5/23/2011

Burton's Microbiology
for the Health Sciences
Chapter 3. Cell Structure and Taxonomy

Chapter 3 Outline
• Introduction
• Eucaryotic Cell Structure
• Procaryotic Cell Structure
• Summary of Structural Differences Between Procaryotic
and Eucaryotic Cells
• Reproduction of Organisms and Their Cells
• Taxonomy
• Determining Relatedness Among Organisms

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Introduction

• The cell is the

fundamental unit of any
living organism because it
exhibits the basic
characteristics of life.

• There are two categories

of cells: eucaryotic and
procaryotic.

• Some microbes are

procaryotes (bacteria and
archaea), some are
eucaryotes (algae,
protozoa, fungi), and
some are not composed of
cells (viruses, prions,
viroids).

Acellular and Cellular Microbes

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Introduction, cont.

• Eucaryotic cells contain a “true”

nucleus, whereas procaryotic cells
do not. A true nucleus consists of
nucleoplasm, chromosomes, and
a nuclear membrane.

• Eucaryotic cells have membrane-

bound organelles, whereas
procaryotic cells do not.

• Both eucaryotic and procaryotic

cells possess a cell membrane.
Cell membranes have selective
permeability, allowing only
certain substances to pass
through them.

Eucaryotic Cell Structure

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The Eucaryotic Nucleus

• The “command center” of the cell.

• 3 components: nucleoplasm,
chromosomes, and nuclear
membrane.

• Chromosomes are embedded in

the nucleoplasm.

• Eucaryotic chromosomes consist

of linear DNA molecules and
proteins.

• Genes are located along

chromosomes. An organism's
complete collection of genes is
referred to as its genotype or
genome.

• Each gene contains the

information to produce one or
more gene products (usually
proteins).

The Eucaryotic Nucleus, cont.

• Although most genes code for
proteins, some code for 2 types of
ribonucleic acid (RNA)

– Ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA)

– Transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA)

• The number and composition of

chromosomes and the number of
genes on each chromosome are
characteristic of the particular
species of organism.

• Human diploid cells have 46

chromosomes (23 pairs).

• It has been estimated that the

human genome consists of
between 20,000 and 30,000 genes.

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Other Eucaryotic Cell Structures

• Cytoplasm
– A semi-fluid, gelatinous, nutrient
matrix

– Contains storage granules and a

variety of organelles

– Each organelle has a specific

function

– The cytoplasm is where most

metabolic reactions occur

– Onion Cytoplasmic Streaming

http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=iNX9fP1yfT8

Other Eucaryotic Cell Structures

• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
– A highly convoluted
system of membranes
arranged to form a
transport network in the
cytoplasm
– Rough ER has ribosomes
attached to it; smooth ER
does not
• Ribosomes
– Consist of ribosomal RNA
and protein
– The sites of protein
synthesis

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Ribosomes

Prokaryotic vs.
Ribosome Eukaryotic Ribosome

Other Eucaryotic Cell Structures, cont.

• Golgi Complex
– Also called the
Golgi apparatus or
Golgi body
– Connects or
communicates with
ER
– Completes the
transformation of
newly synthesized
proteins and
packages them for
storage or export
(“packaging
plants”)

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Other Eucaryotic Cell

Structures, cont.
• Lysosomes and Peroxisomes
– Originate in the Golgi
complex
– Lysosomes contain
lysozyme and other
digestive enzymes
– Peroxisomes are
membrane-bound
vesicles where H2O2 is
generated and broken
down

Other Eucaryotic Cell Structures, cont.

• Mitochondria
– “Power plants,”
“powerhouses,” or
“energy factories”
– ATP molecules are
produced within
mitochondria by
cellular respiration
– Number of
mitochondria varies
depending on
activities of the cell

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Bacterium and Mitochondria

Other Eucaryotic Cell Structures, cont.

• Plastids
– Membrane-bound
structures containing
photosynthetic pigments
– They are sites of
photosynthesis
– Chloroplasts are a type
of plastid; they contain
chlorophyll

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Other Eucaryotic Cell Structures, cont.

• Cytoskeleton
– A system of fibers
throughout the
cytoplasm
– 3 types of fibers:
microtubules,
microfilaments and
intermediate filaments
– Microtubules and
microfilaments are
essential for a variety of
activities

Other Eucaryotic Cell

Structures, cont.

• Cell wall
– Some eucaryotic
cells contain cell
walls – an
external structure
to provide shape,
protection, and
rigidity
– Simpler in
structure than
procaryotic cell
walls
– Chitin found in cell
walls of fungi;
cellulose in cell
walls of algae and
plants

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Plant vs. Zombies…I mean Bacteria

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Other Eucaryotic Cell Structures, cont.

• Flagella and Cilia (contain microtubules)
– Some eucaryotic cells (e.g., spermatozoa and certain
protozoa) possess long, thin, whiplike organelles of
locomotion called flagella.
– Flagellated cells may possess one or more flagella.
– Some cells move by means of cilia, which are
shorter, thinner, and more numerous than flagella;
described as being “hair-like.”
– Cilia can be found on some species of protozoa and
certain types of cells in our bodies (e.g., ciliated
epithelial cells in the respiratory tract).

Cilia
Cross sections of cilia showing the 9 + 2 arrangement of microtubules.

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Procaryotic Cell Structure

• Procaryotic cells are about 10 times smaller than
eucaryotic cells.
• Procaryotic cells are simple compared to eucaryotic cells.
• Procaryotic cells reproduce by binary fission.
• All bacteria are procaryotes, as are archaea.
• Unlike eucaryotic cells, the cytoplasm of eucaryotic cells
is not filled with internal membranes.
• The cytoplasm of procaryotic cells is surrounded by a cell
membrane, a cell wall (usually), and sometimes a
capsule or slime layer.

Procaryotic Cell

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Procaryotic Cell
Structure, cont.
• Chromosome
– Procaryotic
chromosome
usually consists of
a single, long,
supercoiled, circular
DNA molecule –
serves as the
control center of
the cell
– Plasmids are small
circular molecules
of DNA that are not
part of the
chromosome
(extra-
chromosomal)

Procaryotic Cell Structure, cont.

• Cell membrane
– Similar in structure and
function to the
eucaryotic cell
membrane
– Selectively permeable
– Many enzymes are
attached to the cell
membrane and
metabolic reactions take
place there

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Procaryotic Cell Structure, cont.

• Cytoplasm
– Semi-liquid that consists of water, enzymes, waste
products, nutrients, proteins, carbohydrates and
lipids – materials required for metabolic functions
• Cytoplasmic particles
– Most are ribosomes, some of which occur in clusters
– Eucaryotic ribosomes are smaller than procaryotic
ribosomes, but their function is the same – they are
the sites of protein synthesis

Procaryotic Cell Structure, cont.

• Bacterial Cell Wall
– A rigid exterior that defines the shape of bacterial
cells – chemically complex
– Main constituent of most bacterial cell walls is
peptidoglycan (only found in bacteria)
– Gram-positive bacteria have a thick layer of
peptidoglycan; Gram-negative bacteria have a much
thinner layer
– Mycoplasma spp. do not have a cell wall; they are
pleomorphic

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Gram-negative and Gram-positive Cell Walls

Bacterial Cell Walls

A. Gram-positive bacterium B. Gram-negative bacterium

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Gram + vs. Gram -

Gram’s Stain

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Procaryotic Cell Structure, cont.

• Glycocalyx (Slime Layers and
Capsules)

– Some bacteria possess

glycocalyx, a slimy, gelatinous
material produced by the cell
membrane and secreted outside
the cell wall

– 2 types of glycocalyx – slime

layer (loosely connected to the
cell wall) and capsule (highly
organized and firmly connected)

• Pseudomonas spp. produces

a slime layer

• K. pneumoniae, N.
meningitidis and S.
pneumoniae possess a
capsule, which serves an
antiphagocytic function

Capsule Stain
(Example of a negative staining technique)

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Procaryotic Cell Structure, cont.

• Flagella
– Motile bacteria possess flagella – whiplike
appendages composed of threads of protein called
flagellin
– Number and arrangement of flagella are
characteristic of a particular species:
• Peritrichous bacteria – flagella over entire surface
• Lophotrichous bacteria – flagella at one end
• Amphitrichous bacteria – flagella at both ends
• Monotrichous bacteria – single polar flagellum

Four Basic Types of Flagellar Arrangement on Bacteria

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A Peritrichous Salmonella Cell

Procaryotic Cell Structure (continued)

• Pili (also called fimbriae)
– Hair-like structures, most often observed on Gram-
negative bacteria
– Composed of polymerized protein molecules called
pilin
– Pili are thinner than flagella, have a rigid structure
and are not associated with motility
– Pili enable bacteria to anchor themselves to surfaces
– Some bacteria possess a sex pilus for conjugation

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Proteus vulgaris cell, showing pili and several flagella

Pili

Flagella

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Procaryotic Cell Structure, cont.

• Spores (Endospores)
– A few genera (e.g., Bacillus and Clostridium) are capable
of forming thick-walled spores as a means of survival
– The process of spore formation is called sporulation – it is
not reproduction
– Spores have been shown to survive for many years and
are resistant to heat, cold, drying, and most chemicals
– Usually one spore is produced in a bacterial cell and
generates into one vegetative bacterium
– Endospores can be visualized using a spore stain

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A Bacillus Cell With a Well-Defined Endospore

Endospore

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Recap of Structural Differences Between

Procaryotic and Eucaryotic Cells
• Eucaryotic cells contain a true nucleus; procaryotic cells
do not.
• Eucaryotic cells are divided into plant and animal types
– Animal cells do not have a cell wall, plant cells have
a simple cell wall.
• Eucaryotic cells contain membranous structures and
many membrane-bound organelles; procaryotic cells
possess no membranes other than the cell membrane
that encloses the cytoplasm

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Reproduction of Organisms and Their Cells

• Procaryotic Cell Reproduction
– Procaryotic cells reproduce by a process known as
binary fission – one cell splits in half to become two
daughter cells.
• Before a procaryotic cell divides in half, the
chromosome must be duplicated.
– The time it takes for binary fission to occur is called
the generation time.
• Generation time varies from one species to
another and depends on growth conditions (under
ideal conditions, E. coli has a generation time of
about 20 minutes).

Binary Fission of a Bacterial Cell

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Taxonomy
• Taxonomy is the science of
classification of living organisms.
• Taxonomy consists of
classification, nomenclature, and
identification.
• Classification is the arrangement
of organisms into taxonomic
groups (known as taxa).
• Tool for remembering the
sequence of Taxa
– “King David Came Over for
Good Spaghetti” KDCOFGS,
K for Kingdom, D for
Division, C for Class, O for
Order, F for Family, G for
Genus and S for species.

Microbial Classification
• The science of taxonomy was
established based on the binomial
system of nomenclature.

• In the binomial system, each

organism is given 2 names –
genus and the specific epithet.
Taken together, both names
constitute the species.

– For example, Escherichia coli;

Escherichia is the genus and
coli is the specific epithet.

– The genus is frequently

abbreviated with just a single
letter, (e.g., E for
Escherichia).

• The abbreviation “sp.” is used to

designate a single species and
“spp.” for more than one species.

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Microbial Classification
• Organisms are categorized into larger
groups based on their similarities and
differences.

• The Five-Kingdom System of

Classification
1. Bacteria and archaea – Kingdom
Procaryotae
2. Algae and protozoa – Kingdom
Protista
3. Fungi – Kingdom Fungi
4. Plants – Kingdom Plantae
5. Animals – Kingdom Animalia
• Viruses are not included because they
are acellular.
• Other systems of classification do exist.

Microbial Classification
(continued)
• The Three-Domain System
of Classification
1. Archaea (procaryotic)
2. Bacteria (procaryotic)
3. Eucarya (all eucaryotic
organisms)
• The Three-Domain System
is based on differences in
the structure of certain
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
molecules among
organisms in the 3
domains.

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Determining Relatedness Among Organisms

• The most widely used technique for gauging diversity or

“relatedness” of organisms is called ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) sequencing.
• Ribosomes are composed of two subunits; a small
subunit and a large subunit.
• The small subunit is composed of only one rRNA
molecule, which is coded for by a gene called the 16S
rRNA gene in procaryotes and the 18S rRNA gene in
eucaryotes.

Determining Relatedness Among

Organisms, cont.
• To determine how closely
related one procaryotic
organism is to another,
scientists compare the
sequence of nucleotide base
pairs in the 16S rRNA gene
from one of the organisms to
the sequence of base pairs in
the 16S rRNA gene from the
other organisms.
• The more similar the
sequence of base pairs, the
more closely related are the
organisms.

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