Lecture 2

Vector Operators: Grad, Div and Curl
We introduce three field operators which reveal interesting collective field properties.
 the gradient of a scalar field,
 the divergence of a vector field, and
 the curl of a vector field.
There are two points to get over about each:
 The mechanics of taking the grad, div or curl, for which you will need to brush up
your multivariate calculus.
 The underlying physical meaning.
.
The gradient of a scalar field

If U ( x, y, z ) is a scalar field, ie a scalar function of position r   x, y, z in 3 dimensions, then
U U U
its gradient at any point is defined in Cartesian co-ordinates by gradU  i j k.
x y z
It is usual to define the vector operator which is called “del” or “nabla”.
  
 i j k.
x y z
Then gradU  U .
Note: U is a vector field.
We can see that the gradient of a scalar field tends to point in the direction of greatest change of
the field. .
The significance of grad

Here r in some scalar field U and we move an infinitesimal distance d r we know that the
U U U
change in U is dU  dx  dy  dz
x y z
U U U
But we know that d r  dx, dy, dz and U  i j k so that the change in U is
x y z
also given by the scalar product dU  U .d r . Now divide both sides by ds
dU dr
 U .
ds ds
But remember that d r  ds so d r ds is a unit vector in the direction of d r .
So gradU has the property that the rate of change of U wrt distance in a particular direction
( d̂ ) is the projection of gradU onto that direction (or the component of gradU in that
direction).
In other words grad U is orthogonal to the tangent to any curve lying in the surface {U  c } .
Therefore it defines the normal vector to the level surface.
Proof:
The quantity dU is called a directional derivative, but note that in general it has a
ds
different value for each direction, and so has no meaning until you specify the direction.
Applications of gradient
1. Equation for the tangent plane to a surface

f is perpendicular to level surfaces of functions f (x, y, z). So therefore if we can write a surface as
f (x, y, z) = c, then the unit normal is
f
nˆ  ,
| f |
So the equation for the tangent plane at a point P with position vector r = ro is
(r  r 0 ).nˆ  0  (r  r 0 ).f rr0  0
Example: Show that, the equation for the tangent plane to a sphere of radius a at a point
(x0, yo, zo) is xxo + yy o + zz o = a 2
2. Stationary points of a Surface

f = 0 defines the points at which the function f (x, y, z) has its stationary points = (x o,
y o, z o) such that
 f f f  f f f
f   , ,  0  0,  0,  0
 x y z  x  xo y  yo , z  zo x y z
(Conditions for stationary points)
In 2D, we know there are three kinds of stationary points. Maxima, minima and saddles.
3 . Force an d p oten ti al en ergy
dv
We know for 1D that ` F = ' where V is potential energy and F applied force. How
dx
does this apply in more dimensions?
F = grad V
i.e. force is in the direction of maximum increase in potential.
.
E x a m p l e : A spaceship moves in the gravitational field of a planet with gravitational

k
potential   k is a constant.
|r|
Calculate the magnitude of the force acting on the ship at a distance r from the centre
of the planet.
The divergence of a vector field

The divergence computes a scalar quantity from a vector field by differentiation.
  
Divergence: div(v)  .v   , , .v1 , v2 , v3 
 x y z 
v v v
 1 2 3
x y z
Notice that the divergence of a vector field is a scalar field
The significance of div

Consider a vector field, water flow, and denote it by v(r ) . This vector has magnitude equal to
the mass of water crossing a unit area perpendicular to the direction of v per unit time.
Now take an infinitesimal volume element dV and figure out the balance of the flow of v in
and out of dV .
To be specific, consider the volume element dV  dxdydz in Cartesian co-ordinates.
So we see that,
The divergence of a vector field represents the flux generation per unit volume at each point of
the field.
The curl of a vector field
i j k
  
curl (v)    v 
x y z
v1 v2 v3
Some definitions involving div, curl and grad

 A vector field with zero divergence is said to be solenoidal.
 A vector field with zero curl is said to be irrotational
 A scalar field with zero gradient is said to be constant.
Definition: A vector field is said to be (Solenoidal) In co mp ressi b l e if div v=0 at all

points. i.e. for all values of x,y,z is called solenoidal vector field. Conversely, if A is a solenoidal
vector field then there exist vector G so that A = culrG. G is vector potential of A
Example: This has a natural interpretation in fluid mechanics, where the equation of continuity
states that the fluid density  (r ) (a scalar field) and the fluid velocity v(r ) are linked by the
continuity equation

 div v  0
t
So that if the fluid has constant density (e.g. water, to good approximation, but not air) we have
   o =const., and hence div o v   0 divv  0  divv  0
Incompressible vector fields are also called solenoidal
Definition:
A force field F that satisfies curlF  0 is said to be conservati ve.
More generally it can be shown that curlF  0 if and only if F  grad , for some scalar field .
 is called the scalar potential of a conservative vector field.
Proof:
First, we show that v = grad   curl v  0
  
This is by direct calculation: v  i j k
x y z
i j k
  
S o , c u r vl 
x y z
  
x x x
  2  2    2  2    2  2 
   i     j    k
 zy yz   xz zx   yx xy 
 0i  0 j  0k  0
Next, we show that curl v  0  v  

for some scalar field  (r )
 v3  v2
Now curl v = 0    0 (2.3)
y z
 v1  v3
  0 (2.4)
z x
v2 v1
  0 (2.5)
x y
   2 v3
Now, taking of (2.3) and of (2.4) we get two expressions for . Setting these equal
x y xy
 2 v2  2 v1  3
gives  : (2.6)
zx zy xyz
For some scalar function  ( x, y, z ) . This can only be true if
 
v1   b1/ y  c1/ z  d1/ and v 2   b2/ y  c2/ z  d 2/
x y
/
For some functions b1 ( x), c1 ( x), d1/ ( x) and b2/ ( y ), c2/ ( y ), d 2/ ( y ) . Where
/ /
st ands for
“di fferent i at e” But, by redefining  to be
    b1 y  c1 z  d1 x  b2 xy  c2 yz  d 2 y
We can without loss of generality choose b1, 2  c1, 2  d1, 2  0 and
 2 v3  2 v2  3
 :
xy xz xyz
 
S o t ha t , wi t ho ut l os s o f ge n er a l i t y v2  , v3 
y z
    
 (v1 , v2 , v3 )   , ,   .
 x y z 
E xa mp l e
Show that the following vector fields are conservative, and find their scalar fields so that
F  
(i) F  (2xy  z 3 )i  x 2 j  3xz 2 k
(ii) F  2 xi  4 y j  8 z k

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Vector Operators: Grad, Div and Curl

The gradient of a scalar field

Note: U is a vector field.

The significance of grad

1. Equation for the tangent plane to a surface

2. Stationary points of a Surface

3 . Force an d p oten ti al en ergy

E x a m p l e : A spaceship moves in the gravitational field of a planet with gravitational

The divergence of a vector field

The significance of div

Some definitions involving div, curl and grad

Definition: A vector field is said to be (Solenoidal) In co mp ressi b l e if div v=0 at all

Next, we show that curl v  0  v  

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