GENERAL CONCEPTS AND HISTORICAL EVENTS IN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY

INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS THAT DEFINED SOCIETY

Scientific revolution
- It is the period of enlightenment when the developments in the fields of mathematics, physics, astronomy,
biology, and chemistry transformed the views of society about nature.
- The ideas generated during this period enabled the people to reflect, rethink, and reexamine their beliefs and
their way of life;
- It led to the creation of new research fields in science and prompted the establishment of a strong foundation
for modern science.

Some Intellectuals and their Revolutionary Ideas

• Nicolaus Copernicus
- His idea and model of the universe placed the Sun to be the centerpiece of the universe.
- He outlined two kinds of planetary motion: (1) the orbits of Venus and Mercury lay inside the orbit of the
Earth, thus, closer to the Sun; and (2) the orbits of Mars, Saturn, and Jupiter lay outside the Earth’s orbit,
thus, farther from the Sun. From this model, he would work on the length of time it will take for each planet
to orbit once around the Sun.

• Charles Darwin
- Famous for his theory of evolution
- He published his book The Origin of Species in 1589. His book presented evidence on how species evolved
over time and presented traits and adaptation that differentiate species.
- In his book The Descent of Man, he introduced the idea of all organic life, including human beings, under the
realm of evolutionary thinking.
- His unorthodox way of pursuing science gave more value to evidence-based science. It is a science marked
by observation and experiment.

• Sigmund Freud
- Famous figure in the field of psychology
- Made a significant contribution through the development of an important observational method known as the
method of psychoanalysis
- His method was unorthodox—focusing on human sexuality and the evil nature of man.
- According to Weiner (2016), his method of psychoanalysis was proven to be effective in understanding some
neurological conditions that were not understood by medicine at that time.

Cradles of Early Science

Development of Science in Mesoamerica:
• The Maya civilization is one of the famous civilizations that lasted for approximately 2,000 years.
They incorporated their advanced understanding of astronomy into their temples and other religious structures.
They are known for their knowledge of predicting eclipse and using astrological cycles in planting and harvesting.
They are also known for measuring time using two complicated calendar systems.
They developed the technology for growing different crops and building elaborate cities using ordinary machineries
and tools.
They built looms for weaving cloth and devised a rainbow of glittery paints made from a mineral called mica.
They are also believed to be one of the first people to produce rubber products 3,000 years before Goodyear received
its patent in 1844.
They are one of the world’s first civilizations to use a writing system known as the Mayan hieroglyphics;
They were also skilled in mathematics and created a number system based on the numeral 20.
They independently developed the concept of zero and positional value, even before the Romans did.

• The Inca civilization is also famous in Mesoamerica. The following were scientific ideas and tools that they
developed to help them in everyday life:
roads paved with stones;
stone buildings that surmounted earthquakes and other disasters;
irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all types of land;
calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for planting season;
the first suspension bridge; quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts can interpret; and
Inca textiles since cloth was one of the specially prized artistic achievements.

• The Aztec civilization has also made substantial contributions to science and technology and to the society
as a whole. Some of their contributions are the following:
Mandatory education. Their children are mandated to get education regardless of their social class, gender, or age.
It is an early form of universal or inclusive education.
Chocolates. The Aztec in Mexico developed chocolate during their time. The Aztec valued the cacao beans highly
and made them as part of their tribute to their gods.
Antispasmodic medication. They used a type of antispasmodic medication that could prevent muscle spasms and
relax muscles, which could help during surgery.
Chinampa. It is a form of Aztec technology for agricultural farming in which the land was divided into rectangular
areas and surrounded by canals.
Aztec calendar. This enabled them to plan their activities, rituals, and planting season.
Invention of the canoe. A light narrow boat used for traveling in water systems.

Development of Science in Asia

• India. The Indians creatively developed various ideas and technologies useful in their everyday lives.
Their iron steel is considered to be the best and held with high regard in the whole of Roman Empire.
Ayurveda, a system of traditional medicine that originated in ancient India before 2500 BC, is still practiced as a form
of alternative medicine.
They discovered some medicinal properties of plants that led them to develop medicines to cure various illnesses.
The Susruta Samhita describes different surgical and other medical procedures famous in Ancient India.
They developed theories on the configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting Earth, and the year of 360
days with 12 equal parts of 30 days each.
The people of this civilization, according to Bisht (1982), tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree
of accuracy and designed a ruler, the Mohenjodaro ruler.
Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476–550), in his Aryabhatiya, introduced a number of trigonometric
functions, tables, and techniques, as well as algorithms of algebra.
Another Indian, Brahmagupta, also suggested that gravity was a force of attraction, and lucidly explained the use of
zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit.
Another Indian named Madhava of Sangamagrama is also considered as the founder of mathematical analysis
(Joseph, 1991).

• China. It is one of the ancient civilizations with substantial contributions in many areas of life like medicine,
astronomy, science, mathematics, arts, philosophy, and music, among others.
Known for traditional medicines, a product of centuries of experiences and discovery of the Chinese people
Discovered various medical properties and uses of different plants and animals to cure human illness; an example is
the practice of acupuncture
Among the famous discoveries and inventions of the Chinese civilizations were compass, papermaking, gunpowder,
and printing tools.
They also invented other tools like iron plough, wheelbarrow, and propeller, among others.
They developed a design of different models of bridges (Zhongguo ke xue yuan, 1983), invented the first
seismological detector, and developed a dry dock facility (Needham et al., 1971).
Made significant records on supernovas, lunar and solar eclipses, and comets, which were carefully recorded and
preserved to understand better the heavenly bodies and their effects to our world (Mayall, 1939)
They observed the heavenly bodies to understand weather changes and seasons that may affect their daily activities.
They used lunar calendars.

• The Middle East Countries. With the spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim
scholarship, or what is called the Golden Age of Islam lasted until the 13th century.
Muslim scientists placed greater value on science experiments rather than plain-thought experiments.
A Muslim scientist named Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the Father of Optics, especially for his empirical proof
of the intromission theory of light.
Mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of the algorithm while the term
algebra is derived from al-jabr.
Muslim mathematicians did make several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal
point notation.
Some scholars considered Jābir ibn Hayyān to be the “Father of Chemistry” (Derewenda, 2007; Warren, 2005).
Ibn Sina pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was the first physician to conduct clinical trials
(Jacquart, 2008).
Ibn Sina two most notable works in medicine, the Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine, were used as standard
medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe during the 17th century.

Development of Science in Africa

 Africa is blessed with natural and mineral resources. Science also emerged in this part of the planet long
before the Europeans colonized it.
 Astronomy was also famous in the African region. Documents show that Africans used three types of
calendars: lunar, solar, and stellar, or a combination of the three.
  North Africa and the Nile Valley imported iron technology from the Near East region that enabled them to
benefit from the developments during the Bronze Age until the Iron Age.
 Mathematics was also known to be prominent in the life of early people in the African continent.
 The Lebombo Bone, which may have been a tool for multiplication, division, and simple mathematical
calculation or a six-month lunar calendar, is considered to be the oldest known mathematical artifact dated
from 35,000 BCE.
 The Islamic regions in Africa during the medieval period was also benefiting from mathematical learning,
which is considered advanced during those times, such as algebra, geometry, and trigonometry.

The ancient Egyptian civilization has contributed immensely and made significant advances in the fields of
astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. For example:
 They are good in the four fundamental mathematical operations and other mathematical skills. They have
knowledge of the basic concepts of algebra and geometry.
 The rules of geometry were developed and used to build rectilinear structures, the post of lintel architecture
of Egypt.
 The great structures of the Egyptian pyramids and the early dams built to divert water from the Nile River are
some proofs of their advanced civilization.
 Egypt was known to be a center of alchemy, which is known as the medieval forerunner of chemistry.
 They tried to study human anatomy and pharmacology, and applied important components such as
examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis for the treatment of diseases.
LESSON SUMMARY
• Scientific revolution is a golden age in the history of science. It marked the birth of science as a discipline
and as a field of inquiry and gave birth to the development of the scientific method.
• It was a time in the history of science where many scientific ideas and discoveries, which were considered
innovative and useful, were developed.
• Some of these ideas were also controversial in the scientific community and in the political arena.
• There were many intellectuals who made essential contributions in science during the period of scientific
revolution.
• Nicolaus Copernicus developed a model of the universe ; he placed the Sun in the center of the
universe and all the planets were surrounding or orbiting it.
• Charles Darwin made significant contribution in the field of evolutionary biology and philosophy of
science. His theory of evolution by natural selection is very useful in many fields until now.
• Sigmund Freud developed the idea of psychoanalysis that helped in understanding human behavior
especially neurological conditions.
• Science also developed in different parts of the world: in Asia, Europe, Mesoamerica, and Africa.
• Science provided different ancient civilizations the means to survive and understand the natural and physical
world.