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Universal Journal of Geoscience 4(3): 62-71, 2016 http://www.hrpub.

org
DOI: 10.13189/ujg.2016.040302

Interpreting Seismic Profiles in terms of Structure and


Stratigraphy, an Example from Lower
Indus Basin Pakistan
Majid Khan1,*, Shahid Nawaz2, Munawar Shah3, Muhammad Hasan1

1
Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
2
National Centre of Excellence in Geology, University of Peshawar, Pakistan
3
Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China

Copyright©2016 by authors, all rights reserved. Authors agree that this article remains permanently open access under the
terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International License.

Abstract Structural delineation and Stratigraphic The study area having coordinates 26˚ 52' 50" N & 68˚ 55'
evaluation of proven geological basins are of prime 60" E lies in Lower Indus Basin of Pakistan which is one of
importance for hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation. the proven geological provinces as well as contributing in
The current study aims to map the subsurface geology in a the oil and gas requirements of the country. The study area
part of Lower Indus basin of Pakistan in terms of structure has a prominent position in hydrocarbon prospecting with
and stratigraphy using seismic data with some borehole Sargodha high, Indian Shield and marginal zone of Indian
information. In this paper, conventional integrated Plate in north, east and west respectively,[1] furthermore,
geophysical technique has been used to analyze the seismic Tajjal gas field is situated in Sindh Province of Pakistan,
data to characterize reservoir formations. To pursue the discovered in 1991 and came in regular production after
interpretation, 2D seismic data in SEG-Y format was used successful drilling of three wells in 1995. The production
along with velocity and well logs information. Visual from this field on regular basis is in the form of gas with
interpretation of seismic profiles is transformed into 2D and condensate while it is bounded by nearby famous gas fields
3D (Time and Depth domain) contour maps, which is the namely Miano and Sawan. Major basins in Pakistan are
representation of true subsurface geology. Three promising result of two regional tectonic activity about 200 M.Y. ago,
closures at shallow time have been identified on structural continuous rifting gave birth to formation of Lower Indus
contour maps which are indicative of possible prospects. A basin, which was further subdivided into two parts because
closure, covering approximately 1 Sq. Km area over of rotation of Indian plate about 55 M.Y. ago. In the original
Eocene aged Sui Main Limestone and further two over 1992 Field Development Plan the core area, which is the
Cretaceous aged Lower Goru formation covering areas of eastern part of the field Lower Goru was considered more
500 and 400 Sq. km along shot point 260 and 380-390, prospective as the reservoir. [2]
respectively. Conjugate normal fault system among the Seismic interpretation is the processes of transforming
stratigraphic layers existing in the study area can smoothly seismic data into geological section to get information about
provide the hydrocarbon trapping mechanism. In order to structure and stratigraphy. It possibly will find out the
further confirm the probable future prospects and support general information about an area, locate prospects for
the study, modeling of P and S wave Acoustic Impedance drilling new exploratory wells, or guide development for
have also been done. The advance integrated study of AVO already discovered field. According to, [3]there are two
modeling and numerical rock physics analysis may be main approaches for interpreting seismic data, one is
helpful in providing further insights into current research. stratigraphic analysis and another is structural analysis.
Stratigraphic analysis comprises of interpreted seismic
Keywords Acoustic Impedance, Compressional and section where the different lithological layers exhibit as
Shear Waves, Structural Interpretation, Lower Indus Basin genetically related sedimentary succession. Structural
Pakistan interpretation involves identifying proper geological
structures for probable accumulation of hydrocarbon, mainly
tectonics play vital role in structural styles of a geological
entity. Tectonic setting usually governs the structural
network and associated features. The Lower Indus basin of
1. Introduction Pakistan has been resulted due to large scale extensional
Universal Journal of Geoscience 4(3): 62-71, 2016 63

tectonic forces that resulted into normal faulting and Jacobabad-Khairpur high as shown in Fig 1, which is an
associated horst and graben geometry. Structural traps important factor in the formation structural traps in the study
include the faults, anticlines and duplex etc. [4] one of the area,[12] Kadanwari, Sawan and Tajjal gas fields. The
most common ways of identifying seismic reflections is to Jacobabad-Khairpur has been developed by dome uplifting
compare a seismic section with another section to find the during the early Cretaceous, and later on along deep seated
regularity in different horizon of the area to be investigated. faults in the Late
To grasp strong command on seismic interpretation and Cretaceous and Paleocene ages: The three tectonic events
structure delineation, synthetic seismograms are frequently mainly responsible for the structural configuration of the
used to identify the reflectors. [5] For new prospects in any study area are: First is the late Cretaceous uplift and erosion,
area, seismic data interpretation for hydrocarbon traps is not Second event is a late Paleocene right-lateral wrenching, and
sufficient, further detail study like Petro physical analysis, third one is the late Tertiary to Holocene uplift/inversion of
reservoir characterization, rock physics analysis and seismic the Khairpur high. [10] The Khairpur high can be
modeling is required. According to [6] in order to get detail characterized by a high geothermal gradient of up-to
information of the subsurface, velocity modeling is indeed 4.8°C/100 m (328 ft.).[11] The study area has been evolved
essential. However, if the geophysical data is sparse, then through above mentioned tectonic events and as a result the
structural and stratigraphic interpretation is the most suitable
stratigraphic successions from Pre-Camb-Mesozoic and
method to extract more information regarding petroleum
Paleogene have been deformed by more than one
system. In general, velocity increases with depth as density
episode.[10] The variations can be seen in stratigraphic
and overburden pressure increases, velocity in the
succession of Lower Indus basin from east to west, as no
subsurface varies in both laterally and vertically. Vertical
succession older than Late Triassic have been drilled in the
variations are due to lithological changes of layering and
increasing pressure due to increasing depth.[7] Lateral Southern Indus basin.[12] The stratigraphic package of the
variations are due to slow changes in density and elastic Jacobabad-Khairpur High includes Mesozoic ,Tertiary and
properties due to changes in lithology or physical properties. Quarternary lithologies as shown in Fig 2. The major
Meanwhile acoustic impedance provides useful information unconfirmity occurs between base Permian and base
about the lithological successions as well as variation in Tertiary and the presence of Jurassic rocks in the area show
different rock properties. [8, 9] Acoustic impedance deposition in early rifting stage. During early collision in
variations are directly related to the lithological variations Paleocene Ranikot, clastics were deposited followed by
and hydrocarbons content in a reservoir formation.” Eocene carbonates including the important reservoir unit Sui
A 60 fold 2D seismic data with 6 seconds of record length Main Limestone in the study area. The Sui Main Limestone
was acquired in 1989 by LASMO oil Pakistan limited in was deposited on a shallow water carbonate platform with
SEG-Y format. The seismic data for this study was provided sporadic influx of clastic materials. This unit is widely
in post stack migrate (PSTM) format for structural and strati distributed on a Jaccobabad - Khairpur High and which
graphical interpretation. In this study, we have interpreted could be considered as good hydrocarbon reservoirs.
the data of 2D seismic lines for better understanding of Medium to coarse-grained sandstones in a shallow-marine
structure and stratigraphy in Lower Indus basin Pakistan. setting constitute the main reservoir (Lower Goru Formation)
The horizons of interest are defined on the basis of their in the field. [11] The sandstone of the Cretaceous Lower
seismic character and continuity as well as wells formation Goru is the most productive reservoir rock unit in the study
top. Three seismic horizons were interpreted in the study area and nearby oil and gas fields. The lower part of this
area as Eocene aged Sui Main Limestone; Cretaceous aged member has informally been divided, from bottom to top,
Upper Goru and Lower Goru formations. For further insight, into A, B, and C intervals, respectively. [12]
P and S wave acoustic impedance were numerically
computed and modeled to locate probable hydrocarbon
bearing prospects in the study area. 3. Petroleum Prospects
The Lower Cretaceous formation (Lower Goru) has
2. Geological Setting consecutive layers of sand and shale. These sands act as
reservoir rock units with rapidly varying reservoir
Based on the sedimentation history and structural style,
characteristics within few kilometers. The foremost
the Indus Basin is divided into three segments namely Upper,
influence on these two processes is the degree of sands
Central and Southern Indus basins. [10,11] Relatively high supply. This formation is the most proven reservoir rock unit
areas from shoreline of Jacobabad-Khairpur and Mari-
throughout the entire basin; it is producing oil and gas in
Kandhkot highs distributed the lower portion of Indus basin
many fields located in Lower Indus basin. The Eocene aged
in central and southern basins mutually known as Sukker Sui Main Limestone is also found productive in the vicinity
Rift.
gas fields. The shales of Cretaceous and Eocene act as source
The study area is situated on the eastern and southeastern
rock units in the study area. [13].
flank of the regional north-south– trending
64 Interpreting Seismic Profiles in terms of Structure and Stratigraphy, an Example from Lower Indus Basin Pakistan

4. Seismic Coverage through the seismic time-depth conversion process. Contour


maps are the most accurate representative of subsurface
The study area is an old exploration concession known as geology; consequently interpreted seismic sections along
Old Tajjal Concession situated in the Lower Indus basin. with average velocity information were used to generate 2D
The initial 2D seismic data in investigated area was acquired & 3D contour maps of formations of interest in the study
6 to 7 kilometers along a horizontal profile in the year 1988. area. The contour maps of Lower Goru formation and Sui
The seismic profiles are generally east west trending with Main Limestone are shown in the Fig 5 & 6 respectively.
some lines ties in north south direction. The prospective Trace Envelope as attributes analysis has the ability to
areas were subsequently in-filled with more data; the current enhance strength, amplitude and energy of the reflector
study area is one of them, in which the central area was while increasing the basic properties of seismic reflectors.
considered more prospective than western area. In the Trace Envelope was initially developed for the oil industry
year1989, a NE–SW orientated, 2 kilometers spaced seismic by Nigel Anstey in the 70's in order to identify "bright spots"
grid, with a shot point interval of 50 m and 60-fold coverage related to hydrocarbon accumulations. Trace envelope can
was acquired. This was extended in 1990 to the west, but be computed from complex trace which was first introduced
with a 25 m shot point interval and 120-fold coverage. The by [14] the complex trace can be defined as;
seismic source used was vibroseis. The area is generally
CT (t ) = T (t ) + ιH (t ) (1)
covered with sand dunes of Thar Desert. [10]
Where;
CT (t) = complex trace
5. Materials and Methods: T (t) = seismic trace
For seismic data interpretation, the identification of H (t) = Hilbert’s transform of T (t)
seismic reflection packages has been done using seismic H(t) is a 90º phase shift of T(t)
sections as shown in Fig 3 (a, b and c), depths from The Trace Envelope is calculated from complex trace by
formation tops and average thicknesses from available wells, the following formula;
interval and average velocities during the processing of
seismic data, geological and seismic characteristics of
{
E (t ) = SQRT T 2 (t ) + H 2 (t ) } (2)
different lithologies. Faults on the seismic sections are Trace envelop is helpful in identifying the subsurface
recognized on the basis of discontinuity in the subsurface discontinuities, lithological variations, changes in deposition
seismic reflections falling along an essential linear pattern, system and sequence boundaries. In order to differentiate the
mis-closure in tying reflections around loops, divergence in top and bottom of various geological units or formations in
dip not related to stratigraphy, diffraction patterns mainly the study area the trace envelope was designed using seismic
those with vertices, which line up in a manner consistent lines.
with local faulting, distortion or disappearance of reflections An empirical relationship was established for
below suspected fault lines.[3] In stratigraphic interpretation, computation of acoustic impedance by using density and
lateral continuity, variation in sedimentary deposits and velocity information. This relationship is widely used for
different episodes of sedimentation affected by tectonic brine saturated sedimentary rocks and is given in Eq (3);
activities and recognition of time depositional units is
studied. ρ = .23V p.25
(3)
In this study, we investigated new prospects for fast track
implementation of oil and gas exploration activities in parts µ
of Lower Indus basin of Pakistan. Regional geology, Vs =
tectonics and stratigraphy were reviewed as part of the
ρ (4)
objectives in order to properly identify the structural and
Where;
stratigraphical traps which were then confirmed by
compressional and shear wave’s velocity and Impedance ρ = density (g/cm3)
modeling. On the basis of structural and stratigraphic trends
of the formations and geological history, migration V p = P-wave (compressional) velocity (ft/s)
pathways are also predicted along deeper horizon on seismic µ = Shear Modulus
section as shown in Fig 3b. The Iso-velocity map commonly Consequently, the acoustic impedance can be computed
shows velocity variations along horizontal and vertical by using the compressional and shear wave velocity
directions over a specific profile was constructed using information, the empirical relation between velocity and
velocity information obtained from seismic sections. density is given by;
The primary objective of seismic interpretation is
Z = Vp, s ρ
therefore to prepare contour seismic maps showing the two (5)
way time to a reflector as picked on the seismic sections.
This time isochronal map must be converted to depth map Z = Acoustic Impedance
Universal Journal of Geoscience 4(3): 62-71, 2016 65

Root Mean Square (RMS) velocity read from velocity Fig 3. Based on the well to seismic ties three horizons were
panels of the seismic data provided were used to derive identified in the seismic sections. These three horizons were
different velocities using Dix equations to construct named Possible Sui Main Limestone, Possible Upper Goru
compressional and shear wave’s models, density sections and Possible Lower Goru formation. The fault analysis was
and impedance sections. The impedance sections for P & S carried out on dip lines because it provides clearer picture of
waves were created after numerical solution for available the fault pattern. Figure 3 (a) shows an interpreted seismic
velocity data as shown in Eq (5). To achieve this target, SMT line oriented NE-SW direction. The green, purple and blue
Kingdom 8.4 and Geosoft (Oasis 2012) software was used in colors represent Possible Sui Main Limestone, Possible
integration with other Geological and Geophysical software. Upper Goru and Possible Lower Goru formation. Faults are
marked as black in order to differentiate between horizon
and fault as it is discontinuity in seismic reflectors. Since the
6. Results and Summary study area is an extensional regime disturbed by drifting with
some rotational component therefore the interpretation
Structural and stratigraphical interpretation of a results show that the area has normal nature of faulting with
geological entity is important for expediting hydrocarbons some wrench components. The associated geometry is horst
exploration. In order to understand the subsurface geology and graben, horst is geologically uplifted part of the normal
and structural trends for possible hydrocarbon prospects in fault while graben is the down ward portion of the fault
the study area, seismic data with some well information were which is bounded by two normal faults. Graben is relatively
used on an interactive workstation. Distinguishable results deep portion, where chances of hydrocarbon accumulations
have been achieved by using 5 seconds two way travel time are less. Each horizon/formation show horst and grabens
data to explore the hydrocarbon potential of the geological geometry, since hydrocarbons always move from high
structures a part of Lower Indus basin Pakistan. The potential or high
structural interpretation of the seismic data is presented in

Figure 1. Geological and Tectonic setting of Lower Indus Basin Pakistan (modified after Kazmi & Rana, 1982). The Base map in the bottom right corner
shows the seismic profiles. The study area is highlighted by circle.
66 Interpreting Seismic Profiles in terms of Structure and Stratigraphy, an Example from Lower Indus Basin Pakistan

Figure 2. The generalized stratigraphy of Lower Indus basin,Pakistan. The formations shown are mainly from the present study area.

Figure 3. Interpreted seismic lines showing normal faulting with horst and graben geometry (a) lithologies filled and predicted hydrocarbon migration
path (b) & (c) Trace Envelope map of seismic line “X”.
Universal Journal of Geoscience 4(3): 62-71, 2016 67

Pressure area to low potential or low pressure area closure of light yellow contour having 0.05 sec interval at
therefore the probability of hydrocarbons accumulation is shallow time of 1.125 sec covers approximately area of 1
mainly possible on “horst” rather than graben. Pressure in square kilometer .Well “X” is drilled at the extreme eastern
Horsts structure is comparatively low as compared to boundary on the horst structure. Contour value lies between
grabens because of the fact that horsts are shallow portions 1.110 sec–1.179 sec, complete structure of the area has been
as compared to grabens in entire structure. The traps in the covered by this interval of two way travel time. The
study are mainly stratigraphic traps. Sui Main Limestone highlighted area in the same Figure may be the probable
(SML) and Lower Goru formation have strong reflection on zone of hydrocarbon accumulation, because it provides a
the seismic section. A number of normal faults can be seen good stratigraphic and structural trap. The time contour map
on the seismic section. SML formation is not much disturbed of Sui Main Limestone was converted into depth domain
by faults on the western sides of the seismic section. But if using the information of average velocity in the study area.
we go deeper in the seismic section the throw of the faults The contour map of Sui Main Limestone is shown in depth
increases. A very minor horst structure at Sui Main domain in Fig 5 (b), the depth ranges from 1221 to 1297
Limestone (SML) level can be seen on the seismic section meters and geometry is same as the time domain. Figure 5 (c)
between Shot Points 380 to 395 at approximately 1.138 and (d) show 3D representation of the time and depth
seconds. Fig 3 (b) shows lithologies filled in respective contour maps of Sui Main Limestone.
formations, it is close to real situations in the subsurface, Contour maps of Lower Goru formation are shown in
predicted path for migration of hydrocarbons is shown with Figure 6. The contour mapping of 0.05 seconds contour
blue color arrows. Once the hydrocarbons are matured interval shows a closure of 500 sq km at Shot Point # 260 of
within the source formation (Shales of Lower Indus basin: two horst structures with approximately 0.1 seconds vertical
probably Sembar formation), they are migrated towards the throw and in terms of depth it is approximately 15 meters. A
Lower Goru formation (reservoir formation) through these small lead is also present at Shot Point 380 – 390 of closure
predicted paths. Generally the primary migration takes place 400 sq km bounded by fault towards western side of the
along the fault or fractured planes or pores within rock units. Lower Goru formation. This could be very good promising
Envelope map for the known seismic line is shown in the Fig zone for accumulation of hydrocarbons and can be regarded
3 (c). Trace envelope rose with ultimate energy horizon on as future prospects. 3D contour maps of Lower Goru
seismic section and often associated with huge hydrocarbon formation is also shown in the Fig 6 (c and d). The maps
accumulation in the form of bright spots. It is affected by the clearly depict that area has conjugate normal fault system
slope, rather than envelope magnitude, hence indicate sharp with extensive horst and graben geometry.
interfaces. Figure 7 shows the velocity modeling of the simple body
Fig 4 shows the Iso-velocity contour map of the study area. wave propagation and acoustic impedance sections of a
The Iso-velocity contour map represents the lateral as well as seismic profile “A”. The interval velocity information was
vertical variations encountered in the study area. In practice, used to investigate the variations of compressional and shear
these variations are resulted due to changes in the rock wave and their response to different formations. Velocities
properties and discontinuities affected by tectonic force and generally increase with depth, tight sand show sharp increase
over burden pressure. This map shows the push-up and while shales generally show blunt variations in seismic
pull-up velocities. These velocities are representative of velocities. In seismic, velocity information play vital role in
variation of average velocities at certain time along different providing the subsurface details. Figure 7 (a and b) show a
vibrating points. The purple color represents low velocities velocity trap between 2500 to 3500 mill-seconds, throughout
associated with shallow subsurface unconsolidated the section the velocity of both P and S waves uniformly
sediments while the red color represents higher velocities increases with depth but the highlighted zone shows a trap of
and deeper portions of the subsurface, it follows the general intermixed velocity which depicts a transition or presence of
trend of velocity increase with increase in depth. The gas sand inside the formation. The trap was confirmed with
Iso-velocity map is important for current study in order to acoustic impedance model for the same profile as well. In
observe anomalies associated with structural disturbances in Fig 7 (c and d) the sky and pink color represents zones of
the study area. high acoustic impedance while blue color represents low
Contours represent the lines joining the same elevation so acoustic impedance contrast. The zone between 2500 to
they are important tool of seismic data interpretation. 3500 mill-seconds may be the possible future prospect. The
Contours represent the picture of the subsurface formations. same
It is generally applied to basin wide study because data in Zone was marked in contour maps of Lower Goru
time or depth domain of all the seismic lines are used to Formation (Main Reservoir rock in study area); both the
contour a single formation. Time and depth contour maps of structural and stratigraphical interpretation and seismic
Sui Main Limestone and Lower Goru in 2D and 3D are wave’s propagation models confirm an anomalous zone.
shown in Figs 5 & 6 (a-d). Figure 8 shows the compressional and shear wave
Figure 5 represents the time and depth contour maps of propagation model and impedance sections for the seismic
Sui Main Limestone, the yellow color shows the shallowest profile “B”. According to, [15] the trapping of seismic waves
part (horst) and blue color shows deeper parts (graben). A in the subsurface always depicts presence of fluid inside the
68 Interpreting Seismic Profiles in terms of Structure and Stratigraphy, an Example from Lower Indus Basin Pakistan

rock formation. The same anomaly was seen close to 2500 same profile. The zone may be considered promising for
mill-seconds as marked by the circle in Fig (8a, 8b), the future exploration.
same anomaly was seen in the impedance sections of the

Figure 4. Iso velocity contour map with shot points distributed on horizontal axis while TWT (mill-seconds) on vertical axis. Blue color shows low
velocities and red color shows high velocities.

Figure 5. 2D Time contour map of Sui Main Limestone (a) 2D depth contour map of Sui Main Limestone (b) 3D time contour map (c) 3D depth contour
map of Sui Main Limestone
Universal Journal of Geoscience 4(3): 62-71, 2016 69

Figure 6. 2D Time contour map of Lower Goru Formation (a) 2D depth contour map of Lower Goru formation (b) 3D time contour map (c) 3D depth
contour map of Lower Goru formation

Figure 7. Models of Compressional and Shear waves Acoustic Impedance for seismic profile “A”. Compressional wave velocity model having a possible
trap between 2500 to 3500 mill-seconds (a) Shear wave model (b) Compressional wave Acoustic Impedance with impedance trap between 2500 to 3500
mill-seconds (c) Shear wave acoustic Impedance.
70 Interpreting Seismic Profiles in terms of Structure and Stratigraphy, an Example from Lower Indus Basin Pakistan

Figure 8. Models of Compressional and Shear waves Acoustic Impedance for seismic profile “B”. Compressional wave velocity model having a possible
trap between 1500 to 2500 mill-seconds (a) Shear wave model (b) Compressional wave Acoustic Impedance with impedance trap between 1500 to 2500
mill-seconds (c) Shear wave acoustic Impedance.

7. Conclusions fault system which are responsible for hydrocarbon


entrapment in field. A closure of contour at shallow time of
The structural and stratigraphical based seismic 1.125 sec on Eocene aged Sui Main Limestone covers an
interpretation of possible hydrocarbon bearing formations in area of approximately 1 Sq. Km, while for Lower Goru
a part of Lower Indus Basin has been done using integrated formation a closure of 500 Sq. Km at Shot Point 260 of two
approach of reflection seismic profiles, geology and acoustic horst structures with approximately 0.1 sec vertical throw
impedance modeling. Three horizons have been marked on and in terms of depth it is approximately 15 meters and
the basis of available information of well “X”. The structural another closure is of 400 Sq. Km between Shot Point
analysis of seismic profiles A and B shows conjugate normal 380-390. We have concluded that about 50 M.y ago tectonic
Universal Journal of Geoscience 4(3): 62-71, 2016 71

deformation in the study area has resulted variety of development opportunity Petroleum Geoscience, 8(4),
structural and stratigraphical traps. Based on our findings, 307-316.
the Lower Indus basin can be regarded as unique for [3] Badley, M. E. 1985. Practical seismic interpretation Boston
hydrocarbon accumulations. The compressional & shear International Human Resource Development Corporation,
waves and impedance modeling show the same anomalous 266.
zone as depicted by seismic data interpretation. The acoustic [4] Sheriff, R. 1999. Encyclopedia Dictionary of Exploration
waves modeling investigation show the prospective to Geophysics Society of Exploration Geophysics, Edn 3.
include the appropriate information of subsurface geological
and geophysical understandings. We are interested in [5] Coffeen, J.A. 1984. Seismic Exploration Fundamentals, Penn
Well Publication Company.
lengthening this approach for further studies with good
quality data in order to facilitate the researchers as well as [6] Robinson, E. S. and Coruh, 1988. Basic Exploration
industry professionals for expediting hydrocarbons Geophysics, John Wiley.
exploration and exploitation in Lower Indus basin of [7] Lillie, R. 1999. Whole Earth Geophysics: An Introductory
Pakistan. This study, however, can provide additional Textbook for Geologists and Geophysicists, Prentice Hall.
information for precise well placement in further exploration
[8] Lavergne M., 1975. Pseudo diagraphies-de vitesse en
and production of oil and gas. Within the limits of the
offshore profound, Geophysics Prospecting, 23,695-711.
available data, it is recommended that further studies should
include integration of velocity (check shot) and bio [9] Lindseth R. O., 1976. Seislog process uses seismic reflection
stratigraphic data of all the wells. This will provide more traces, Oil and Gas Journal, 74(43), 67-71.
reliable data for interpretation of the depositional [10] Ahmad, N., Mateen J., Shehzad Ch., Mehmood N. and Arif
environments. F., 2012. Shale Gas Potential of Lower Cretaceous Sembar
Formation in Middle and Lower Indus Basin Pakistan,
Pakistan Journal of Hydrocarbon Research, Edn22, 51-62.
Acknowledgements [11] Berger A., Gier S. and Krois P., 2009. Porosity-preserving
chlorite cements in shallow-marine volcaniclastic sandstones
We are thankful to Directorate General of Petroleum Evidence from Cretaceous sandstones of the Sawan gas field
Concessions, Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Resources, Pakistan, AAPG Bulletin, 93(5) 595–615.
Islamabad Pakistan for providing the public domain data set. [12] Krois, P., Mahmood Tand, Milan, G., 1998. Miano field,
Pakistan, a case history of model driven exploration:
Proceedings of the Pakistan Petroleum Convention, Pakistan
Association of Petroleum Geologists, Islamabad 111–131.

REFERENCES [13] Kadri, I., 1995. Petroleum Geology of Pakistan, Pakistan


Petroleum Limited.
[1] [1] Kazmi, A. and Rana, R. 1982. Geology and Tectonic [14] Taner, M., Koehler, F. and Sheriff, R., 1979. Complex
of Pakistan, Graphic publishers Karachi Pakistan, seismic trace analysis Geophysics. 44, 1041-1063.
Geological Survey of Pakistan.
[15] Castagna, J., Batzle, M., and Eastwood, R., 1985.
[2] Ahmad, N. and Chaudhry, N. 2002. Kadanwari gas field Relationships between compressional wave and shear-wave
Pakistan a disappointment turns into an attractive velocities in clastic silicate rocks Geophysics, 50, 571-581.

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