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Chapter

Introductory Chapter: From

Microemulsions to Nanoemulsions
Koh Kai Seng and Wong Voon Loong

1. Introduction

In the past two decades, there has been much attention within food and bever-
ages, pharmaceutical, biomedical, special chemicals and other industries in using
colloidal as main media for process encapsulation, protection and delivery of vari-
ous active components for different purposes [1–3].
This dispersion normally exists as a suspension of small particles within a liquid
medium. Conventionally, particles at >1000 nm are studied due to its rising trend
of research interest as a result of introduction of microfluidics [4]. Microfluidics
is a concept that is defined as a branch of fluid mechanics that focuses on the
understanding, design, fabrication and operation systems that convey liquids and
gases inside an enclosed channel with two of the three geometry length scales are
in the order of microns (10−6). The reduction in dimension had magnified the
effect of some uncommon macroscale liquid properties such as surface tension,
capillary effect and material hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity. The first ventures in
microfluidic started in the early 1950s when dispersion methods of nano- (10−9)
and pico- (10−12) litre of fluids were developed, which served as the foundation of
modern day Inkjet technology [5, 6]. As microfluidics’ continuous development
advanced for the past 70 years, multiple cross disciplines with intersections of
engineering, physics, chemistry, biology, nanotechnology and biotechnology had
been developed and commercialised. In 2003, Forbes magazine named microfluid-
ics technology as one of the most important inventions that can affect the future
of humanity [7]. Meanwhile, microfluidics hold some of the key advantages that
include the low manufacturing costs, economic use and disposal, shorter time of
analysis, minimal consumption of reagents and samples, minimal production of
potentially harmful by-products, enhancement of separation efficiency, enhance-
ment of portability for point-of-care testing, high surface to volume ratio and small
laboratory footprint [8, 9].
On the other hand, there are some colloidal applications that desire very much
smaller particles (<100 nm) since they have advantages over microscale colloids,
such as better stability to particles aggregation and gravitational separation
[2], weak light scattering [10–12], and have novel physical properties (i.e., high
viscosity and gel-like behaviour) [2, 13]. In conjunction with the new rise of
nanotechnology research trend, a decent amount of research has been devoted to
fabrication, characterization and application of colloidal dispersion that contains
of nanometre-sized particles as delivery systems. As the research duration is
merely less than two decades, much knowledge gap in this research field remains
to be filled.
This chapter therefore emphasizes the most commonly used terms in this field
of study, namely microemulsions (>1000 nm) and nanoemulsions (<100 nm).
Using oil-in-water (O/W) system, which is widely used as delivery systems in a

1
Nanoemulsions - Properties, Fabrications and Applications

range of different industries as well as many literatures, this chapter will outline
the similarities and differences between microemulsions and nanoemulsions, to
articulate the scientific terminology used to describe each of the terms and also
to look into research progress of both microemulsions and nanoemulsions as a
whole.

2. Terminology

In this section, some fundamental concepts on similarity as well as difference for

both microemulsions and nanoemulsions will be provided, respectively, in terms
of its physical and chemical properties, stability and thermodynamic difference as
well as the current fabrication methods. These terminologies are meant to clarify
the common confusions found in most literatures.

2.1 Physical and chemical properties

2.1.1 Microemulsions

The definition of microemulsions is commonly described as a stable liquid droplet

in microscale (r < 100 μm) formed by mixing of two immiscible phases, i.e., oil and
water in the presence of surfactant. The emulsion’s structure, size, composition and
surface behaviour can be manipulated by different fabrication methods. They may
form one or multiple phases (with different shapes) that are in equilibrium with one
another [14]. As for analysis, common analytical equipment such as light-inverted
microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray powder diffraction, electrical
conductivity and rheology are usually chosen as tools for the study focus. Therefore, it
is advisably to classify microemulsion (O/W) as a thermodynamically stable colloidal
dispersion. The structure hinders the unfavourable contact area between non-polar
groups and water, which favour the thermodynamics of the colloidal dispersion sys-
tem. For instance, the surfactant molecules in an oil-in water (O/W) microemulsions
has the setup of non-polar tails that associate with each other forming a hydrophobic
core. The hydrophilic head groups extrude onto the surrounding aqueous phase of
the microemulsion. Meanwhile, the hydrophobic oil molecules may assimilate into
the interior of a micelle as a separate core or serves as a barrier between the surfactant
tails as shown in Figure 1. If oil molecules have the same polar groups, they may then
be integrated into the micelle in such a way that it creates a visible distance into the
water. This behaviour is particularly important in pharmaceutical industry as it serves
as a fundamental core structure for self-microemulsifying drug delivery system.
It extends the knowledge for drug delivery system design in terms of the optimum
composition of the initial system and the optimum method to dilute the surface of the
microemulsion.

2.1.1 Nanoemulsions

Nanoemulsions are considered to be a classic liquid emulsion formation from

two immiscible liquids that is thermodynamically unstable. Theoretically, this
small spherical droplet (r < 100 nm) could be formed using oil (as continu-
ous phase) and water (as dispersed phase) without addition of a surfactant.
However, this system will be highly unstable; thus, most nanoemulsions would
require the assistance of surfactant (often it is more than one type of surfactants
used) to facilitate its droplet formation. The fundamental component forma-
tion of a nanoemulsion is very similar to those found in a microemulsion as

2
Introductory Chapter: From Microemulsions to Nanoemulsions
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87104

Figure 1.
Oil-in-water microemulsions: (a) oil molecules assimilate between the surfactant tails; and (b) oil molecules
incorporated as a hydrophobic core. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [3].

mentioned above. The only distinctive difference that separates a nanoemulsion

from a microemulsion is their thermodynamic stability, i.e., a microemulsion is
thermodynamically stable while a nanoemulsion is not. As nanoemulsion only
has a short development history of ~25 years [15], there are much area of inter-
est that are waiting to be explored with most of the current understanding for
Nanaoemulsions is adapted based on Microemulsions understanding. The sum-
mary of similarities and differences between microemulsions and nanoemulsions
can be seen in Table 1.
The chapter so far outlines the similarity and differences between nanoemul-
sions and microemulsions based on their general physical and chemical properties,
as well as other characteristics. In this section, an attempt to propose practical
methods to distinguish nanoemulsions from microemulsions will be made. The
key concept to make this comparison is based on thermodynamic point of view as
shown in Figure 2 below. As the terms used for microemulsions and nanoemulsions
remain confusing in most literatures, the following two factors can be used as a
guideline to distinguish nanoemulsions from microemulsions:

2.1.1.1 Long-term storage

Nanoemulsions are not thermodynamically stable, whereas microemulsions

are. This simply means microemulsions will not undergo deformation at an infinite
period so long the storage condition remains constant. For nanoemulsions, degra-
dation of structure is noticeable due to Ostwald ripening, flocculation, coalescence
and gravitational separation. These result in particle size distribution change,
physical properties change as well as chemical properties change. Practically, it can
be difficult to just make a justification to distinguish nanoemulsions from micro-
emulsion merely based on long-term storage, since microemulsions commonly
suffer from chemical degradation and microbial contamination during the storage
period.

2.1.1.2 Particle size

As mentioned above, microemulsions have tendency to form single narrow

size distribution, ought to its maturity in terms of fabrication methods. Adding
to its thermodynamic stability, the size of a microemulsion will not undergo
changes once it is formed by a specific approach. This is different from nano-
emulsions where they tend to have multiple peaks in its size distribution. This

3
Nanoemulsions - Properties, Fabrications and Applications

Descriptions Microemulsion Nanoemulsion Remarks

−9 −6
Size 1 nm (1 × 10  m) to 100 nm (1 × 10  m) The difference between
microemulsions and
nanoemulsions cannot be
distinguished merely from size

Particle size Tend to have Have multiple peaks for Normally, the combination
distribution single narrow size distribution of micro- and nanoemulsions
peak for size exists in multiple peaks colloid
distribution distribution

Water-in-oil/ Possible Both microemulsion and

oil-in-water nanoemulsion can form water-in-
formation oil and oil-in-water emulsion type

Composition An oil phase, an aqueous phase, a surfactant A greater surfactant-to-oil

and possibly a co-surfactant [1] ratio is required to prepare
a microemulsion than a
nanoemulsion due to size
difference

Optical Opaque or semi- Transparent when the

properties transparent [3] size is ≤30 nm [12]
Thermodynamic Kinetically stable Unstable system that Microemulsions will not undergo
stability for indefinitely will break down over breakdown provided the storing
time [3] condition remains unchanged
Nanoemulsions will breakdown
and revert back to separated
phase, subject to energy barrier
between nanoemulsions and
separated phase (Gibbs free
energy, ΔG)
Gravitational Not reported Colloidal dispersion Limited work has been to validate
stability to gravitational this area of research
separation (creaming/
sedimentation)
increases significantly
for particle size ≤90 nm
due to dominance of
Brownian motion [3]
Particle structure Spherical or non- Spherical The governing equation is used to
spherical, subject determine particle size, thus the
to fabrication structure Laplace pressure,
2γ
(∆ PL = r ).
method used [14] __

The small radius of

nanoemulsions has relative
large Laplace pressure, thus
sphere sharp has lowest
interfacial area

Fabrication Principally, External energy Difficult to distinguish based on

methods it can form must be applied to fabrication methods
spontaneously overcome positive free
due to its Gibbs energy to form
thermodynamic emulsion. Common
stability. In fabrication approaches
practical, are high energy, low
external force energy, and phase
will be exerted inversion [3, 16]
to emulsion
formation

Table 1.
Summary of microemulsion and nanoemulsion common facts and common differences.

4
Introductory Chapter: From Microemulsions to Nanoemulsions
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87104

Figure 2.
Schematic illustration between microemulsions and nanoemulsions, with its separated phase state, respectively.
Microemulsions have a relative lower free Gibbs energy than the phase-separated state; therefore, it is unlikely
to break down even after a long storage period provided the storage condition remains unchanged. Meanwhile,
nanoemulsions have a higher free Gibbs energy, leading to breakdown and revert back to its original separated
state despite the assistance of surfactants. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [3].

is not surprising due to its unstable thermodynamic as discussed previously.

Therefore, if an emulsion system has multiple peaks formation in its size distri-
bution, it can possibly be considered as a system that has both microemulsions
and nanoemulsions. However, the noticeable approach to be used in this scenario
is to undergo proper physical characterization such as Zetasizer or using scan-
ning electron microscope for proper size measurement, as well as storing it for
a period of time, i.e., 1 year to observe the change of emulsion structure. These
approaches might provide other significant evidence to validate the type of emul-
sion formation.

3. Conclusion

This chapter is a timely content of nanoemulsion development as this research

field has shown significant publication output for the past decade due to growing
interest as a result of nanotechnology development as seen in Figure 3 using Web of
Knowledge (Thomson Reuters) online search engine [15]. Presently, microemulsion-
related publication is dominating in terms of publications output per year. This is
in line with the history of microemulsion for the past seven decades which covers a
comprehensive research range from science (i.e., chemistry, biology, physics, etc.) to
engineering (chemical, biomedical, environmental, etc.). On the contrary, nano-
emulsions received much lesser focus until the mid-1990s. It has relative incomplete
fundamental knowledge understanding in terms of properties, characterizations
and fabrication methods, and it also has limited applications presently. Therefore,
this book is important in attempting to mend the knowledge gap and form the trend.
As nanotechnology matures gradually, the outlook of nanoemulsion looks bright
and it aims to stretch its capability to apply across different fields that will benefit
mankind.

5
Nanoemulsions - Properties, Fabrications and Applications

Figure 3.
Comparison between ‘microemulsion’ and ‘nanoemulsion’ in terms of publication per year using Web of
Knowledge online search engine in May 2019.

Author details

Koh Kai Seng* and Wong Voon Loong

Heriot-Watt University Campus, Malaysia

*Address all correspondence to: k.koh@hw.ac.uk

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.

6
Introductory Chapter: From Microemulsions to Nanoemulsions
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87104

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