Animal Kingdom: (Non-Chordates and Chordates)

Classification of Animals : Non Chordates [1]
Unit - 2 DIVERSITY IN THE LIVING WORLD
To estimate the number of animals in nature is not possible. Many of them inhabit the earth today and
many others have lived here during the past. These animals vary very much in their shape and size,
habit and habitat, colour, form and weight as well as in their distribution. More than one million
animals (1,000,000) have been discovered by Zoologist and there are still many more which are
unknown.
ANIMAL KINGDOM
(Non-Chordates and Chordates) 1
CONTENTS Diversity amongst animals does not exist in their
 Fundamentals of animal
classification shape and size only but also in their species,
I. Non-Chordata
 Protozoa number and habitat. Starting from the
 Porifera
 Coelenterata indefinitely deep oceans to snow covered
 Platyhelminthes
 Nemathelminthes
 Annelida mountain peaks and from the poles of the earth to
 Arthropoda
 Mollusca the equator, the animals inhabit all the places.
 Echinodermata
 Check Your Concept Inspite of a great diversity amongst the animals,
 Exercises
 Answers
II. Phylum Chordata the animal kingdom is well arranged and is very
 Sub Phylum : Hemichordata
 Subphylum : Urochordata systematic. For systematic study of animals,
 Subphylum : Cephalochordata
 Euchordata / Craniata
 Division 1- I : Agnatha different animals are divided into minor and major
 Division - II : Gnathostomata
 Super Class-I : Pisces groups on the basis of similarities and differences
 Superclass-II Tetrapoda
 Class-Amphibia and each group is given a particular name
 Class Reptilia
 Class Aves
 Class Mammalia depending upon their characteristics.
 Check Your Concept
 Exercises
 Answers
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[2] Zoology I nit-II
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On an estimation about 5 to 20 million kinds of organisms exist on our planet. Out of these about 1.2 million
animals and 0.2 million plants species have been identified, given scientific name and classified.
Important Contributions
1. Chandyogya Upanishad - First classified animals into Jivaja (viviparous) Andaja (oviparous) and
Udbhija (vegetal origin)
2. Post-vedic Susruta samhita (600 BC) – Classified all living beings into Sthavara (immobile) e.g. plants
and Jangama (mobile) e.g. animals.
3. Charaka (100 BC) – Father of Ayurveda.
4. Aristotle (384 – 322 BC) – Known as father of zoology. Firstly attempted to classify the animals in
his book Historia Animalium. Aristotle divided animals on the basis of presence or absence of red blood
into two groups:
(A) Anaima –Animals without red blood e.g. Sponges, Molluscs, Insects etc.
(B) Enaima – Animals with red blood e.g. Fishes, Amphibia, Reptiles Birds, Mammals. Enaima was
further sub-grouped into:
(a) Ovipera – Egg laying animals.
(b) Vivipera - Gives birth to young ones.
5. Carolus Linnaeus (1735) – Coined the term systematics; Introduced Bionomial Nomenclature in
his book Systema Naturae.
6. Julian Huxley (1940) – Proposed the term “New Systematics”.
7. August de Candolle (1778-1841) – First proposed the term Taxonomy (Gk. Taxes – arrangement;
nomas – law).
8. John Ray (1927-1705) – First to introduce, and define the term Species.
9. Ernst Mayr (1942) – Introduced Modern concept of Species (Biological species concept).
10. Georges Leopold Cuvier (1769 – 1832 ) – Added the “Phylum” in taxonomy.
FUNDAMENTALS OF ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION

LEVELS OF BODY ORGANIZATION
Following are the different levels of organization in animals from simpler to complex state:
1. Protoplasmic grade – In this grade all life activities are confined within the boundaries of a single cell
which is a structural and functional unit of life. e.g. Protozoa and other unicellular organism.
2. Cellular grade – It is a loose association or aggregation of cells that are functionally differentiated, e.g. sponges.
3. Tissue grade – An aggregation of cells which act in co-ordination. e.g. Cnidarians.
4. Tissue-organ grade – When tissues aggregate to form a particular organ. First appeared in platyhelminthes.
5. Organ system grade – When organs work together to perform some common function such as
digestion, respiration, circulation etc. e.g., most of the higher animals.
Body Plan
1. Cell Aggregate Body plan – The body is made up of cells (Aggregate) and each cell act almost
independently. e.g. Porifera (sponges)
2. Blind Sac – The body resembles a sac and contains a single cavity with one opening that serves for
ingestion and egestion both e.g., Cnidaria (Hydra), Platyhelminthes (flatworms).
3. Tube within a tube – The body is made up of two tubes, outer body wall and the inner digestive tract.
e.g. Annelida
Body Symmetry
The arrangement of body parts in a geometrical pattern is called a symmetry.
Following types –
1. Spherical symmetry – Found in spherical body. All planes that pass through the center will cut it into
similar halves. e.g. Some protozoans like Volvox, Heliozoa, Radiolaria.
2. Radial symmetry – The body is in the form of a flat or tall cylinder. All the lines passing through
longitudinal axes in a radiating manner divide the body into equal halves. e.g. Hydra.
(a) Biradial symmetry – divides the animal into two equal halves. e.g. Ctenophora and most anthozoa
(e.g. Sea anemones)
(b) Pentamerous radial – divides into 5 equal parts e.g., star fish.
3. Bilateral symmetry – The body is divided into two equal parts by a single median longitudinal or sagittal
plane. e.g., most higher animals.
4. Asymmetry – when an animal cannot be divided into equal parts by any plane e.g., Amoeba, most sponges.
BODY SEGMENTATION
Segmentation is a type of body form having a linear sequence of units or segments possessing a similar or
modified structure. It occurs in three animal phyla such as annelida, arthropoda and chordata.
Fig. : Diagrams to illustrate differences between

A—True metamerism of a generalized annelid. B—Strobilizaton of a generalized tapeworm.
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Metameric segmentation (true metamerism or true segmentation) : It is a type of segmentation where
external divisions correspond to internal divisions. The body is often divided both externally and internally into
a number of segments (metameres) e.g., annelids. Segmentation is mostly external in arthropods and mainly
internal in man and other chordates (vertebrae, body muscles, some blood vessels and nerves).
Pseudometamerism (false segmentation) : It is found in tapeworms. In tapeworms, the proglottids (segments
of tapeworms) are budded off from the neck, hence, this segmentation is called pseudometamerism
(pseudosegmentation). It differs from true segmentation of embryonic origin as
found in annelids, arthropods and chordates.
1. Annelids show both external and internal segmentation.

2. Arthropods show only external segmentation.
3. The segmentation in flatworms such as tapeworm is
pseudometamerism.
Germ Layers
During early stages of embryonic development the cells are arranged in
groups forming germ layers. They appear in gastrula stage.
1. Diploblastic animals – Having two distinct germ layers i.e. outermost
ectoderm and innermost endoderm e.g. Cnidarians and porifera.
2. Triploblastic animals – Having three distinct germ layers i.e. ectoderm,
mesoderm and endoderm. The mesodermal layer always lies between
ectoderm and endoderm e.g. Most metazoans (Bilateria).
Fig. A typical metameric

animal such as an annelid worm
Body Cavity or Coelom

The fluid filled space between the gut and the outer body wall is a body cavity. On the basis of development,
it is of following types:
1. Acoelomates – The animals without coelom or body cavity are called a coelomates. e.g. Cnidarians,
flatworms (platyhelminthes).
Fig. Different patterns of embryonic developments as found in pseudocoelomates, protostomes and
deuterostomes
2. Pseudocoelomates?The body cavity between the gut and body wall is not lined by mesoderm (Peritoneum)
e.g. Nemathelminthes (Ascaris).
3. Eucoelomates – The body cavity lined from all sides by mesodermal peritoneum.
(a) Schizocoel – formed by the splitting of mesodermal band. e.g. Annelids, Arthropods, Molluscs.
(b) Enterocoel – formed from the pouches of the archenteron or primitive gut e.g. Echinoderms and
chordates.
Protostomes And Deuterostomes
1. Protostomes – In protostomes mouth develops from blastopore. E.g. Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca.
2. Deuterostomes – The mouth never develops from the blastopore, although the blastopore may give rise
to the anus. E.g. Echinoderms and Chordata.
Table: Non-chordates And Chordates
Non-chordates Chordates
1. Radially, bilaterally symmetrical Bilaterally symmetrical or Asymmetrical
2. Diploblastic or Triploblastic Triploblastic
3. Acoelomate, Pseudocoelomate or Eucoelomate Eucoelomate
4. Notochord – absent Notochord – present
5. Pharyngeal gill-slits – absent Pharyngeal gill-slits present at some stage of life.
6. Ventral nerve cord – present Dorsal tubular nervous system present
Fig. Generalised invertebrate organisation (diagrammatic)
Fig. Generalised vertebrate organisation (diagrammatic)
MODERN CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMAL WORLD

Kingdoms are the highest taxonomic groups of living beings. The major criteria used for delimitation of
kingdoms are
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(a) Cell structure
(b) Complexity of organisation
(c) Presence or absence of locomotion
(d) Mode of nutrition.
In the beginning, living beings were divided into the two kingdoms of plants and animals. It was followed by
three kingdom, four kingdom, and five kingdom classifications.
1. Two Kingdom Classification (Plant kingdom and Animal kingdom)
Biologists since the time of Aristotle divided the living world into two kingdoms : Plants and Animals.
The two kingdom system was given by Linnaeus in 1758 and worked well for a long time.
2. Three Kingdom Classification (Animals, Plantae and Protista)
Ernst Haeckel (1866) a German biologist suggested a third kingdom Protista to include protozoa, algae
& fungi. Later on the kingdom Protista was reserved only for unicellular organisms.
3. Four Kingdom Classification
This system was developed by Copeland (1956) with four kingdoms namely Monera, Protista, Plantae
and Animalia. Monera includes prokaryotes (bacteria and blue-green algae). Fungi continued to
remain with plants.
4. Five Kingdom Classification
In 1969 the American ecologist Robert H. Whittaker proposed five kingdom classification comprising
Monera, Protista, Plantae, Fungi and Animalia. It excludes virus from living beings.
Whittaker used three criteria for delimiting the five kingdoms:
(a) Complexity of cell structure
(b) Complexity of body structure
(c) Mode of nutrition.
He also laid stress on bringing out their ecological life styles and phylogenetic relationships.
FIVE KINGDOMS OF LIVING WORLD
Kingdom I – Monera
It includes all prokaryotes. They are microscopic, unicellular, motile or non-motile.
The genetic material is circular, double-stranded helical DNA not enclosed by nuclear envelope.
Ribosomes and simple chromatophores are the only subcellular organelles. Membrane bound organelles are
absent.
Nutrition – Autotrophic (photosynthetic, chemosynthetic), saprophytic, parasitic or symbiotic or symbiotic.
Reproduction – Primarily asexual.
Examples – Mycoplasmas, Bacteria, Blue-green algae (cyanobacteria).
Kingdom II – Protista
They are unicellular eukaryotic motile or non-motile. The genetic material is the linear, double-stranded helical
DNA complexed with proteins enclosed by nuclear envelope, organised into distinct chromosome. Membrane
bound organelles are present. Nutrition may be photosynthetic, holozoic, saprophytic and parasitic. Some have
mixotrophic nutrition. Reproduction – may be asexual and sexual.
Examples – Protistan algae (Dinoflagellates, diatoms) slime moulds and protozoans.
Kingdom III – Fungi

They are predominantly multicellular eukaryotes. Chlorophyll is absent. (Yeasts have a single-celled body).
They have a double envelope cellular organisation. Non-motile. Nutrition is saprophytic and absorptive or
parasitic. Reproduction is both asexual and sexual.
Examples – Yeasts, moulds, mushrooms, rusts etc.
Kingdom IV – Plantae
They are multicellular eukaryotes. Chlorophyll is present. Non-motile. Nutrition is typically autotrophic
(oxygenetic photosynthetic) some are insectivorous (Drosera, Nepenthes). Reproduction – May be asexual
or sexual or both.
Examples – Green, brown and red algae, liverworts, mosses, ferns and seed plants with or without flames.
Kingdom V – Animalia
They are multicellular eukaryotes. Chlorophyll is absent. Motile. Nutrition is typically holozoic or parasitic.
Reproduction is generally sexual. Lower forms have asexual reproduction.
Examples – Sponges, cnidarians, worms, insects, frogs, lizards, starfish, snakes, birds and mammals.
Modern Classification of Kingdoms Protista and Animalia is as follows :
THE LIVING WORLD
MONERA PROTISTA FUNGI PLANTAE ANIMALIA

Unicellular ; Multicellular; eukaryotic; no
eukaryotic chlorophyll and cellulose cell wall.
Motility and sensitivity developed.
1. Phylum Protozoa BRANCHES
MESOZOA PARAZOA EUMETAZOA

Cellular-grade organization. Tissue or organ-grade organization.
No obvious mouth and digestive cavity. Mouth and digestive cavity present.
2. Phylum Porifera DIVISIONS

RADIATA BILATERIA
Tissue-grade. Radial symmetry. Body Organ-grade. Bilateral symmetry.
cavity and digestive cavity common Separate digestive cavity
3. Phylum Cnidaria SUB-DIVISIONS

PROTOSTOMIA DEUTEROSTOMIA
Cleavage of zygote spiral and determinate. Cleavage of zygote radial and indeterminate.
Mouth from or near blastopore. Mesoderm from primordial Anus from or near blastopore.
mesodermal cells. Coelom schizocoelic Mesoderm from wall of archenteron.
Coelom enterocolic, or secondarily schizocoelic.
SECTIONS
ACOELOMATA PSEUDOCOELOMATA EUCOELOMATA

No body cavity Body cavity pseudocoel True coelom present
4. Phylum Platyhelminthes 5. Phylum Nematoda All eucoelomates
6. Phylum Annelida 7. Phylum Mollusca 8. Phylum Arthropoda
9. Phylum Echinodermata 10. Hemichordata 11. Phylum Chordata
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KINGDOM PROTISTA
Unicellular, eukaryotic organisms.
 According to five kingdom classification Whittaker (1969), protozoa are separated from animals and
included in the kingdom – protista (unicellular eukaryotic organisms).
 Phylum Protozoa : All protists are included in this single phylum. Formerly, this group was classified
as a Subkingdom of Kingdom Animalia. The whole body of a protozoan is a single eukaryotic cell which
leads its own independent existence in nature. Examples – Amoeba, Euglena, Plasmodium, Paramecium,
etc.
PROTOZOA
 Goldfuss (1817) coined the term Protozoa.
 Number of species : about 50,000.
 Study of protozoa : Protozoology.
General Characteristics
 Protozoans are small, generally microscopic organisms where single cell performs all the vital activities hence,
also called as acellular organisms.
 Exhibit a great variety of shape.
 Cytoplasm is differentiated into outer ectoplasm and inner endoplasm.
 Generally uninucleate but all ciliates and many amoeboid forms are multinucleate. Nucleus is vesicular and
massive.
 Locomotory organs are pseudopodia in sarcodina, flagella in mastigophora, cilia in ciliata and absent in
Sporozoa (parasitic forms).
 Nutrition may be holophytic (plant-like), holozoic (animal-like), saprozoic or parasitic.
 Contractile vacuole is found in almost all freshwater protozoans for maintenance of osmotic concentration of
cell body. It also helps in excretion.
 Reproduction is asexual or sexual. Most flagellates, rhizopods and ciliates show asexual reproduction by
binary or multiple fission, budding or sporulation. Some ciliates e.g.,-Paramecium reproduce by sexual
means i.e. conjugation. In sporozoa, some stages of life cycle show formation of morphologically distinct
gametes.
 Cyst formation during unfavourable conditions commonly occurs among the freshwater and parasitic
protozoans.
 Life cycle often exhibits alternation of generation i.e. - includes both asexual and sexual phase.
 Protozoans show mainly 2 modes of life, free-living inhabiting fresh and salt water and damp places, parasitic
living as ectoparasites or endoparasites on other animals and plants.
CLASSIFICATION
On the basis of locomotory organ.
Class I : Mastigophora
 One to many flagella, acts as locomotory and food capturing organs.
 Reproduction asexual by longitudinal binary fission.
e.g., Euglena, Noctiluca, Trypanosoma (causes sleeping sickness), Leishmania donovani (causes kala
azar), Giardia (causes dysentry).
Noctiluca
 Order - Dinoflagellata; class-Mastigophora.
 Marine pelagic form; spherical body covered by pellicle.

 Ventral face bears groove with an oval cytostome leading into the gullet.
 Has long stout, striated tentacle and a fine flagellum.
 Nucleus - single; Nutrition - holozoic; Reproduction - asexual.
 Contains luciferin which emits light on stimulating by oxidation with an enzyme luciferase (Bioluminiscent).
Fig. Noctiluca Fig. Giardia lamblia
Giardia (Grand old man of intestine)

 Order-Polymastigina, class-Mastigophora.
 Resides in the upper part of small intestine of man, causing abdominal discomfort and diarrhoea.
 Pear-shaped, bilaterally symmetrical.
 Possess double set of cell organelles like- 2 nuclei, 2 parabasal bodies and 8 flagella.
Trichomonas
 Order - Polymastigina, class-mastigophora.
 Other species -
(a) T. buccalis : found in buccal cavity of human, causes pyorrhoea.
(b) T. vaginalis : found in vagina of women, causes leucorrhoea.
(c) T. hominis : in colon by man causes diarrhoea.
 Pear-shaped body supported by rod-shaped axostyle.
 3-5 flagella at its anterior end.
 Single large nucleus present.
 Nutrition - holozoic & saprophytic
 Asexual reproduction by longitudinal binary fission.
Trichonympha
 Order - Hypermastigina, class - Mastigophora.
 Leads symbiotic life in the intestine of termites.
 Termites ingest wood but are unable to digest. Trichonympha digest cellulose by enzyme  glucosidase which
converts cellulose to glucose and gets food and safe lodging in return.
Trypanosoma
 Order - Kinetoplastida, class - Mastigophora
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 Digenetic endoparasite found in the blood of vertebrates finally invading CSF causing African sleeping sickness.
 Secondary host - Tse-tse fly (Glossina palpalis)
 Polymorphic forms are - Leishmanial, Leptomonad, Crithidial and Trypanosomal (Metacyclic stages).
Fig. Trypanosoma gambiense

 Other species :
(a) T. gambiense : causing African sleeping sickness or Gambian fever.
(b) T. rhodesiense : causes Rhodesian fever confined to east and central parts of Africa.
(c) T. cruzi : causes Chagas disease in children in South America.
(d) T. brucei : causes ‘Nagana’ disease in horses, donkeys camels and cattles.
(e) T. evansi : ‘Surra’ disease in horses, camels, cattles and dogs.
Leishmania
 Order : Kinetoplastida, class - Mastigophora.
 L. donovani, a digenetic endoparasite found in reticulo-endothelial system of spleen, liver, WBC and bone marrow.
 Causes kala-azar or visceral leishmaniasis.
 Secondary host : Sand fly (Phlebotomus argentipes)
 Other species :
(a) L. tropica : causes oriental sore or cutaneous leishmaniasis or Delhi boils in man.
(b) L. brassiliensis : causes ‘Espundia’ or naso-oral leishmaniasis in South America.
Fig. Leishmania donovani: A. Leishmania form, B. Leptomonad form Fig. Balantidium coli
Class II : Sarcodina
 Body naked without definite pellicle or provided with shells.
 Pseudopodia are locomotory and food-capturing organs.
 Asexual reproduction by binary or multiple fission.
e.g., Amoeba, Entamoeba (causes dysentery), Polystomella, Arcella.
Amoeba
 Belongs to order Lobosa of class Sarcodina.
Species - Amoeba proteus, A. radiosa, A. verrucosa, A. polymyxa
Fig. Structure of Amoeba proteus
 A. proteus discovered by Russel von Rosenhoff (1755).

 Fresh-water form found in ponds, lakes, streams etc.
 Locomotion by pseudopodia (lobopodia)
 Pseudopodium at its forward end gets its firm consistency by hyaline cap which is made of
ectoplasm.
 Pseudopodia in Amoeba are meant for feeding and locomotion.
 Locomotion with the help of pseudopodia is known as amoeboid movement.
 Sol-gel theory of amoeboid movement was first given by Hyman supported by Pantin (1923) and
Mast (1926). According to this theory amoeboid locomotion is due to change in the viscosity of
cytoplasm.
 The conversion of plasmasol into gel and vice versa is a physicochemical phenomenon.
 Sol-gel transformation are due to contraction and relaxation of long chains of proteins.
 Nutrition - Holozoic (Omnivorous)
 Amoeba ingest food by import, circumfluence, circumvallation or invagination.
 Import involves passive sinking of food into body by rupture of plasmalemma, e.g., Ingestion of
algae.
 Circumfluence is the ingestion of less active or motionless organisms like bacteria.
 Circumvallation is the engulfment of active prey like ciliate or flagellate.
 Digestion is intracellular.
 Food vacuole of Amoeba is analogous to the alimentary canal of an animal or gastrovascular cavity
of Hydra.
 The contents of food vacuole in Amoeba first becomes acidic, then alkaline.
 Osmoregulation by contractile vacuole.
 Plasmalemma covers the body so it is in general protective in function. It is also excretory and respiratory
in nature.
 If an Amoeba is placed in distilled water, its contractile vacuole works faster but if it is placed in salt
water, its vacuole will disappear.
 Amoeba reacts to the various stimuli : It is attracted towards optimum temperature 25°C; it reacts
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negative to bright light, and positive to dim light; avoids solid substance, attracted by food, reacts negative
to all chemicals, moves to cathode, moves to gravity, moves along with to water current.
 Reproduction - asexual by binary fission or sporulation.
Entamoeba
 Belongs to order Lobosa, class-Sarcodina
 E. histolytica, discovered by Lamble (1859). F. Losch (1875) discovered its pathogenic nature.
 World wide in distribution but more common in the tropics and subtropics than in the temperate zone.
Fig. Entamoeba histolytica tructure of life cycle

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 Monogenetic, endoparasite found in the mucosal and submucosal layers of the large intestine of man.
 Found in 2 forms
(i) Trophozoite or Magna form - Pathogenic
(ii) Pre-cystic or Minuta form - Non-pathogenic
 Reproduction by excystation, encystation & multiplication
Fig. Life cycle of Entamoeba histolytica
 Entamoeba has no contractile vacuole (a difference from Amoeba).

 Trophozoite of Entamoeba reproduces by binary fission.
 Minuta form encysts. A mature cyst is called quadrinucleate cyst. It has four nuclei and two chromatoid bodies.
 The reserve food material in cyst of E. histolytica is glycogen.
 Quadri (= terra) nucleate cyst is the infective stage. Infection is oral through contaminated food and water.
 A single cyst of E. histolytica produces eight amoebulae.
 Most effective medicine for amoebiasis is Metragyl or Flagyl.
 Other species
Entamoeba coli : Non-pathogenic, endocommensal found in colon of man. It is monogenetic and infection
is oral through contaminated food and water.
E. gingivalis : Non-pathogenic parasite found in tartar of teeth, aggravates pyorrhoea (doesn’t cause
pyorrhoea)
Actinophrys
 Belongs to order Heliozoa, class-Sarcodina.
 Commonly called as sun animalcule.
 Found in fresh as well as in marine water.
 Naked spherical body with central nucleus, locomotory organelle - Axopodia.
 Nutrition - holozoic.
 Reproduction - by binary fission and paedogamy.
Class IV : Ciliata
 Body has firm pellicle.
 Locomotory and food capturing organs are cilia.
 Usually two kinds of nuclei : larger macronucleus
and smaller micronucleus.
 Asexual reproduction by binary fission and sexual
reproduction by conjugation.
ex. Paramecium, Opalina, Vorticella.
Balantidium coli
 Order : Spirotricha, class-Ciliata
 Endoparasite in large intestine of man, monkey, frogs and
pigs.
 Oval body, covered by longitudinal rows of cilia.
 Nutrition : holozoic
 Reproduction : asexual by transverse binary fission &
sexual by conjugation and encystment.
Paramecium
 Paramecium is a holotrichous ciliate protozoan.
 It is commonly called as Slipper animalcule.
 Body is covered with a thin, firm, flexible membrane
called pellicle.
 Cilia in the posterior end are longer called caudal tuft.
 Trichocysts are peculiar bottle-shaped organelles present in the ectoplasm Fig. Paramecium caudatum
of Paramecium. Trichocysts are the organelles of offence and defence.
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 Macronucleus is one, large, kidney-shaped, controls vegetative functions (metabolism).
 Micronuclei, one (P. caudatum), two (P. aurelia) and several (P. multimicronucleatum) are only concerned
with reproduction.
 Oral apparatus consists of Cytopharynx and cytostome (mouth), cytopyge or cytoproct (anus).
 Nutrition or food intake in Paramecium is holozoic. It is a filter feeder.
 Most favourite food is Tetrahymena, another ciliate protozoa. Tetrahymena is a protozoan used in biological
research.
 Paramecium moves in wavy line. It involves rotation and gyration.
 Paramecium shows negative response and moves against water current.
 Paramecium reproduces by transverse binary fission and nuclear reorganization.
 Binary fission occurs during favourable condition. It is faster multiplication, completes about in half an hour
(upto three divisions per day).
 Paramecium undergoes several kinds of nuclear reorganizations such as conjugation, autogamy, cytogamy
etc. These processes are to overcome aging or senescence which is caused due to repeated binary fissions.
In Paramecium nuclear reorganization takes place for rejuvenation.
 Conjugation occurs between two mating types of same species of Paramecium. It is a modified form of
cross fertilization. Each conjugant produces a female stationary and a male migratory nucleus by three
successive divisions of its micronucleus. They are called pronuclei. Conjugation of Paramecium involves
exchange of micronuclei. Synkaryon is the diploid nucleus formed by the fusion of stationary and migratory
nuclei in conjugant. Synkaryon divides thrice to form eight nuclei. Each Paramecium (exconjugant) at the end
of the conjugation produces four daughter Paramecia.
 Autogamy is the process of self-fertilization. It occurs in a single animal of P. aurelia.
 Endomixis occurs in P. aurelia. It is asexual reproduction and one individual produces four daughter
Paramecia.
Class III : Sporozoa

 Adult sporozoans don’t possess external organs of locomotion.
 Reproduction both sexual and asexual.
 Exclusively parasitic forms
ex : Plasmodium (causes malaria), Monocystis (Parasite in seminal vesicles of earthworm), Eimeria,
Plasmodium
 Discovered in RBCs of man by Charles Laveran while Sir Ronald Ross observed oocysts of Plasmodium
on the stomach wall of female Anopheles mosquito.
 Out of about 60 species, only four species cause malaria in man.
Species Diseases
1 Plasmodium vivax Benign tertian malaria
2 P. malariae Quartan fever
3 P. falciparum (most dangerous) Malignant fever, Cerebral malaria, Estivo-autumnal fever, Black water fever
4 P. ovale Mild tertian fever
 Plasmodium is a digenetic, intracellular parasite found in the blood of man.

 Asexual cycle occurs in man by a process called Schizogony (in liver and RBCs). Schizogony is a type of
multiple fission.
 Sexual cycle is completed in mosquito by gametogony and sporogony.

 Infective stage of Plasmodium - sporozoite.
Geographical Distribution
 Found in all countries but tropical zone is the endemic home of all malarial parasites.
 P. malariae is a parasite of subtropical zone while P. vivax is the prevailing species of the temperate
zone.
Fig. Life cycle of Plasmodium vivax
 Habitat : Malarial parasites infecting man, after passing through a developmental phase in the parenchymal
cells of liver, reside inside RBCs and are carried by the circulating blood to all the organs.
Human Cycle
(i) Pre-erythrocytic Schizogony
 Occurs inside parenchyma of liver during which Plasmodium schizont undergo a phase of development.
 Liberated merozoites are called cryptozoites. Smaller ones (micromerozoites) enter the circulation
and the larger ones (macromerozoites) re-enter the liver cells to undergo schizogony.
 During this phase, it cannot be detected in blood samples and do not produce any clinical symptoms.
(ii) Erythrocytic Schizogony
 It resides inside RBC and passes through stages of trophozoite, schizont and merozoite.
 After entering into an erythrocyte, a merozoite becomes a rounded disc-like young trophozoite.
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As it grows, large vacuole appears in the centre to push the nucleus towards the periphery. This
forms signet ring shape.
 The trophozoite becomes amoeboid by loosing its vacuole. Now it starts feeding more actively upon
cytoplasm of host RBC. It secretes out lysolecithin enzyme to dissolve the cytoplasm of RBC. The
trophozoite becomes brownish black haemozoin granule formed due to proteolysis of haemoglobin.
 Haemoglobin breaks down into globin (protein) and the red pigment hematin (which accumulates
in trophozoite’s cytoplasm).
 In the cytoplasm of RBC Schuffner dots are observed.
 The mature trophozoite undergoes repeated mitotic divisions to form 8 to 26 daughter nuclei. The
daughter nuclei migrate close to its periphery and it separated out with small amount of cytoplasm.
These small cells are called merozoites.
 When RBC bursts it releases merozoites and haemozoin crystals. The liberated merozoites attack
fresh RBCs whereas haemozoin crystals causes malarial fever.
 These asexual forms can be detected in peripheral blood 3 to 4 days after the completion of pre-
erythrocytic schizogony.
 Parasitic multiplication in RBC during this phase produces clinical attack of malaria.
(iii) Gametogony
 Some merozoites after completing erythrocytic schizogony, instead of developing into trophozoites
and schizonts, give rise to forms which are capable of sexual reproduction after leaving the human
host. These are called gametocytes and develop in the RBCs of the capillaries of internal organs
(spleen and bone marrow).
 Only mature gametocytes are found in the peripheral blood.
 The gametocytes which have entered mosquito are two types, microgametocyte and megagametocyte.
 The individual who harbours the gametocytes is known as ‘carrier’.
(iv) Exo-erythrocytic schizogony
 After establishment of blood infection, the pre-erythrocytic phase disappears completely.
 Exo-erythrocytic forms are responsible for relapses of vivax, ovale and quartan malaria.
Mosquito cycle/sexual cycle of malarial parasite
 Sexual cycle first starts in the human host by the formation of gametocytes which are then transferred to the
insect host where further development proceeds.
 Female Anopheles during its blood meal from an infected person, ingests both sexual and asexual forms but
only sexual forms are capable of development and the rest die off immediately.
 First phase of development occurs inside the midgut (“stomach”) of the mosquito. From one microgametocyte,
5-8 thread - like filamentous structures, microgametes develop. This is called ex-flagellation.
 Macrogametocyte do not show any flagellation and from one macrogametocyte only one macrogamete is formed.
 Gametes undergo fertilization and form ookinete; which upon entry into the mucosal cells form oocyst.
 Oocyst increases in size and undergo meiotic and mitotic divisions to form large number of haploid
sporozoites. Sporozoites are distributed through the circulating fluid (Haemocoel) into various organs and
tissues of the body. Maximum number accumulates in salivary duct.
 Mosquito at this stage is capable of transmitting infection to man.
 Spread of Malaria : factors responsible include:
(i) Presence of a gametocyte carrier (source of malarial parasite).
(ii) Existence of a suitable Anopheles vector.
(iii) A susceptible person.
 Incubation period : Sporozoites on gaining entrance into the human body undergoes a developmental
cycle first in liver and then in RBC. With the commencement of erythrocytic schizogony the parasite
multiplies in geometric progression and on reaching a sufficient concentration in the blood, brings about
the onset of fever. This period of development is called incubation period.
In P. vivax, P. ovale and P. falciparum : 10-14 days and in P. malariae it is 18 days to 6 weeks.
 Clinical Symptoms of Malaria
The main clinical manifestations are series of intermittent fever, followed by anaemia and splenic
enlargement.
(i) Malarial fever : May occur at any time but generally starts in early afternoon. It is divided into
3 stages
 The cold stage (lasting 20 minutes to an hour)
 The hot stage (lasting 1 to 4 hours)
 The sweating stage (lasting 2 to 3 hours)
 Malarial fever synchronizes with the erythrocytic schizogony of the malarial parasite and relapses may vary
with the type of species:
(a) With 48 hour cycle fever recurs every third day : tertian fever
(b) With 72 hour cycle fever recurs every fourth day : quartan fever.
Treatment :
Various antimalarial drugs are grouped as
1. Therapeutic (Clinical cure) : 4-aminoquinolines like chloroquine and amodiaquine, and mepacrine are
potent schizonticidal drugs having action on early erythrocytic phases of the parasite.
2. Protective or Prophylactic
Proguanil, pyrimethamine and trimethoprim are used to suppress clinical manifestations. These drugs
destroy pre-erythrocytic phase of the parasite in the liver and inactivates gametocytes, thereby preventing
further development in the mosquitoes.
3. Synergists : They potentiate the action of schizonticidal drugs. Sulphonamides and sulphones (dapsone)
are often used in combination with prophylactic drugs.
TRY YOURSELF - 1
1. One of the following is absent in Entamoeba histolytica
(1) Food vacuole (2) Pseudopodium (3) Contractile vacuole (4) Nucleus
2. Erythrocytic cycle of Plasmodium does not have
(1) Merozoite (2) Trophozoite (3) Signet ring (4) Ookinete
3. A mosquito infected with Plasmodium bites a healthy man. He will be able to spread malaria only if another
mosquito bites him after _______ days
(1) 2 (2) 4 (3) 6 (4) 12-14
4. Protozoans are classified on the basis of
(1) Nutrition (2) Reproduction (3) Mode of locomotion (4) Excretion
5. Match the following
(A) Trypanosoma gambiense (i) Kala azar
(B) Leishmania donovani (ii) Amoebic dysentry
(C) Giardia intestinalis (iii) African sleeping sickness
(D) Entamoeba histolytica (iv) Diarrhoea
(1) A(i), B (iii), C (iv), D (ii) (2) A(iii), B (i), C (ii), D (iv)
(3) A(i), B (ii), C (iv), D (iii) (4) A(iii), B (i), C (iv), D (ii)
6. Siliceous endoskeleton is characteristically found in :
(1) Heliozoans (2) Radiolaria (3) Sporozoa (4) Chrysophyta
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7. In Euglena reserve food found is:
(1) Starch (2) Oil (3) Paramylum (4) Chrysolaminarin
8. Dum-dum fever is caused by______and is transmitted by_____
(1) Leishmania donavani, Glossina (2) Trypanosoma, Glossina
(3) Giardia, Tsetse fly (4) Leishmania donavani, Phlebotomus
9. Mark the incorrect pair
(1) Glossina palpalis–Trypanosoma gambiense (2) Phlebotomus–Trichomonas vaginalis
(3) Female Anopheles–Plasmodium (4) None of these
10. Organs of locomotion are absent in
(1) Dinoflagellates (2) Sporozoans (3) Sarcodines (4) Ciliates
11. One of the following does not have parasitic mode of nutrition
(1) Trichonympha campanula (2) Trichomonas vaginalis
(3) Giardia intestinalis (4) Leishmania tropica
12. When a female Anopheles bites a man suffering from malaria, it sucks blood carrying various stages of malarial
parasite. All stages except for one are digested by the stomach of mosquito, it is
(1) Merozoite (2) Trophozoite (3) Gametocyte (4) Signet ring stage
13. Sporogony in Plasmodium occur in
(1) Liver cells of man (2) RBC of man
(3) Stomach wall of mosquito (4) Both (1) and (2)
14. Mark the incorrect match
(1) Plasmodium vivax–Benign Tertian Malaria (2) Plasmodium falciparum–Perinicious Tertian malaria
(3) Plasmodium malariae–Quartan malaria (4) Plasmodium ovale–Malignant Tertian malaria
15. The following are symptoms of which disease-Fever, glandular swelling, lethargy, damage to brain which may
lead to death
(1) Trypanosomiasis (2) Kala azar (3) Giardiasis (4) Leucorrhoea
16. Paramecium reproduces by
(1) Multiple fission (2) Conjugation (3) Schizogony (4) Transformation
17. The sarcodines which have globular chambered calcareous shells, and reticulopodia belong to
(1) Radiolaria (2) Foraminifera (3) Heliozoa (4) Amoeboid
18. The group of protozoans considered as most advanced & showing transverse binary fission are
(1) Ciliates (2) Mastigophora (3) Sarcodines (4) Sporozoa
19. Erythrocytic cycle of Plasmodium will not show
(1) Trophozoite (2) Rosette stage (3) Signet ring stage (4) Gametogony
20. Totally parasitic protozoans belong to
(1) Ciliata (2) Sarcodina (3) Mastigophora (4) Sporozoa
21. Which one of the following statements is incorrect for Euglena?
(1) It has flagella for locomotion (2) It has a rigid cell wall
(3) It has myxotrophic mode of nutrition (4) Reserve food is paramylum starch
22. Which one of the following is monogenetic
(1) Plasmodium vivax (2) Trypanosoma gambiense
(3) Leishmania donovani (4) Entamoeba gingivalis
23. A binucleate protozoan is
(1) Amoeba proteus (2) Paramecium caudatum
(3) Globigerina (4) Plasmodium vivax
24. Benign tertian malaria is caused by

(1) Plasmodium vivax (2) Plasmodium falciparum
(3) Plasmodium malariae (4) Plasmodium ovale
ANSWER
1. (3) 2. (4) 3. (4) 4. (3) 5. (4) 6. (2) 7. (3) 8. (4)
9. (2) 10. (2) 11. (1) 12. (3) 13. (3) 14. (4) 15. (1) 16. (2)
17. (2) 18. (1) 19. (4) 20. (4) 21. (2) 22. (4) 23. (2) 24. (1)
PHYLUM PORIFERA
General Characters
 This phylum includes lowest of multicellular animals commonly called sponges.
 Term Porifera is coined by Robert Grant. Ellias placed sponges among animals. Robert Grant finally proved
animal nature of sponges.
 Study of sponges is called Parazoology.
 Sponges are often placed under a separate group called “Parazoa” which means side animals.
 Sponges have not given rise to any higher phyla so these are considered to be on a blind branch of evolutionary
tree.
 Sponges have originated from colonial choanoflagellates (protozoans) connecting link between protozoa &
porifera is Proterospongia (protozoan)
 Classification of phylum “Porifera” is on the basis of skeletal elements.
 Sponges originated some 600 million years ago. About 10,000 species of sponges are present today. Sponges
range from 1 cm to 1 m in size.
Characteristic features
 Multicellular with cellular level of organization. Cell aggregate body plan and acoelomate. No distinct tissues
or organs.
 All sponges are aquatic mostly marine few freshwater. Family spongillidae of class. Demospongiae has nearly
150 fresh water species.
 Adult sponges are sessile or sedentary and are found attached to rocks. Larvae of sponges are motile
(sponges are sessile as adult but motile as larva.)
 Body form vase like, cylindrical, tubular, cushion shaped etc.
 These could be solitary i.e. present singly (Euplectella) or colonial i.e. present in colony (Leucosolenia)
[Scypha may be solitary or form a colony by budding]
 Cells are loosely arranged and do not form definite layers, hence these are not truly diploblastic.
 Body wall consists of two imperfect layers i.e. outer pinacoderm (epidermis) and inner choanoderm
(gastrodermis) cells of these two layers can be interchanged.
 Between these two layers is present a non cellular, non living gelatinous layer called mesenchyme or mesohyal
layer. It is secreted by both pinacoderm and choanoderm. It contains fibres, spicules and wandering cells
called amoebocytes.
 Pinacoderm has two types of cells, pinacocytes and porocytes. Pinacocytes are flat polygonal cells with
central bulge and narrow edges. These respond to external stimulus and are contractile. These can increase
or decrease overall surface area of sponge body. Certain pinacocytes are modified to form myocytes around
osculum (occasionally ostia). Certain pinacocytes are modified to form porocytes. Porocytes (pore cells) are
large tubular cells with pore or ostium in their centre.

Animal Kingdom: (Non-Chordates and Chordates)

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Animal Kingdom: (Non-Chordates and Chordates)

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Classification of Animals : Non Chordates [1]

Unit - 2 DIVERSITY IN THE LIVING WORLD

FUNDAMENTALS OF ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION

Fig. : Diagrams to illustrate differences between

1. Annelids show both external and internal segmentation.

Fig. A typical metameric

Body Cavity or Coelom

Fig. Different patterns of embryonic developments as found in pseudocoelomates, protostomes and

Fig. Generalised invertebrate organisation (diagrammatic)

Fig. Generalised vertebrate organisation (diagrammatic)

MODERN CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMAL WORLD

FIVE KINGDOMS OF LIVING WORLD

Kingdom III – Fungi

THE LIVING WORLD

MONERA PROTISTA FUNGI PLANTAE ANIMALIA

MESOZOA PARAZOA EUMETAZOA

2. Phylum Porifera DIVISIONS

3. Phylum Cnidaria SUB-DIVISIONS

ACOELOMATA PSEUDOCOELOMATA EUCOELOMATA

6. Phylum Annelida 7. Phylum Mollusca 8. Phylum Arthropoda

9. Phylum Echinodermata 10. Hemichordata 11. Phylum Chordata

 Marine pelagic form; spherical body covered by pellicle.

Fig. Noctiluca Fig. Giardia lamblia

Giardia (Grand old man of intestine)

Fig. Trypanosoma gambiense

Fig. Structure of Amoeba proteus

 A. proteus discovered by Russel von Rosenhoff (1755).

Fig. Entamoeba histolytica tructure of life cycle

Fig. Life cycle of Entamoeba histolytica

 Entamoeba has no contractile vacuole (a difference from Amoeba).

Class III : Sporozoa

1 Plasmodium vivax Benign tertian malaria

2 P. malariae Quartan fever

4 P. ovale Mild tertian fever

 Plasmodium is a digenetic, intracellular parasite found in the blood of man.

 Sexual cycle is completed in mosquito by gametogony and sporogony.

Fig. Life cycle of Plasmodium vivax

24. Benign tertian malaria is caused by

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