DURABILITY OF

CONCRETE
Fahim Al-Neshawy & Esko Sistonen
23.11.2015

Relationship between durability and performance

Durability of concrete
• Durability of concrete may be defined as the ability
of concrete to resist:
− weathering action,
− chemical attack, and
− abrasion while maintaining its desired
engineering properties.
• Different concretes require different degrees of
durability depending on the exposure environment
and properties desired.
− For example, concrete exposed to tidal
seawater will have different requirements than
an indoor concrete floor.
Why durability problems?

Why durability problems?

• Concrete
− Hydrated Cement Phase (HCP)
− Aggregate phase
− Interstitial Transition Zone (ITZ)
• Gel pores, Capillary pores, Air voids
• Permeability and porosity

• Aggressive species
− Moisture, Sulphates, Chlorides, Carbon
dioxide, Oxygen, Alkalies etc.
 TRANSPORT
MECHANISMS IN
CONCRETE

Permeation and transportation mechanisms

• In all chemical and physical processes influencing

durability of concrete structures, two factors are
dominant:
1. Transportation within the pore structures or
cracks
2. Movement of water (often containing dissolved
salts or gasses)
• Permeation of water and gasses can be divided into
three distinct phenomena:
1. Permeability
2. Absorption
3. Diffusion
• Many factors influence these phenomena both
internally and externally
Permeability
• For steady-state flow, the coefficient of
permeability, K, is determined from Darcy's
expression:
. (∆ . )
=
( . )
Where:
= rate of fluid flow,
μ = viscosity of the fluid,
∆H = pressure gradient,
A = surface area, and
L = thickness of the solid.

Permeability of Cement Paste

Age (days) Permeability (cm/s 10-11)
Fresh 20,000,000
5 4,000
6 1,000
8 400
13 50
24 10
ultimate 6
Permeability of Cement Paste
• When porosity decreases from 40 to 30%, the
permeability drops from 110 to 20 x 10-12 cm/sec

• However, a decrease in porosity from 30% to

20% results in a small drop in permeability

• Reasons:
− Large pores are reduced in size and number.
− There is creation of tortuosity.

Permeability of Aggregates
Type of Rock Permeability (cm/s 10-11)
dense trap 2.47 x 10-12
quartz diorite 8.24 x 10-12
marble 2.39 x 10-10
granite 5.35 x 10-9
sandstone 1.23 x 10-8
 SERVICE
ENVIRONMENT

Environment / exposure conditions

Horizontal Vertical
Climate
extension extension

Regional climate 1-200 km 1 m -100 km

Local climate 100 m - 10 km 0.1 m - 1 km

Near surface and

0.01 - 100 m 0.01 - 10 m
surface climate
DURACRETE:
The European Union – Brite EuRam III
Models for Environmental Actions on Concrete
Structures
 Exposure classes / Properties of concrete

http://www.inti.gob.ar/cirsoc/pdf/tecnologia_hormigon/europeNorm206.pdf

Exposure classes / Properties of concrete

http://www.inti.gob.ar/cirsoc/pdf/tecnologia_hormigon/europeNorm206.pdf
 Exposure classes / Properties of concrete

http://www.inti.gob.ar/cirsoc/pdf/tecnologia_hormigon/europeNorm206.pdf

Exposure classes / Properties of concrete

http://www.inti.gob.ar/cirsoc/pdf/tecnologia_hormigon/europeNorm206.pdf
 Exposure classes / Properties of concrete

http://www.inti.gob.ar/cirsoc/pdf/tecnologia_hormigon/europeNorm206.pdf

DETERIORATION
OF CONCRETE
 Deteriorating Agencies
• External agencies
− Chemical –
o Sulphates, Chlorides, CO2,
o Natural waters,
− Mechanical –
o Abrasion, Erosion, Cavitation,
o Impact,
o Temperature
• Internal agencies
− Alkali aggregate reactions
− Volume change due to non compatible thermal and
mechanical properties of aggregates and cement paste
− Presence of sulfates and chloride from the ingredients
of concrete

Common durability problems in concrete

• Corrosion of steel in reinforced concrete

− Carbonation induced corrosion
− Chloride induced corrosion

• Sulphate and other chemical attack

• Alkali-aggregate reaction

• Freezing and thawing

 Corrosion of steel in reinforced concrete

Aggression by CO2: Carbonation induced corrosion

Aggression by CO2: Carbonation induced corrosion

• Cement paste contains 25-50 wt% CO2+H2O à H2CO3 carbonic acid

(Ca(OH)2), à pH » 13
H2CO3 + Ca(OH)2 à CaCO3 + 2H2O
• The carbonation process requires
H2CO3 + CaO à CaCO3 + 2H2O
the presence of water because CO2
dissolves in water forming H2CO3.
• The pH of a fully carbonated paste
– If the concrete is too dry (RH
is < 9.
<40%) CO2 cannot dissolve and
no carbonation occurs.
– If on the other hand it is too wet
(RH >90%) CO2 cannot enter
the concrete and the concrete
will not carbonate.
– Optimal conditions for
carbonation occur at a RH of
50% (range 40-90%)

Aggression by CO2: Carbonation induced corrosion

Delatte, Norbert, (2009). Failure, Distress and Repair of Concrete

Structures, Woodhead Publishing, ISBN: 9781845694081.
Chloride induced corrosion

• Source of chloride
– if concrete is in contact with environments with a high
chloride content, such as seawater or de-icing salts,
– or if concrete is prepared using salt contaminated raw
materials.

• Corrosive de-icing solutions:

– Sodium Chloride (NaCl the most common de-icing chemical)
– Magnesium Chloride (MgCl2)
– Calcium Chloride (CaCl2)
– Potassium Chloride (KCl)

Aggression by chlorides: Chloride induced corrosion

Corrosion initiation of concrete reinforcement caused by chloride

when concrete is wet
Aggression by chlorides: Chloride induced corrosion

Chloride induced corrosion

Chloride induced corrosion

Chloride induced corrosion

Aggression by sulphates: mechanism

Aggression by sulphates

• Delayed Ettringite Formation (DEF):

– is a form of internal sulfate attack.
• Conditions necessary for DEF to occur
are:
– High temperature (above 65-70°C)
– Moisture: permanent saturation
– Commonly associated with ASR
• Solution
– Cement with low C3A (less than
8%)
– Low w/c (less than 0.45)
– Pozzolan
To avoid damage by sulfate attack
specify:
– appropriate cement type
– appropriate w/c
– supplementary cementitious mateirals
– good construction practices and curing

Alkali Aggregate Reaction: AAR

AAR Definition:
• AAR is a chemical reaction between
certain types of aggregates and
hydroxyl ions (OH-) associated with
alkalis in the cement
• Under some conditions, the reaction
may result in damaging expansion
and cracking of the concrete
• Concrete deterioration caused by
alkali-aggregate reaction is
generally slow, but progressive.
two types of AAR:
1. Alkali-Silica Reaction
2. Alkali-Carbonate Reaction
Alkali Aggregate Reaction: Alkali silica reaction

Alkali Aggregate Reaction: Alkali silica reaction

Alkali-carbonate reactions (ACR)

• Dedolomitization, the breaking

down of dolomite, is normally
associated with expansion.

• This reaction and subsequent

crystallization of brucite may cause
considerable expansion.

• The deterioration caused by ACR is

similar to that caused by ASR;
however, ACR is relatively rare
because aggregates susceptible to
this phenomenon are less common
and are usually unsuitable for use in
concrete for other reasons.

How to prevent damage by ASR

• Avoid high alkali content:
– use low alkali portland cement: Na2Oeq < 0.60%
– reduce alkali content in concrete < 3 kg/m³
– partial replacement of cement with low alkali mineral
admixtures (FA)
• Avoid reactive aggregate (amorphous silica)
• Control access to water:
– low w/c,
– proper placement and curing,
– use mineral admixtures to decrease permeability
• Use lithium containing chemical admixtures prior to
placement of concrete or as a treatment in existing
concrete
Damage by Freeze-Thaw

• The most potentially

destructive weathering factor
is freezing and thawing while
the concrete is wet,
particularly in the presence of
deicing chemicals.

• Deterioration is caused by the

freezing of water and
subsequent expansion in the
paste, the aggregate
particles, or both.

Freeze-Thaw Damage Mechanisms

Critical Saturation
– when approximately 91% of
its pores are filled with
water à critical saturation
– When water freezes to ice it
occupies 9% more volume
than that of water.
– If there is no space for this
volume expansion in a
porous, water containing
material like concrete,
Critical
freezing may cause distress Saturation
in the concrete.
Freeze-Thaw Damage Mechanisms

Hydraulic Pressure
• Damage from freezing is caused by
a buildup of hydraulic pressure from
the resistance to flow of unfrozen
water in cement paste capillaries.
• As water freezes, if the cement
paste does not expand to
accommodate it, unfrozen water will
be pushed through the capillary
pores, away from the sites of
freezing, like water through a pipe
• The pressure generated increases Δh is the pressure gradient,
as fluid viscosity, flow rate, or length η is the fluid viscosity,
increase, and as permeability or k is the permeability,
area decrease. Q is the flow rate,
l is the length of the flow path, and
• spacing between bubbles » 0.20
A is the flow area
mm

Freeze-Thaw Damage Mechanisms

The ice lens growth theory Osmotic pressure theory

• micro-ice lens formation in bigger • Water in the capillary pores is not
pores as a result of the migration of pure; it contains various soluble
water from fine to coarse pores substances.
• Ice in the capillary and the air pore • Such solutions freeze at lower
attracts un-frozen water temperature than pure water
• The movement of the un-frozen • When solutions of different
water dries out the gel and the concentrations are separated by a
small capillary pores, creating permeable barrier, the solvent
shrinkage particles move towards the solution
of greater concentration
Freezing and thawing - damage
• ASR often go hand in hand with F/T.
• Often is may be difficult to evaluate which
mechanism caused the initial damage,
however, if all other mechanisms can be
excluded the typical signs of F/T are:
– Spalling and scaling of the surface
– Large chunks (cm size) are coming of
(pop outs)
– Exposing of aggregate
– Usually exposed aggregate are un-
cracked
– Surface parallel cracking
– Gaps around aggregate - in the ideal
case

Damage by Freeze-Thaw - solution

• With the addition of an air
entrainment admixture,
concrete is highly resistant to
freezing and thawing.

• During freezing, the water

displaced by ice formation in
the paste is accommodated
so that it is not disruptive; the
microscopic air bubbles in the
paste provide chambers for
the water to enter and thus
relieve the hydraullic pressure
generated.
Damage by Freeze-Thaw - solution
• Concrete with a low water-cementitious ratio (0.40 or
lower) is more durable than concrete with a high
water-cementitious ratio (0.50 or higher).
• Air-entrained concrete with a low water-cementitious
ratio and an air content of 5 to 8% will withstand a
great number of cycles of freezing and thawing without
distress.
• The air-bubbles should be well distributed and have a
distance between each other of less than 0.25 mm in
the cement paste.

Aggression by mechanical elements

Abrasion (hiertyminen)
− If a material is repeatedly struck by particles from a harder
body, abrasion takes place due to the friction

Erosion (kuluminen)
− same but by wet processes (wear due to wind, water or ice)

Abrasion

Erosion
Aggression by mechanical elements
Abrasion (hiertyminen):
− progressive loss of mass from concrete surface by dry
attrition (e.g., pavement wear)
− Impact:
− Damage due to impact is not necessarily immediately visible,
and in certain cases many impact cycles are required

Abrasion

Aggression by mechanical elements

Impact:
− Damage due to impact is not necessarily immediately visible,
and in certain cases many impact cycles are required
Cavitation
− Cavitation is a problem where flowing water (> 12 m/s) is
present.
− The high speed of the water provoke turbulence and areas of
low pressure, and vortexes will form which erode the
substrate

Cavitation
 To avoid abrasion/erosion damage
• densely graded, strong and hard aggregate
− enough fines to densify the surface

• >30 MPa concrete (ACI 201)

• low w/c

• max slump 750 mm

• sodium nitrate seal

High temperatures
Damage to concrete attributable
to fire has 3 principal types:
i. Cracking and micro-
cracking in the surface
zone
ii. Dehydration of the cement
hydrates
iii. Change of the phases in
aggregate and paste

ASTM E 119 Time

temperature curve
Fire Resistance

Variation of relative
compressive strength of
normal strength
concrete as a function
of temperature.

Phases of deterioration due to fire

2
1

The concrete withstands The first part to break off is the

temperatures of up to 650°C concrete around the reinforcement,
which is fundamental in protecting
the rods
4
3

If the structure is exposed to fire

Once the reinforcement rods
for a considerable time, the steel
are exposed, heat propagates
also loses its performance
more quickly
characteristics, causing the
structure to collapse
 References
1. The deterioration of concrete. Online at:
http://www.mapei.com/public/CN/linedocument/degrado_cls-gb.pdf

2. Radomir Folić (2009). Durability design of concrete structures - part 1:

analysis fundamentals. Facta Universitatis. Series: Architecture and Civil
Engineering Vol. 7, No 1, 2009, pp. 1 - 18
Online at: http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/img/doi/0354-4605/2009/0354-
46050901001F.pdf

3. Radomir Folić (2010). Durability design of concrete structures - part 2:

modelling and structural assessment. Facta Universitatis. Series:
Architecture and Civil Engineering Vol. 8, No 1, 2010, pp. 45 – 66.
Online at: http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/img/doi/0354-4605/2010/0354-
46051001045F.pdf

Next lecture: Fri. 04.12.2015

Estimation of service life-span of concrete
structures
− Factor method for predicting design
service life

Exercise 11 – Service life calculation