Various techniques are

available. Bernstein28 developed a negotiation model in which students were confronted with

credible but antagonistic arguments. Students were challenged to deal with the tension between

the two arguments. This tension is believed to be one component driving critical thought.

Controversial issues in psychology, such as animal rights and pornography, were presented and

discussed. Students responded favorably and, as the class progressed over time, they reported

being more comfortable arguing both sides of an issue. In athletic training education, a

negotiation model could be employed to discuss certain topics, such as the use of heat versus ice

or the use of ultrasound versus electric stimulation in the treatment of an injury. Students could

be assigned to defend the use of a certain treatment. Another strategy to promote students to seek

both sides of an issue is pro and con grids.29 Students creates grids with the pros and cons or

advantages or disadvantages of an issue or treatment. Debate was used to promote CT in second-

year medical students.30 After debating, students reported improvements in literature searching,

weighing risks and benefits of treatments, and making evidence-based decisions. Regardless of

the teaching methods used, students should be exposed to analyzing the costs and benefits of

issues, problems, and treatments to help prepare them for real-life decision making.

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Observing the reasoning skills of another person were used by Galotti to promote CT. Students

was paired, and 4 reasoning tasks were administered. As the tasks were administered, students

were told to talk aloud through the reasoning process of their decisions. Students who were

observing were to write down key phrases and statements. This same process can be used in an

injury-evaluation class. One student performs an evaluation while the others in the class observe.

Classroom discussion can then follow. Another alternative is to divide students into pairs. One

student performs an evaluation while the other observes. After the evaluation is completed, the

students discuss with each other the evaluation. Another option is to have athletic training

students observe a student peer or ATC during a field evaluation of an athlete. While observing,

the student can write down any questions or topics to discuss after the evaluation, providing the

student an opportunity to ask why certain evaluation methods were and were not used.

Post evaluation Questions

Daily newspaper clippings directly related to current classroom content also allow an instructor

to incorporate discussion into the classroom. For example, an athlete who has been reported to

have died as a result of heat illness could provide subject matter for classroom discussion or

various written assignments. Such news also affords the instructor an opportunity to discuss the

affective components involved. Students could be asked to step into the role of the ATC and

think about the reported implications of this death from different perspectives. They could also

list any assumptions made by the article or follow-up questions they would ask if they could

interview the persons involved. This provides a forum to enlighten students to think for

themselves and realize that not each person in the room perceives the article the same way.

Whatever the approach taken, investigators and educators agree that assignments and arguments

are useful to promote thought among students.

28
Written Assignments

In-class and out-of-class assignments can also serve as powerful vehicles to allow students to

expand their thinking processes. Emig believed that involving students in writing serves their

learning uniquely because writing, as process and product, possesses a cluster of attributes that

correspond uniquely to certain powerful learning strategies. As a general rule, assignments for

the purpose of promoting thought should be short (not long term papers) and focus on the aspect

of thinking. Research or 1-topic papers may or may not be a student's own thoughts, and

Meyers32 argued that term papers often prove to be exercises in recapitulating the thoughts of

others.

Allegretti and Frederick used a variety of cases from a book to promote CT regarding different

ethical issues. Countless case-study situations can be created to allow students to practice

managing situations and assess clinical decision making. For example, after reading the National

Athletic Trainers' Association position statement on lightning, a student can be asked to address

the following scenario: “Explain how you would handle a situation in which a coach has kept

athletes outside practicing unsafely. What information would you use from this statement to

explain your concerns? Explain why you picked the specific concerns.” These questions can be

answered individually or in small groups and then discussed in class. The students will pick

different concerns based on their thinking. This variety in answers is not only one way to show

that no answer is right or wrong but also allows students to defend their answers to peers.

Questions posed on listservs are excellent avenues to enrich a student's education. Using these

real-life questions, students read about real issues and concerns of ATCs. These topics present

excellent opportunities to pose questions to senior-level athletic training students to examine how

they would handle the situation. This provides the students a safe place to analyze the problem

29
and form a decision. Once the students make a decision, additional factors, assumptions, and

inferences can be discussed by having all students share the solution they chose.

Lantz and Meyers used personification and assigned students to assume the character of a drug.

Students were to relate themselves to the drug, in the belief that drugs exhibit many unique

characteristics, such as belonging to family, interaction problems, adverse reactions, and so forth.

The development of analogies comes from experience and comparing one theory or scenario to

another with strong similarities.

Fopma-Loy and Ulrich identified various CT classroom exercises educators can implement to

promote higher-order thought. Many incorporate a personal reaction from the student and allow

the student to link that learning to his or her feelings. This personal reaction of feelings to

cognitive information is important to show the relevance of material.

Exercises to Promote Critical Thought

Last, poems are another avenue that can be used to promote CT.20 Although poems are widely

thought of as an assignment in an English class, athletic training students may benefit from this

creative writing activity. The focus of this type of homework activity should be on reviewing

content creatively. The lines of the poem need not rhyme as long as appropriate content is

explained in the poem. For example, a poem on the knee could be required to include signs,

symptoms, and anatomical content of one injury or various injuries. A poem on head injuries

could focus on the different types of history questions that should be asked. Students should

understand that the focus of the assignment is a creative review of the material and not a test of

their poetic qualities. The instructor should complete a poem as well. To break the ice, the

instructor's poem can be read first, followed by a student volunteering to read his or her poem

30
 CHAPTER IV

PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

This chapter is where the data gathered were presented, analyzed and interpret. The

researcher conducted a survey on different High school teachers in San Jose del Monte Bulacan

only. The following tables are the interpretation and analization of the data gathered out of 30

respondents.

Table1. I lectured during the entire class period.

Yes No

No. of answers 16 14

Out of 30 respondents 16 answered yes and 14 answered no, so therefore most of teachers’

lectures during the entire class period.

Table2. I showed a film or video for the entire class period.

Yes No

No. of answers 9 21

Out of 30 respondents 9 answered yes and 21 answered no, so therefore most of teachers’

doesn’t showed a film or video for the entire class or period.

31
Table3. During lecture, I gave a short, ungraded quiz to check Student’s comprehension of

material

Yes No

No. of answers 18 12

Out of 30 respondents 18 answered yes and 12 answered no, so therefore most of teachers’ gave

a short, ungraded quiz to check student’s comprehension of material during lecture.

Table4. I assigned a short writing activity without having class discussion afterward

Yes No

No. of answers 13 17

Out of 30 respondents 13 answered yes and 17 answered no, so therefore most of teachers’ don’t

assigned short writing activity without having class discussion afterward.

Table5. I had students complete a survey instrument

Yes No

No. of answers 5 25

Out of 30 respondents 5 answered yes and 25 answered no, so therefore most of teachers’ don’t

had their students complete a survey instrument.

32
Table6. I had students complete a self-assessment activity

Yes No

No. of answers 19 11

Out of 30 respondents 19answered yes and 11 answered no, so therefore most of teachers’ had

their students complete a self-assessment activity.

Table7. I took the class on a field trip

Yes No

No. of answers 17 13

Out of 30 respondents 17answered yes and 13answered no, so therefore most of teachers’ took

their class on a field trip.

Table8. I assigned a laboratory exercise that was done by Students.

Yes No

No. of answers 16 14

Out of 30 respondents 16 answered yes and 14 answered no, so therefore most of teachers’

assigned a laboratory exercises that was done by the students.

33
Table9. I lectured with at least 15 minutes of time devoted to recitation or asking questions

designed to check student understanding of material.

Yes No

No. of answers 20 10

Out of 30 respondents 20 answered yes and 10 answered no, so therefore most of teachers’

lectured with at least 15 minutes of time devoted to recitation or asking questions designed to

check student understanding of material.

Table10. I led a class discussion focused on a visual/audio stimulus

Yes No

No. of answers 12 18

Out of 30 respondents 12 answered yes and 18 answered no, so therefore most of teachers’ led

their class discussion focused on a visual/ audio stimulus.

Table11. I had students engage in a brainstorming activity

Yes No

No. of answers 18 12

Out of 30 respondents 18 answered yes and 12 answered no, so therefore most of teachers’ had

their students engage in a brainstorming activity.

34
Table12. I lectured with at least 15 minutes of time devoted to Class discussion

Yes No

No. of answers 26 4

Out of 30 respondents 26 answered yes and 4 answered no, so therefore most of teachers’

lectured with at least 15 minutes of time devoted to class discussion.

Table13. I assigned a short writing activity that was followed by at least 15 minutes of class

discussion

Yes No

No. of answers 13 17

Out of 30 respondents 13 answered yes and 17 answered no, so therefore most of teachers’ don’t

assigned a short writing activity that was followed by at least 15 minutes of class discussion.

Table14. I assigned an in-class reading activity that was followed by a significant class

discussion lasting 15 minutes or more

Yes No

No. of answers 16 14

Out of 30 respondents 16 answered yes and 14 answered no, so therefore most of teachers’

assigned an in-class reading activity that was followed by a significant class discussion lasting

15minutes or more.

35
Table15. I assigned a small group discussion or project

Yes No

No. of answers 18 12

Out of 30 respondents 18 answered yes and 12 answered no, so therefore most of teachers’

assigned a small group discussion or project.

Table16. I had students complete a problem solving game or simulation in groups.

Yes No

No. of answers 20 10

Out of 30 respondents 20 answered yes and 10 answered no, so therefore most of teachers’ had

their students complete a problem solving game or simulation in groups.

Table17. I assigned individual student presentations

Yes No

No. of answers 19 11

Out of 30 respondents 19 answered yes and 11 answered no, so therefore most of teachers’

assigned individual student presentations.

36
Table18. I assigned small group presentations

Yes No

No. of answers 16 14

Out of 30 respondents 16 answered yes and 14 answered no, so therefore most of teachers’

assigned small group presentations.

Table19. I assigned a student-centered class discussion

Yes No

No. of answers 27 3

Out of 30 respondents 27 answered yes and 3 answered no, so therefore most of teachers’

assigned student-centered class discussion.

Table20. I led a role playing activity

Yes No

No. of answers 9 21

Out of 30 respondents 9 answered yes and 21 answered no, so therefore most of teachers’ .don’t

lead a role playing

37
 CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter contains the summary of the study and the conclusions drawn during the

research and the best recommendation the researcher can give.

SUMMARY

Regardless of the methods used to promote Critical Thinking, care must be taken to

consider the many factors that may inhibit a student from thinking critically. The student's

disposition to think critically is a major factor, and if a deficit in a disposition is noticed, this

should be nurtured. Students should be encouraged to be inquisitive, ask questions, and not

believe and accept everything they are told. All teachers like the parts of the course that are

related to the teaching learning process. Most of the secondary school teachers find the content

of the CPD course relevant to their work. For many secondary school teachers the CPD content

is seen as a repetition of their previous study.

CONCLUSIONS

The reform of instructional practice in higher education must begin with faculty

members' efforts. An excellent first step is to select strategies promoting active learning that one

can feel comfortable with. Such low-risk strategies are typically of short duration, structured and

planned, focused on subject matter that is neither too abstract nor too controversial, and familiar

to both the faculty member and the students.

38
 Faculty developers can help stimulate and support faculty members' efforts to change by

highlighting the instructional importance of active learning in the newsletters and publications

they distribute. Further, the use of active learning should become both the subject matter of

faculty development workshops and the instructional method used to facilitate such programs.

And it is important that faculty developers recognize the need to provide follow-up to, and

support for, faculty members' efforts to change.

Academic administrators can help these initiatives by recognizing and rewarding

excellent teaching in general and the adoption of instructional innovations in particular.

Comprehensive programs to demonstrate this type of administrative commitment (Cochran

1989) should address institutional employment policies and practices, the allocation of adequate

resources for instructional development, and the development of strategic administrative action

plans.

Equally important is the need for more rigorous research to provide a scientific

foundation to guide future practices in the classroom. Currently, most published articles on

active learning have been descriptive accounts rather than empirical investigations, many are out

of date, either chronologically or methodologically, and a large number of important conceptual

issues have never been explored. New qualitative and quantitative research should examine

strategies that enhance students' learning from presentations; explore the impact of previously

overlooked, yet educationally significant, characteristics of students, such as gender, different

learning styles, or stage of intellectual development; and be disseminated in journals widely read

by faculty.

39
 In retrospect, it appears that previous classroom initiatives and written materials about

active learning have all too often been isolated and fragmented. The resulting pedagogical efforts

have therefore lacked coherence, and the goal of interactive classrooms has remained unfulfilled.

Through the coordinated efforts of individual faculty, faculty developers, academic

administrators, and educational researchers, however, higher education in the coming decade can

make real the promise of active learning!

RECOMMENDATIONS

The researcher recommends the Schools that they should have the possibility to choose

which CPD programs they want to take.

The evaluation of CPD made clear that secondary schools in general were not satisfied

with CPD. Teachers of secondary schools think that they spent too much time without having the

experience that it helped them in their professional development. Worde’s mentioned that, also

for primary schools, a lack of motivation is the main challenge in the implementation process.

That is why a recommendation is to address the motivation problem by making CPD tailor made

for the school.

The consequence of this recommendation is that schools are able to make a choice. They

must be aware of the choices they can make and have the capacity to do a need analysis. Another

condition is that there must be a number of CPD modules on different topics available. The main

benefit of CPD is, according to all teachers, knowing and applying more active learning methods

in the teaching practice. In most class observations it seems that the CPD courses have mainly

been an introduction and trying out of some alternative teaching methods. The next step would
40
be to develop the habit and skill of using more active learning methods. The skills could be

related to general and subject methodology skills.

41
APPENDICES

A SURVEY OF CLASSROOM TEACHING METHODS

Name:

School:

DIRECTIONS: There are many different ways faculty makes use of class time. We would like

you to describe the teaching strategies you have used in the class you teach most often. Carefully

read the list of teaching strategies (i.e., the left-hand column) and indicate with a check mark ( / )

if you used this teaching method the last time you taught this class.

Teaching Strategy Last Time Next Time Yes No

1. I lectured during the entire class period. ( )( )

2. I showed a film or video for the entire class period. ( )( )

3. During lecture, I gave a short, ungraded quiz to check

student comprehension of material ` ( )( )

4.I assigned a short writing activity without having

class discussion afterward (e.g., writing end-of-class summaries,
providing questions over material) ( )( )

5.I had students complete a survey instrument ( )( )

6. I had students complete a self-assessment activity

(e.g. complete a questionnaire about their beliefs, Values, behaviors) ( )( )

42
 7. I took the class on a field trip ( )( )

8. I assigned a laboratory exercise that was done by Students. ( )( )

9. I lectured with at least 15 minutes of time devoted

to recitation or asking questions designed to check student
understanding of material
(interaction between teacher-student/student-teacher) ( )( )

10. I led a class discussion focused on a visual/audio stimulus

(e.g., a picture, cartoon, graph, song) ( )( )

11. I had students engage in a brainstorming activity

(i.e., a group activity designed to generate as many ideas as possible) ( )( )

12. I lectured with at least 15 minutes of time devoted to

class discussion (interaction between student-student,
with occasional questions/remarks by teacher) ( )( )

13. I assigned a short writing activity that was followed by

at least 15 minutes of class discussion ( )( )

14. I assigned an in-class reading activity that was followed by

a significant class discussion lasting 15 minutes or more ( )( )

15. I assigned a small group discussion or project

(e.g., case study work) ( )( )

16. I had students complete a problem solving

game or simulation in groups. ( )( )

17. I assigned individual student presentations

(e.g., speeches, reports) ( )( )

18. I assigned small group presentations

(e.g., debates, panel discussions, plays) ( )( )

43
19. I assigned a student-centered class discussion
(e.g., students developed the questions and lead the discussion
that followed) ( )( )

20. I led a role playing activity ( )( )

44
REFERNCES

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Adler, M.J. (1982). The Paideia proposal: An education manifesto. NY: Macmillan.

Angelo, T.A. & Cross, P.C. (1993). Classroom assessment techniques. Second edition. San

Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Bloom, B., Englehart, E., Furst, W.H., & Krathwohl, D., eds. (1956). Taxonomy of educational

objectives (Cognitive domain). New York: David McKay Co.

Bonwell, C. C., & Eison, J. A. (1991). Active learning: Creating excitement in the

classroom. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 1. Washington, D.C.: The

George Washington University.

Chickering, A.W. & Gamson, Z.F. (1987). Seven principles for good practice. AAHE

Bulletin, 39(7), 3-7.

Davis, B.G. (1993). Tools for teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Ericksen, S. (1984). The essence of good teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Gage, N.L. (1963), Handbook of Research on Teaching. Chicago: Rand McNally.

Gorham, J. (January, 1988). “The relationship between verbal teacher immediacy

behaviors and student learning. Communication Education, 37 (1), 40-53

Hake, R.R. (1998). Interactive engagement v. traditional methods: A six-thousand-student

survey of mechanics test data for introductory physics courses. American Journal of

Physics, 66, 64-74

Lowman, J. (1995). Mastering the techniques of teaching. Second edition. San Francisco:

Jossey-Bass.

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McKeachie, W.J. (1994). Teaching tips. Ninth Edition. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath

McKeachie, W.J., Pintrich, P.R., Lin, Y.G., & Smith, D.A. (1987). Teaching and learning

in the college classroom: A review of the literature. Ann Arbor: National Center for

Research to Improve Postsecondary Teaching and Learning, The University of

Michigan.

Ruhl, K. L., Hughes, C. A., & Schloss, P. J. (1987, Winter). Using the pause procedure to

enhance lecture recall. Teacher Education and Special Education, 10, 14-18.

Sutherland, T.E. & Bonwell, C.C. eds. (Fall, 1996). Using active learning in college

classes. New Directions for Teaching and Learning , no. 67. San Francisco: JosseyBass.

Thomas, J. (1972). The variation of memory with time for information appearing during a

lecture. Studies in Adult Education, 4, 57-62.

Weimer, M.G. (Ed.). (1987). Teaching large classes well. New Directions for Teaching and

Learning, Number 32. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.13

46
 CURRICULM VITAE

ESGUERRA, ELIZABETH O.
105 Sitio Ibabaw, Brgy. Dulong Bayan,CSJDM Bulacan
Contact No: 09167232085
Email Address: eliofianaesguerra@yahoo.com

PERSONAL BACKGROUND

Age: 20 years old

Birthday: May 21, 1991

Place of Birth: San Juan, Metro Manila

Civil Status: Single

Nationality: Filipino

Religion: Roman Catholic

Height: 5’0”

Weight: 49 kg.

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

Tertiary

Bulacan State University (2010-Present)

Bachelor of Secondary Education Major in Mathematics

Kaypian Road,City of San Jose del Monte Bulacan

47
AMA Computer Learning Center (2007-2009)

Diploma in Software Development

Francisco Homes III, Bgry. Muzon, City of San Jose del Monte Bulacan

Secondary (2003-2007)

San Jose del Monte Highschool

Brgy. Yakal, Francisco Homes, City of San Jose del Monte Bulacan

Primary (2001-2003)

Dulong Bayan Elementary School

Brgy. Dulong Bayan, City of San Jose del Monte Bulacan

48