`` UNIT-2

1. Derive the field components and draw the field pattern for two point source with
spacing of λ/2 and fed with current of equal n magnitude but out of phase by 1800 ?

Ans: Arrays of two point sources with equal amplitude and opposite phase:
In this, point source 1 is out of phase or opposite phase (180°) to source 2 i.e. when there is
maximum in source 1 at one particular instant, and then there is minimum in source 2 at that instant and
vice-versa.
Referring to Fig.1.1 the total far field at distant point P , is given by

E = (-Eie-φj/2) + (+ E2e+φi/2)

But E1=E2=E0 (say)

𝑗𝜑 −𝑗𝜑
𝑒 2 −𝑒 2
Then E=E0 2j( )
2𝑗

E=2jE0 sinφ/2……………. (1.1a)

𝛽𝑑
E=2jE0sin( 2 cosθ) ………. (1.1b)

Let d = λ/2 and 2E0 j = 1

Enorm, = sin (π/2 COS θ) …………………….. (1.2)

Maximum directions: Maximum value of sine function is ± 1

sin (π/2 cosθ) = ± 1
(П/2 cosθmax) = ± (2 n + 1) n / 2 where n = 0, 1, 2
(cosθmax) = ± 1 if n = 0
θmax= 0° and 180°…………….. (1.3 a)
Minima directions: Minimum value of a sine function is 0

sin (π/2 cosθ) = 0

π/2 cosθmin = ± nπ where n = 0, 1, 2……..

COS θmin = 0

Therefore θmin= 90° and -90° ……………….. (1.3b)

Half power point directions:

1
sin (П /2 cosθ) = ±
√2
П/2 cosθHPPD = ± ( 2 n + 1) π/4
П/2 cosθHPPD = ± π / 4 i f n = 0
1
cosθHPPD = ±
2
θHPPD = 60°, ± 120° ………………………… (1.3c)
 From these, it is possible to draw the field pattern which is as shown in Fig.1.2

It is seen that maxima have shifted 90° along X-axis in comparison to in-phase field pattern. The
figure is horizontal figure of 8 and 3-dimensional space pattern is obtained by rotating it along X -axis.
Once the arrangement gives maxima along line joining the two sources and hence this is one of the
s i m p l e s t t yp e o f "End fire" 'Array' .

2. What is the necessity of an array? Explain the three different types of array with
regard to beam pointing direction
Ans: Antenna Array
This is one of the common methods of combining the radiations from a group of similar antennas
in which the wave-interference phenomenon is involved. The field strength can be increased in preferred
directions by properly exciting group or array of antennas simultaneously, such as arrangement is known
as antenna array. Array of antenna is an arrangement, of several individual antennas so spaced and
phased that their individual contributions coming in one preferred direction and cancel in all other
directions, which will be going to increase the directivity of the system.
The different types of arrays with regard to beam pointing direction are as follows,
1 . Broadside array
2. End fire array
. 3. Collinear array.
1. Broadside Array
Broadside array is one of the most commonly used antenna array in practice. The array in which a
number of identical parallel antennas are arranged along a line perpendicular to the line of array axis is
known as broadside array, which is shown in figure (2.1). In this, the individual antennas are equally
spaced along a line and each element is fed with current of equal magnitude, all in the same phase.
 The radiation pattern of broadside array is bidirectional, which radiates equally well in either
direction of maximum radiation.

2. End Fire Array

The array in which a number of identical antennas are spaced equally along a line and
individual elements are fed with currents of unequal phases (i.e., with a phase shift of 180°) is known
as end fire array .This array is similar to that of broadside array except that individual elements are
fed in with, a phase shift of 180 .In this, the direction of radiation is coincides with the direction of the
array axis, which is shown in figure (2.2)

The radiation pattern of end fire array is unidirectional. But, the end fire array may be
bidirectional also. One such example is a two element array, fed with equal current, 180° out of phase.
3. C o l l i n e a r A r r a y
The array in which antennas are arranged end to end in a single line is known as collinear array.
Figure (2.3), shows the arrangement of collinear array, in which one antenna is stacked over another
antenna. Similar to that of broadside array, the individual elements of the collinear array are fed with
equal in phase currents. A collinear array is a broadside radiator, in which the direction of maximum
radiation is perpendicular to the line of antenna. The collinear array is sometimes called as broadcast or
Omni directional arrays because its radiation pattern has circular symmetry with its main to be
everywhere perpendicular to the principal axis.

3. Explain the principal of pattern multiplication .What is the effect of earth

of radiation pattern of antennas?

Ans: Multiplication of Patterns ,

The total field pattern of an array of non-isotropic but similar sources is the multiplication of the
individual source pattern and the pattern of an array of isotropic point sources each located at the phase
centre of individual source and having the relative amplitude and phase, where as the total phase
patterns is the addition of the phase pattern of the individual sources and the array of isotropic point
sources. Total field by an array is defined as

E = { E0(θ,φ) x Ei(θ,φ)} x { Epi(θ,φ)+ Epa(θ,φ) }

= (Multiplication of field patterns) (Addition of phase patterns)

Where
E - Total field

E0(θ,φ) = Field pattern of individual source

Ei(θ,φ) = Field pattern of array of isotropic point source

Epi(θ,φ)= Phase pattern of individual source

Epa(θ,φ)= Phase pattern of array of isotropic point sources.

Hence, θ and φ are polar and azimuth angles respectively.

The principle of multiplication of pattern is best suited for any number of similar sources. Considering a
two dimensional case, the resulting pattern is given by the equation,

E = 2 E0 cosφ /2

E = 2 E1 sinθ cosφ /2.

E = E (θ) cosφ /2

It can be seen that E0 is a function of E (θ). In the above equation the total field pattern is equal to the
product of primary pattern E (θ) and a secondary pattern cosφ/2.

Effect of Earth on the Radiation Pattern

The effect of earth on the radiation pattern can be obtained by using an image principle. In image
principle, earth is considered as an image antenna of same length and current as shown in the figure
(3.1).

For vertical antenna, currents in actual and image antennas are equal and have same direction, whereas
opposite direction for horizontal antenna. The resultant field is obtained by the addition of field of an
image antenna to that of an actual antenna. The shape of the vertical pattern is affected more than the
horizontal pattern

Effect of Earth on the Radiation Pattern of Vertical Antenna

The ground-effect factor of a perfectly conducting earth is given as,

2Пℎ
2cos[ sinφ0 ]
𝜆
Where,

h = Height of the center of antenna above earth

φ = Elevation angle above horizontal.

But, for the case of finite conducting of earth, the above given expression is valid for large angles of φ0.
Whereas, for low angles of φ0, less than 15° known as "Pseudo-Brewster angle", the phase of the
reflection factor is nearer to 180° than it is to 0° and the use of above equation would lead to erroneous
result.

The effect of earth on radiation pattern can be explained by taking different cases of conductivities (σ).
The function ‘n’ is defined as,
𝑥
n=
𝜖𝑟

Where, x=σ/ω𝜖𝑣

σ = conductivity of the earth in mho/meter

𝜖𝑟 =15, Relative dielectric of the earth.\

The vertical radiation pattern of a vertical dipole is a shown in the fig 3.2
Effect of Earth on the Radiation Pattern of Horizontal Antenna

The effect of ground is obtained by multiplying free-space pattern and ground factor, i.e.
2Пℎ
2cos[ sinφ0 ]
𝜆

The first maxima in this pattern occurs at,

sinφ0 = λ/4h (h> λ/4)

The effect of earth on the vertical pattern perpendicular to the axis of dipole is as shown in figure3.4.
4. Explain about radiation pattern of 4-isotropic and 8-isotropic elements fed in
phase, spaced λ/2 apart?

Ans: Radiation Pattern of 4-isotropic elements fed in phase, spaced λ/2 apart:
Let the 4--elements of isotropic (or non-directive) radiators are in a linear arrays (Fig. 4.1) in elements are placed
at a distance of λ/2 and are fed in phase, i.e. α = 0. One of the method to get the radiation pattern of the array is to
add the fields of individual four elements at a distance point P vectorially but instead an alternative method, using
the principle of multiplicity of pattern, will be shown to get the same

The radiation pattern of two isotropic radiation spaced λ apart, fed in phase is known to be as shown in Fig. 4.2

Now elements (1) and (2) are considered as one unit and is considered to be placed between the midway of the
elements and so also the elements (3) and (4) as another unit assumed to be placed between the two elements as
shown in fig 4.2.

Thus 4 elements spaced λ/2 have been replaced by two units spaced λ and by doing so, the problem of
determining radiation of 4 elements has reduced to find out the radiation pattern of two antennas spaced λ apart
Then according to multiplicity of pattern. The resultant radiation pattern of 4 elements is obtained by multiplying
the radiation pattern of individual element Fig 4.3 (b) and array of two units spaced λ.

In place of isotropic (non-directional) if the array is replaced by an non-isotropic (i.e. directional) antennas, then
the radiation pattern Fig. 4.2 must be accordingly modified.

Radiation pattern of 8-isotropic elements fed in phase, spaced λ/2 apart. As above the principle can
be applied to broad-side linear array of 8-isotropic elements also as shown in Fig. 4.5 In this case 4-
isotropic elements are assumed to be one unit and then to find the radiation pattern of two such units
paced a distance 2λ apart. The radiation pattern of isotropic element is just seen in Fig. 4.4
Thus the radiation pattern of 8 isotropic elements is obtained by multiplying the unit pattern of 4
individual elements as already obtained in Fig. 4.4 and Group pattern of two isotropic radiators spaced
2λ is as shown in Fig. 4.6 and hence the resultant (Fig. 4.7).

5. What is uniform linear array? Discuss the application of linear array? and also
explain the advantages and disadvantage of linear array?

Ans: In general single element antennas having non uniform radiation pattern are used in several
broadcast services. But this type of radiation pattern is not useful in point-to-point communication and
services that require to radiate most of the energy in one particular direction i.e., there are applications
where we need high directive antennas. This type of radiation pattern is achieved by a mechanism called
antenna array. An antenna array consists of identical antenna elements with identical orientation
distributed in space. The individual antennas radiate and their radiation is coherently added in space to
form the antenna beam.
In a linear array, the individual antennas of the array are equally spaced along a straight line. This
individual antennas of an array are also known as elements. A linear array is said to be uniform linear
array, if each element in the array is.fed with a current of equal magnitude with progressive phase shift
(phase shift between adjacent antenna elements).

Application of Linear Array

1. Adaptive linear arrays are used extensively in wireless communication to reduce interference between
desired users and interfering signals.
2. Many linear arrays spaced parallel on the common plane create a planar array antenna. These are used
in mobile radar equipment.
3. The linear array is most often used to generate-a fan beam and is useful where broad coverage in one
plane and narrow beam width in the orthogonal plane are desired.
4. Linear arrays can be made extremely compact and .are therefore very attractive for shipboard
applications.
The advantages and disadvantages of linear arrays are as follows.

Advantages

1. Increases the overall gain. .

2. Provide diversity receptions.
3. Cancel out interference from a particular set of directions.
4."Steer" the array so that it is more sensitive in a particular direction.
5. Determines the direction of arrival of the incoming signals.
6. It maximize the Signal to Interference plus Noise ratio
Disadvantages

1. Ray deflection only in a single plane possible.

2. Complicated arrangement and more electronically controlled phase shifter needed. ;
3. Field view is restricted.
4. Considerable minor lobes are formed.
5. Large power loss due to current flowing in all elements.
6. Overall efficiency decreases.
7. Costly to implement.

6. What is the optimum spacing in parasitic array? why?

A n s : The simplest case of a parasitic array is one driven element and one parasitic element and this
may be considered as two element array. A parasitic array consists of one or more driven element and
a number of parasitic elements. Hence in parasitic arrays there are one or more parasitic elements and
at least one driven element to introduce power in the array.
 A parasitic array with linear half-wave dipole as elements is normally called as "Yagi-
Uda" or simply "Yagi" antenna after the name of inventor S.Uda (Japanese) and H. Yagi
(English).
The amplitude and phase of the current introduced in a parasitic element depends on its tuning and
the spacing between parasitic element and driven element to which it is coupled. A variation in the
distance between driven element and parasitic element changes the relative phases and this proves to be
very convenient. It helps in making the radiation pattern unidirectional. A distance of λ/4 and phase
difference of П/2 radian (or 90°), for example, provides a unidirectional pattern.

7. What is linear array? Compare Broad side array and End fire array?
Ans :
Linear arrays: The arrays in which the individual antennas (called as elements) are equally spaced
along a straight line are called as linear arrays. Thus, linear antenna array is a system of equally spaced
elements.

Broad side array End fire array

1. The array is said to be broad side array, if the 1. The array is said to be end fire array, if
direction of maximum radiation is perpendicular maximum radiation is along the array axis.
to the array axis.

2. In broad side, phase difference α = 0 2. In end fire, phase difference between adjacent
element is α= -βd
3.General equation for pattern maxima is 3. General expression for pattern maxima is,
1 (2𝑁+1)П
(θmax)minor=cos-1 {𝛽𝑑 [∓ − 𝛼]} (2𝑁+1)П
𝑛 (θmax)minor=cos-1 [∓ + 1]
𝛽𝑑𝑛

4.general Expression for pattern minima is,

4.Genaral expression for pattern minima is,
𝑁𝜆
(θmin)major=cos-1 {∓ 𝑛𝑑 } 𝑁𝜆
θ min =2sin-1[∓√2𝑛𝑑]

5.Half power beam width is given by, 5.Halfpower beam width is given by,
57.3
HPBW= 𝐿 degree 2
[ ]
𝜆
HPBW=57.3√ 𝐿 degree
[ ]
𝜆

6.Directivity of broad side array is ,

6.Directivity of end fire array is,
𝐿
𝐿 D= 4[𝜆]
D=2[𝜆]
L=Length of array
L=Length of array

7.Beam width between first nulls is,

7.Beam width between first nulls is
114.6
BWFN= 𝐿 degree 2
[ ] BWFN=114.6√ 𝐿 degree
𝜆
𝜆

8. In broad side array, all elements are equally 8. In End fire array, all elements are equally
spaced along the array axis and fed with current of spaced along the array axis and fed with current of
equal magnitude and same phase. equal magnitude but their phases are different.

9. Radiation pattern of broad side array is

bidirectional 9. Radiation pattern of broad side array is
Unidirectional

10.In broad side array,

φ =βdcosθ+α (since α=0) 10.In end fire array,
Therefore φ =βdcosθ+α (since α=-βd)
φ =βdcosθ
Therefore
φ =βd(cosθ-1)
8. What are the various difference between binomial and linear arrays?
Ans:

Binomial Array Linear Array

1. The binomial array is one in which all the 1. In antenna array if the individual antennas
elements are fed with currents of non-uniform are equal spaced in a straight line, then it is said to
amplitude. be linear array.

2. Elements are fed with unequal amplitude.

2. If elements are fed with equal amplitude, it is
called as uniform linear array.
3. We use Pascal triangle to select the coefficient or
3. We do not use Pascal triangle,
amplitudes of elements.
4. Principle of multiplication of pattern is
4. Principle of multiplication of pattern is used for
used for derivation of pattern.
derivation of pattern.
5.Secondary lobes appear in the radiation
5. Secondary lobes does not appear in the radiation
pattern
pattern.

6. HPBW increases and directivity decreases. 6. HPBW is less compared to binomial array.

For Example: For 5 element array with λ/2 For Example: For 5 "element array with λ/2
spacing HPBW = 31° spacing HPBW=230.

7. Design is complex for large array due to large 7. Design is simple for large array due to
amplitude ratio. uniform amplitude

9. Explain the concept of scanning arrays and What the requirement of tapering of
arrays is
Ans: In broad side (or) end fire array, the maximum radiation occurs in a specific direction. In
broad side array, the direction of radiation pattern is perpendicular to the array axis whereas in end fire
array radiation pattern is normal, to the array axis.

It is possible to change the orientation of maximum radiation in any direction with the help of scanning
(or) phased arrays

Let,
θ0=Orientation angle
Therefore Phase difference (α) can be calculated by,
 y = (βdcosθ+ α)θ=θ0

0= βdcosθ+ α

α = - βdcosθ0
From above equation, the phase difference is directly proportional to the orientation angle. By
maintaining the proper phase difference between the elements, desired radiation can be obtained in any
direction
\ The basic principle of scanning and phased array is to get the maximum radiation in any direction

Tapering of Arrays:

The bidirectional patterns of antennas contain minor lobes in addition to major lobes. These minor lobes
not only waste the amount of power but cause interference thus they are undesirable. The interference is
severe in case of radar applications where it may cause improper detection of the target object.

Tapering is a technique in which currents or amplitudes are fed non-uniformly in the sources of a linear
array. If the centre source is made to radiate more strongly than the end sources, the level of minor lobes
are reduced.

Minor lobes are the lobes other than major lobes in the radiation pattern and the minor lobes
adjacent to major lobes are called side lobes. By tapering of arrays from centre to end according to some
prescription reduces the side lobe level. I f the tapering amplitudes follow coefficients of binomial series
or Tchebyscheff polynomial, then accordingly the arrays are known as binomial arrays or dolph
Tchebyscheff arrays respectively.

NOTE:
This technique is primarily intended for broadside arrays and also applicable to end fire arrays
because the side lobe ratio in case of broadside arrays is approximately 20 or 13 dB.

10. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of binomial array? and also Explain
the procedure for measuring the radiation pattern of half wave dipole?
Ans:
Advantages of Binomial Array

1. The binomial array is one in which all the elements are fed with current of non uniform amplitude
such that it reduces minor lobes.

2. Hence, we use Pascal triangle to select the coefficient or amplitudes of elements.

3. Hence, we use Pascal triangle to select the coefficient or amplitudes of elements.

4. Secondary lobes do not appear in the radiation pattern.

Disadvantages of Binomial Array.

1. HPBW increases and hence the directivity decreases.

2. Large amplitude ratio is required for a design of a large array

Procedure for Measuring the Radiation Pattern of a Half Wave Dipole

1. Initially, the primary half wave dipole i.e., dipole antenna under test must be kept stationary where as
the secondary half wave dipole i.e., dipole antenna with known radiation pattern is transported around
along a circular path at a constant distance.

2. If the secondary half wave dipole antenna is directional, then it is kept aimed at primary half wave
dipole antenna so that only primary half wave dipole antenna pattern will affect the result.

3. Basically, primary half wave dipole antenna may be a transmitting antenna (not a compulsion).
4. The field strength readings and direction of the secondary half wave dipole antenna with respect to
primary half wave dipole antenna are recorded along the circle at different points.

5. Finally, using the readings of field strengths at a number of points the plot of radiation pattern of
primary half wave dipole antenna is made either in rectangular form or in polar form.