Question & Answers On Steam Turbines: 1. What Is A Stage in A Steam Turbine?

Question & Answers on Steam Turbines
1. What is a stage in a steam turbine?
Answer:
In an impulse turbine, the stage is a set of moving blades

behind the nozzle. In a reaction turbine, each row of blades
is called a "stage." A single Curtis stage may consist of two
or more rows of moving blades.
2. What is a diaphragm?
Answer:
Partitions between pressure stages in a turbine's casing are

called diaphragms. They hold the vane-shaped nozzles and
seals between the stages. Usually labyrinth-type seals are
used. One-half of the diaphragm is fitted into the top of the
casing, the other half into the bottom.
3. What is a radial-flow turbine?
Answer:
In a radial-flow turbine, steam flows outward from the shaft to

the casing. The unit is usually a reaction unit, having both
fixed and moving blades. They are used for special jobs and
are more common to European manufacturers, such as Sta-
Laval (now ABB).
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4. What are four types of turbine seals?
Answers:
1. Carbon rings fitted in segments around the shaft and

held together by garter or retainer springs.
2. Labyrinth mated with shaft serration’s or shaft seal
strips.
3. Water seals where a shaft runner acts as a pump to
create a ring of water around the shaft. Use only
treated water to avoid shaft pitting.
4. Stuffing box using woven or soft packing rings that are
compressed with a gland to prevent leakage along the
shaft.
5. In which turbine is tip leakage a problem?
Answer:
Tip leakage is a problem in reaction turbines. Here, each

vane forms a nozzle; steam must flow through the moving
nozzle to the fixed nozzle. Steam escaping across the tips of
the blades represents a loss of work. Therefore, tip seals are
used prevent this.
6. What are two types of clearance in a turbine?
Answer:
1. Radial - clearance at the tips of the rotor and casing.

2. Axial - the fore-and-aft clearance, at the sides of the
rotor and the casing.
7. What are four types of thrust hearings?
2
Answer:
1. Babbitt-faced collar bearings.

2. Tilting pivotal pads.
3. Tapered land bearings.
4. Rolling-contact (roller or ball) bearings.
8. What is the function of a thrust bearing?
Answer:
Thrust bearings keep the rotor in its correct axial position.
9. What is a balance piston?
Answer:
Reaction turbines have axial thrust because pressure on the

entering side is greater than pressure on the leaving side of
each stage. To counteract this force, steam is admitted to a
dummy (balance) piston chamber at the low-pressure end of
the rotor. Some designers also use a balance piston on
impulse turbines that have a high thrust. Instead of piston,
seal strips are also used to duplicate a piston's counter force.
10. Why should a steam or moisture separator be

installed in the steam line next to a steam turbine?
Answer:
All multistage turbines, low-pressure turbines, and turbines

operating at high pressure with saturated steam should have
a moisture separator in order to prevent rapid blade wear
from water erosion.
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11. What are some conditions that may prevent a
turbine from developing full power?
Answers:
1. The machine is overloaded.

2. The initial steam pressure and temperature are not up
to design conditions.
3. The exhaust pressure is too high.
4. The governor is set too low.
5. The steam strainer is clogged.
6. Turbine nozzles are clogged with deposits.
7. Internal wear on nozzles and blades.
12. Why is it necessary to open casing drains and
drains on the steam line going to the turbine when a
turbine is to be started?
Answers:
To avoid slugging nozzles and blades inside the turbine with

condensate on start-up; this can break these components
from impact. The blades were designed to handle steam, not
water.
13. What is steam rate as applied to turbo-generators?
Answer:
The steam rate is the pounds of steam that must be supplied

per kilowatt-hour of generator output at the steam turbine
inlet.
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14. What are the two basic types of steam turbines?
Answers:
1. Impulse type.
2. Reaction type.
15. What is the operating principle of an impulse
turbine?
Answer:
The basic idea of an impulse turbine is that a jet of steam

from a fixed nozzle pushes against the rotor blades and
impels them forward. The velocity of the steam is about twice
as fast as the velocity of the blades. Only turbines utilizing
fixed nozzles are classified as impulse turbines.
16. What is the operating principle of a reaction

turbine?
Answer:
A reaction turbine utilizes a jet of steam that flows from a

nozzle on the rotor. Actually, the steam is directed into the
moving blades by fixed blades designed to expand the
steam. The result is a small increase in velocity over that of
the moving blades. These blades form a wall of moving
nozzles that further expand the steam. The steam flow is
partially reversed by the moving blades, producing a reaction
on the blades. Since the pressure drop is small across each
row of nozzles (blades), the speed is comparatively low.
5
Therefore, more rows of moving blades are needed than in
an impulse turbine.
17. What are topping and superposed turbines?
Answer:
Topping and superposed turbines arc high-pressure, non-

condensing units that can be added to an older, moderate-
pressure plant. Topping turbines receive high-pressure
steam from new high-pressure boilers. The exhaust steam of
the new turbine has the same pressure as the old boilers and
is used to supply the old turbines.
18. What is an extraction turbine?
Answer:
In an extraction turbine, steam is withdrawn from one or

more stages, at one or more pressures, for heating, plant
process, or feedwater heater needs. They are often called
"bleeder turbines."
19. What is a combination thrust and radial bearing?
Answer:
This unit has the ends of the babbitt bearing extended

radially over the end of the shell. Collars on the rotor face
these thrust pads, and the journal is supported in the bearing
between the thrust collars.
20. What is a tapered-land thrust bearing?
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Answer:
The babbitt face of a tapered-land thrust bearing has a series

of fixed pads divided by radial slots. The leading edge of
each sector is tapered, allowing an oil wedge to build up and
carry the thrust between the collar and pad.
21. What is important to remember about radial

bearings?
Answer:
A turbine rotor is supported by two radial bearings, one on

each end of the steam cylinder. These bearings must be
accurately aligned to maintain the close clearance between
the shaft and the shaft seals, and between the rotor and the
casing. If excessive bearing wear lowers the he rotor, great
harm can be done to the turbine.
22. How many governors are needed for safe turbine

operation? Why?
Answer:
Two independent governors are needed for safe turbine

operation. One is an overspeed or emergency trip that shuts
off the steam at 10 percent above running speed (maximum
speed). The second, or main governor, usually controls
speed at a constant rate; however, many applications have
variable speed control.
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23. How is a flyball governor used with a hydraulic
control?
Answer:
As the turbine speeds up, the weights are moved outward by

centrifugal force, causing linkage to open a pilot valve that
admits and releases oil on either side of a piston or on one
side of a spring-loaded piston. The movement of the piston
controls the steam valves.
24. What is a multi-port governor valve? Why is it

used?
Answer:
In large turbines, a valve controls steam flow to groups of

nozzles. The number of open valves controls the number of
nozzles in use according to the load. A bar-lift or cam
arrangement operated by the governor opens and closes
these valves in sequence. Such a device is a multi-port
valve. Using nozzles at full steam pressure is more efficient
than throttling the steam.
25. What is meant by critical speed?
Answer:
It is the speed at which the machine vibrates most violently.

It is due to many causes, such as imbalance or harmonic
vibrations set up by the entire machine. To minimize
damage, the turbine should be hurried through the known
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critical speed as rapidly as possible. (Caution, be sure the
vibration is caused by critical speed and not by some other
trouble).
26. How is oil pressure maintained when starting or

stopping a medium-sized turbine?
Answer:
An auxiliary pump is provided to maintain oil pressure. Some

auxiliary pumps are turned by a hand crank; others are
motor-driven. This pump is used when the integral pump is
running too slowly to provide pressure, as when starting or
securing a medium-sized turbine.
27. Besides lubrication, which are two functions of

lubricating oil in some turbines?
Answer:
In large units, lube oil cools the bearings by carrying off heat
to the oil coolers. Lube oil in some turbines also acts as a
hydraulic fluid to operate the governor speed-control system.
28. What is meant by the water rite of a turbine?
Answer:
29. What is the difference between partial and full arc

admission?
Answer:
9
In multi-valve turbine inlets, partial arc ad mission allows the
steam to enter per valve opening in a sequential manner, so
as load is increased, more valves open to admit steam. This
can cause uneven heating on the high-pressure annulus as
the valves are individually opened with load increase. In full-
arc admission, all regulating valves open but only at a
percentage of their full opening. With load increase, they all
open more fully. This provides more uniform heating around
the high-pressure part of the turbine. Most modern controls
start with full-arc and switch to partial arc to reduce throttling
losses through the valves.
30. At what points does corrosion fatigue does show

up?
Answer:
It attacks trailing edges, near the base of the foil and also the
blade-root serration’s.
31. Besides lubrication, what are two functions of

lubricating oil in some turbines?
Answer:
In larger units, lube oil cools the bearings by carrying off heat
to the oil coolers. Lube oil in some turbines also acts as a
hydraulic fluid to operate the governor speed-control system.
32. But despite these preventive measures, damage

due to moisture impingement has been found, in certain
cases, in the shield and beyond. Why?
10
Answers:
1. Shields are designed and fabricated on the basis of

predicted range of steam/water quantities impacting
the blades at specific angles.
2. Now if the operating conditions deviate significantly
from design parameters then the erosion damage will
occur. And in some cases it may go beyond nominal
erosion wear and warrant repair.
3. Also the corrosion of casing can occur due to
blockage/clogging of water drains or extraction thereby
forcing the water back into the casing. If this
condensate water is carried over to steam path and
impacts the blade, thermal-fatigue failure can occur
within a short period.
33. By monitoring the exhaust steam temperature, how
can the blade deposition be predicted?
Answers:
1. Immediately after the 1st commissioning, the different

values of exhaust temperature for different steam flow
rates are precisely determined and plotted against
steam flow. This will produce the first actual graph.
This is for a clean turbine.
2. Similar graphs are to be drawn at later periods for
comparing with the initial graph.
3. A rise in exhaust steam temperature under the same
conditions refers to deposit formation.
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4. An increase of exhaust steam temperature by more
than 10% in the range of 70 to l00% steam flow,
indicates inadmissible blade depositions. Shutdown is
to be taken and blades are to be washed off deposits.
34. Do the radial axial-bore cracks occur in the LP
rotor/shaft alone?
Answer:
These are also known to occur in the HP as well as HP

rotors.
35. Do you stop cooling-water flow through a steam

condenser as soon as the turbine is slopped?
Answer:
You should keep the cooling water circulating for about 15

mill or more so that the condenser has a chance to cool
down gradually and evenly. Be sure to have cooling water
flowing through the condenser before starting up in order to
prevent live steam from entering the condenser unless it is
cooled. Overheating can cause severe leaks and other
headaches.
36. Do you think that turbine blade failure is the only

cause of unreliability of steam turbines? Does upgrading
of turbine means replacement of blades and/or
improvement of blade design?
Answers:
12
1. Like the blades, the steam-turbine rotors are highly
stressed components. They are subject to cracking by
a variety of failure mechanisms. Rotor failures do
occur. And when they occur the result is catastrophic
with the complete destruction of the unit and the total
loss of generating capacity.
2. Therefore, special attention should be given to rotor
upgrading and repairing techniques.
37. FACTORS BLADE FAILURES
Unknown 26%
Stress-Corrosion Cracking 22%
High-Cycle Fatigue 20%
Corrosion-Fatigue Cracking 7%
Temperature Creep Rupture 6%
Low-Cycle Fatigue 5%
Corrosion 4%
Other causes 10%
TOTAL 100%
1. Besides, many damage mechanisms operate in

combination of
a. poor steam/water chemistry,
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b. certain blade design factors that vary from one turbine
manufacture to other,
c. system operating parameters,
1. How can damaged tenons be repaired?
Answers:
By adopting modern welding techniques, tenons can be

rebuilt This in some cases results in extended blade life.
2. How can problems of "excessive vibration or noise" due

to piping strain be avoided on steam turbines?
Answers:
1. The inlet as well as exhaust steam lines should be

firmly supported to avoid strains from being imposed
on the turbine.
2. Adequate allowance should be made for expansion of
steam pipes due to heat.
3. How can steam turbines be classified?
Answers:
By the action of steam:
1. Impulse.
2. Reaction.
3. Impulse and reaction combined.
The number of step reductions involved:
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4. Single stage.
5. Multi-stage.
6. Whether there is one or more revolving vanes
separated by stationary reversing vanes.
The direction of steam flow:
7. Axial.
8. Radial.
9. Mixed.
10. Tangential.
11. Helical.
12. Reentry.
The inlet steam pressure:
13. High pressure.

14. Medium pressure.
15. Low pressure.
The final pressure:
16. Condensing.
17. Non-condensing.
The source of steam:
18. Extraction.
19. Accumulator.
4. How can the deposits be removed?
Answers:
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1. Water soluble deposits may be washed off with
condensate or wet steam.
2. Water insoluble deposits are removed mechanically
after dismantling the turbine.
3. Experience shows that water soluble deposits are
embedded in layers of water-insoluble deposits. And
when the washing process is carried out, water soluble
parts of the deposit dissolve away leaving a loose,
friable skeleton of water-insoluble deposits which then
break loose and wash away.
5. How can the detection of deposits in a turbine be made
during operation?
Answers:
1. Pressure monitoring.
2. Internal efficiency monitoring.
3. Monitoring exhaust steam temperature.
4. Monitoring specific steam consumption.
6. How can the disadvantages of the impulse turbine
question 7 be overcome?
Answers:
1. Velocity compounding
2. Pressure compounding
3. Pressure-Velocity compounding.
7. How can the fatigue damage on high-pressure blades be
corrected?
Answers:
16
Fatigue-damage on high-pressure blades arises due to
vibration induced by partial-arc admission. This can be
corrected by switching over to full arc admission technique.
8. How can the misalignment be rectified?
Answer:
The bolts holding the flanges together are to be tightened.

The coupling is to be checked for squareness between the
bore and the face. At the same time axial clearance is to be
checked. Using gauge block and feeler gauges, the gap
between coupling faces 1800 apart is to be measured. After
rotating the coupling-half 1800, the gap at the same points is
to be measured. After this, the other coupling is to be rotated
1800 and the gap at the same points is to be re-measured.
These measures should come within a few thousands of an
inch. Dividing the coupling faces into four intervals, the
distance between the coupling faces at this intervals is to be
measured with the aid of a gauge block and feeler gauges.
These gap measurements should come within 0.005 inch for
proper angular shaft alignment. After proper alignment at
room temperature, the two halves of the coupling are to be
connected.
9. How can the problem of excessive speed variation due

to throttle assembly friction be overcome?
Answer:
17
The throttle should be dismantled. Moving parts should be
checked for free and smooth movement. Using very fine-
grained emery paper, the throttle valve seats and valve
steam should be polished.
10. How can the speed variation be reduced by making

a governor droop adjustment?
Answer:
If the internal droop setting is increased, the speed variation

will reduce.
11. How do the problems of vibration and fatigue arise

with steam turbine blades?
Answers:
1. These arise due to flow irregularities introduced

because of manufacturing defects, e.g. lack of control
over tolerances.
2. System operating parameter, e.g. low flow may excite
various modes of vibration in the blades.
12. How does deposit formation on turbine blades
affect turbine efficiency?
Answer:
About 500 g of deposits distributed more or less evenly all

over the blading section can bring down turbine efficiency by
1%.
13. How does improper governor lubrication arise and
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Answers:
1. In the event of low governor oil level or if the oil is dirty

or foamy, it will cause improper governor lubrication.
What is the remedy to it?
2. The dirty or foamy lube oil should be drained off,

governor should be flushed and refilled with a fresh
charge of proper oil.
3. In the event of low level, the level should be built up by
make- up lube oil.
14. How does pressure monitoring ensure detection of
turbine deposits?
Answers:
1. Pressure of steam expanding in the turbine is

measured at characteristic points, i.e., at the wheel
chamber, points of pass-out, inlet/outlet of HP, IP and
LP stages of the turbine.
2. The turbine manufacturer provides the pressure
characteristics in the form of graphs.
3. At 1st commissioning, the user supplements these
theoretical curves with those derived from actual
measurements. These are actual pressure
characteristics for a clean turbine. Now these pressure
characteristics are compared with those obtained
during operation in the later period.
4. Under identical conditions, an increase in pressure
shows the formation of deposits.
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5. For a steam throughput in the range 70-100%, an
increase in wheel chamber pressure of more than 10%
indicates severe blade depositions.
15. How does solid-particle erosion occur?
Answer:
Solid-particle erosion, i.e. SPE occurs in the high-pressure

blades. And it takes place when hard particles of iron
exfoliated by steam from superheater tubes, reheater tubes,
steam headers and steam leads strike on the surface of
turbine blades.
16. How does the damage to turbine-blades tell upon

the efficiency of the unit?
Answer:
The damage to blade profiles changes the geometry of

steam flow path and thereby reducing the efficiency of the
unit.
17. How does the dirty safety trip valve trip the safety
trip at normal speed?
Answers:
Dirt may find its way to the safety trip valve and get
deposited around the spring end cap end. This will block the
clearance between the safety trip valve and the spring end
cap. As a result the steam pressure in the spring cap gets
lowered allowing the valve to close.
20
What is the remedy to it?
The spring end cap as well as safety trip valve should be

cleaned.
18. How does the foreign-particle damage of turbine

blades arise?
Answer:
It occurs due to impact on blades by foreign particles (debris)

left in the system following outages and become steam-
borne later.
19. How does the internal efficiency monitoring lead to

the detection of turbine deposits?
Answers:
1. Process heat drop.

2. Adiabatic heat drop.
3. The process heat drop and adiabatic heat drop are
obtained from a Mollier-Chart for the corresponding
values of steam parameters - pressure and
temperature - at initial and final conditions.
20. How does this modification reduce the vibration
fatigue damage?
Answers:
1. Joining the blade segments together at the shroud

band increases the length of the arc-to a maximum of
21
360° that alters the natural frequency of the blade
grouping from the operating vibration mode.
2. This design has gained considerable success in
commercial service.
21. How is a flyball governor used with a hydraulic
control?
Answer:
As the turbine speeds up, the weights are moved outward by

centrifugal force, causing linkage to open a pilot valve that
admits and releases oil on either side of a piston or on one
side of a spring-loaded piston. The movement of the piston
22. How is oil pressure maintained when starting or

stopping a medium-sized turbine?
Answer:
An auxiliary pump is provided to maintain oil pressure. Some

auxiliary pumps are turned by a hand crank; others are
motor-driven. This pump is used when the integral pump is
running too slowly to provide pressure, as when starting or
23. How is pressure compounding accomplished?
Answers:
1. This is accomplished by an arrangement with alternate

rows of nozzles and moving blades.
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2. Steam enters the 1st row of nozzles where it suffers a
partial drop of pressure and in lieu of that its velocity
gets increased. The high velocity steam passes on to
the 1st row of moving blades where its velocity is
reduced.
3. The steam then passes into the 2nd row of nozzles
where its pressure is again partially reduced and
velocity is again increased. This high velocity steam
passes from the nozzles to the 2nd row of blades
where its velocity is again reduced.
4. Thus pressure drop takes place in successive stages.
Since a partial pressure drop takes place in each
stage, the steam velocities will not be so high with the
effect that the turbine will run slower.
24. How is pressure-velocity compounding
accomplished?
Answers:
1. It is a combination of pressure compounding and

velocity compounding.
2. Steam is expanded partially in a row of nozzles
whereupon its velocity gets increased. This high
velocity steam then enters a few rows of velocity
compounding whereupon its velocity gets successively
reduced. (Fig. 5)
3. The velocity of the steam is again increased in the
subsequent row of nozzles and then again it is allowed
to pass onto another set of velocity compounding that
23
brings about a stage-wise reduction of velocity of the
steam.
4. This system is continued.
25. How is the washing of turbine blades carried out
with the condensate?
Answers:
1. The washing is carried out with the condensate at

100°C.
2. The turbine is cooled or heated up to 100°C and filled
with the condensate via a turbine drain.
3. The rotor is turned or barred by hand and the
condensate is drained after 2 to 4 hours.
4. It is then again filled with the condensate at 100°C (but
up to the rotor center-level), the rotor is rotated and the
condensate is drained after sometime. This process is
repeated several times.
26. How is turbine blade washing with wet steam
carried out?
Answers:
1. Wet steam produced usually by injecting cold

condensate into the superheated steam, is introduced
to the turbine which is kept on running at about 20% of
nominal speed.
2. For backpressure turbine the exhaust steam is let out
into the open air through a gate valve. For a
condensing turbine, the vacuum pump is kept out of
24
service while cooling water is running, with the effect
that the entering cooling steam is condensed. The
condensate is drained off.
3. The washing steam condition is gradually adjusted to a
final wetness of 0.9 to 0.95.
Note, it is important:
4. not to change washing steam temperature by

10°C/min,
5. to keep all turbine cylinder drains open.
27. How is velocity compounding accomplished?
Answers:
1. This is accomplished by an arrangement with alternate

rows of fixed blades and moving blades. The mounted
on the casing while the moving blades are keyed in
series on a common shaft. The function of the fixed
blades is to correct the direction of entry of steam to
the next row of moving blades.
2. The high velocity steam leaving the nozzles passes on
to the 1st row of moving blades where it suffers a
partial velocity drop.
3. Its direction is then corrected by the next row of fixed
blades and then it enters the 2nd row of moving
blades. Here the steam velocity is again partially
reduced. Since only part of the velocity of the steam is
used up in each row of the moving blades, a slower
25
turbine results. This is how velocity compounding
works.
28. How many governors are needed for safe turbine
operation? Why?
Answer:
Two independent governors are needed for safe turbine

operation:
1. One is an overspeed or emergency trip that shuts off

the steam at 10 percent above running speed
(maximum speed).
2. The second, or main governor, usually controls speed
at a constant rate; however, many applications have
variable speed control.
29. How many types of particle-impact damage occur
in turbine blades?
Answers:
1. Erosion/corrosion.
2. Foreign-particle impacts.
3. Solid-particle erosion.
4. Water damage.
30. How to prevent turbine deposition?
Answers:
By upgrading the quality of steam. That is by ensuring

proper:
26
1. Boiler feedwater quality.
2. Steam boiler model.
3. Boiler design.
4. Boiler operation.
31. How will you detect that misalignment is the
probable cause of excessive vibration?
Answers:
1. Coupling to the driven machine is to be disconnected.

2. The turbine is to be run alone.
3. If the turbine runs smoothly, either misalignment, worn
coupling or the driven equipment is the cause of the
trouble.
32. How would you slop a leaky tube in a condenser
that was contaminating the feed-water?
Answer:
To stop a leaky tube from contaminating the feedwater, shut

down, remove the water-box covers, and fill the steam space
with water. By observing the tube ends you can find the
leaky tube. An alternate method is to put a few pounds of air
pressure in the steam space, flood the water boxes to the top
inspection plate, and observe any air bubbles. Once you
have found the leaky tube, drive a tapered bronze plug
(coated with white lead) into each end of the tube to cut it out
of service. This allows you to use the condenser since the
tubes need not be renewed until about 10 percent of the
tubes are plugged.
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33. How would you stop air from leaking into a
condenser?
Answer:
First, find the leak by passing a flame over the suspected

part while the condenser is under vacuum. Leaks in the
flange joints or porous castings can be stopped with asphalt
paint or shellac. Tallow or heavy grease will stop leaks
around the valve stems. Small leaks around the porous
castings, flange nuts, or valve stems can always be found by
the flame test. So, you might have to put the condenser
under a few pounds of air pressure and apply soapsuds to
the suspected trouble parts.
34. In how many patterns are tie wires used?
Answers:
1. In one design, tie wire is passed through the blade

vane.
2. In another design, an integral stub is jointed by
welding/brazing.
35. In some weld-repair cases, it has been found that
the Stellite survived while the filler material eroded
away. Why?
Answers:
If Inconel is used as the filler material, it has the inferior

resistance to erosion in comparison to the Stellite insert. So
filler material erodes away underneath.
28
36. In steam turbines, is there any alternative to the
shrunk-on-disc design?
Answers:
Two designs are available at present:
1. Welded rotor in which each individual disc is welded,

instead of shrunk, onto the main shaft.
2. Monobloc rotor in which the entire shaft and blade
assembly is manufactured from a single forging.
37. In which case does upgrading imply life extension
of steam turbines?
Answer:
For a capital-short electric utility plant, upgrading comes to

mean extending the life of that plant scheduled for
retirement.
38. In which cases does erosion corrosion damage

appear?
Answer:
It is commonly encountered in nuclear steam turbines and

old fossil-fuel-fired units that employ lower steam
temperatures and pressures.
39. In which cases does moisture-impingement and

washing erosion occur?
Answers:
29
1. These are encountered in the wet sections of the
steam turbine.
2. For nuclear power plants, these wet sections can
involve parts of high-pressure cylinder.
40. In which cases does upgrading mean up-rating the
turbine capacity?
Answer:
For an electric utility system facing uncertain load growth,

upgrading is chiefly up-rating. It is an inexpensive way to add
capacity in small increments.
41. In which part of the steam turbine does corrosion

fatigue occur?
Answer:
In the wet stages of the LP cylinder.
42. In which part of the steam turbine does stress

corrosion cracking (SCC) occur?
Answer:
In the wet stages of the low-pressure turbine.
43. In which section of the steam-turbine rotors is the

problem of rotor failure mostly prevalent?
Answers:
Rotor failures occur mostly on the large low-pressure rotors.
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Basic causes of the problems are:
1. Normal wear.
2. Fatigue failure due to high stress.
3. Design deficiency.
4. Aggressive operating environment
44. In which turbine is this pressure compounding
used?
Answer:
In the Rateau turbine.
45. In which turbine is tip leakage a problem?
Answer:
Tip leakage is a problem in reaction turbines. Here, each

vane forms a nozzle; steam must how through the moving
nozzle to the fixed nozzle. Steam escaping across the tips of
the blades represents a loss of work. Therefore, tip seals are
used to prevent this.
46. In which turbine is velocity compounding utilized?
Answer:
In the Curtis turbine.
47. In which turbines, is this pressure-velocity

compounding principle employed?
Answer:
31
In the Curtis turbine.
48. In which zone of steam turbines has temperature-

creep rupture been observed?
Answer:
Damage due to creep is encountered in high temperature

(exceeding 455°C) zones. That is, it has been found to occur
in the control stages of the high-pressure and intermediate-
pressure turbines where steam temperature sometimes
exceed 540°C. In the reheat stage, it has been observed that
creep has caused complete lifting of the blade shroud bands.
49. Is there any adverse effect off full-arc admission

operation?
Answer:
At low loads, this results in a heat-rate penalty, due to

throttling over the admission valves.
50. Is there any alternative to the shrunk-on-disc

design?
Answers:
Two designs are available at present:
1. Welded rotor in which each individual discs are welded,

instead of shrunk, onto the main shaft.
2. Monobloc rotor in which the entire shaft and blade
assembly is manufactured from a single forging.
32
51. Is there any factor other than corrodents and
erodents that contributes to turbine blade failure?
Answers:
1. Turbine blade damage and failures can be effected by

vibration and fatigue.
a. These arise due to flow irregularities introduced

because of manufacturing defects, e.g. lack of control
over tolerances.
b. System operating parameter, e.g. low flow may excite
various modes of vibration in the blades.
1. Is there any other type of racking occurring in HP/IP

rotors and causing rotor failures?
Answers:
1. Blade-groove-wall cracking.
2. Rotor-surface cracking.
2. Of all the factors that contribute to the unreliability of
steam turbines, which one is the most prominent?
Answer:
It is the problem of turbine blade failures that chiefly

contribute to the unreliability of steam turbines.
3. Rim cracking continues to be a problem of shrunk-on-

disc type rotors in utility steam turbines. Where does it
occur?
33
Answer:
Cracking has been located at the outer corners of tile

grooves where the blade root attaches to the rotor.
4. So can you recommend this technique as a permanent

measure?
Answer:
No, this can be recommended in extreme cases or at best

temporarily.
5. So what should be the more sound approach?
Answers:
1. The more reasonable and better approach is to replace

the damaged blades with new ones that are stiffened
by:
a. Serrating the interface surface of individual blades so

they interlock, or
b. Welding the blades together.
c. In some cases, a single monolithic block is machined
out to manufacture the blades in a group.
d. In some other cases, blades themselves are directly
welded into the rotor.
1. Steam blowing from a turbine gland is wasteful. Why

else should it be avoided?
Answer:
34
It should be avoided because the steam usually blows into
the bearing, destroying the lube oil in the main bearing.
Steam blowing from a turbine gland also creates
condensate, causing undue moisture in plant equipment.
2. The consequences of turbine depositions have three

effects?
Answers:
1. Economic Effect:
a. Reduction in turbine output

b. Decrease in efficiency requiring higher steam
consumption.
1. Effect of Overloading and Decreasing Reliability in

Operation:
a. Pressure characteristic in the turbine gets disturbed

with the effect that thrust and overloading of thrust
bearing increase.
b. Blades are subjected to higher bending stresses.
c. Natural vibrations of the blading are affected.
d. Vibration due to uneven deposition on turbine blading.
e. Valve jamming due to deposits on valve stems.
1. Corrosion Effect:
a. Fatigue corrosion.
b. Pitting corrosion.
c. Stress corrosion.
35
1. Usually it has been found that SCC attack takes place
particularly at keyways of shrunk-on-disc rotors of low-
pressure turbines. Why are keyways prone to SCC
attack?
Answers:
1. Keyways shrunk-fit each disc onto tile rotor shaft. They

improve the rigidity of the connection between the disc
and the central shaft However, key ways are subjected
to abnormal centrifugal forces due to high overspeed,
that reduce the amount of shrink. Tangential stresses
tend to gravitate at the keyway connection and steam
tends to condense.
2. It is a one-piece-construction, and thus has inherent
rigidity.
3. Advanced steel making techniques enable building of
monobloc rotors almost free from non-metallic
inclusions and gas bubbles. Even large monobloc
rotors of clean steel are being manufactured today.
4. It exhibits lower inherent stresses.
5. The chance of disc loosening during operation is
eliminated.
6. Highly stressed keyway is eliminated.
2. What are four types of thrust bearings?
Answers:
1. babbitt-faced collar bearings

2. tilting pivotal pads
36
3. tapered land bearings
4. rolling-contact (roller or ball) bearings
Answer:
1. Carbon rings fitted in segments around the shaft and

held together by garter or retainer springs.
2. Labyrinths mated with shaft serrations or shaft seal
strips.
3. Water seals where a shaft runner acts as a pump to
create a ring of water around the shaft. Use only
treated water to avoid shaft pitting.
4. Stuffing box using woven or soft packing rings that are
compressed with a gland to prevent leakage along the
shaft.
4. What are some common troubles in surface-condenser
operation?
Answer:
The greatest headache to the operator is loss of vacuum

caused by air leaking into the surface condenser through the
joints or packing glands. Another trouble spot is cooling
water leaking into the steam space through the ends of the
tubes or through tiny holes in the tubes. The tubes may also
become plugged with mud, shells, debris, slime, or algae,
thus cutting down on the cooling-water supply, or the tubes
may get coated with lube oil from the reciprocating
machinery. Corrosion and dezincification of the tube metal
37
are common surface-condenser troubles. Corrosion may be
uniform, or it may occur in small holes or pits. Dezincification
changes the nature of the metal and causes it to become
brittle and weak.
5. What are the advantages of steam turbines over

reciprocating steam engines?
Answers:
1. Steam turbine has higher thermal efficiency than

reciprocating steam engines.
2. The brake horsepower of steam turbines can range
from a few HP to several hundred thousand HP in
single units. Hence they are quite suitable for large
thermal power stations.
3. Unlike reciprocating engines, the turbines do not need
any flywheel, as the power delivered by the turbine is
uniform.
4. Steam turbines are perfectly balanced and hence
present minimum vibrational problem.
5. High rpm l8000 - 24000 can be developed in steam
turbines but such a high speed generation is not
possible in the case of reciprocating steam engines.
6. Some amount of input energy of steam is lost as the
reciprocating motion of the piston is converted to
circular motion.
7. Unlike reciprocating steam engines, no internal
lubrication is required for steam turbines due to the
absence of rubbing parts.
38
8. Steam turbines, if well designed and properly
maintained, are more reliable and durable prime
movers than steam engines.
6. What are the advantages of velocity compounding?
Answers:
1. The velocity compounding system is easy to operate

and operation is more reliable.
2. Only two or three stages are required. Therefore, first
cost is less.
3. Since the total pressure drop takes place only in
nozzles and not in the blades, the turbine casing need
not be heavily built. Hence the economy in material
and money.
4. Less floor space is required.
7. What are the advantages of welded rotors?
Answers:
1. Welded rotor is a composed body built up by welding

the individual segments. So the limitations on forgings
capacity do not apply.
2. Welding discs together results in a lower stress level.
Therefore, more ductile materials can be chosen to
resist SCC attack.
3. There are no keyways. So regions of high stress
concentrations are eliminated.
8. What are the basic causes of the problem of rotor
failure?
39
Answers:
1. Normal wear.
2. Fatigue failure due to high stress.
3. Design deficiency.
4. Aggressive operating environment
9. What are the causes of radial axial-bore cracks on HP/IP
rotors/shafts?
Answers:
1. The predominant cause is creep, which may act with or

without low cycle fatigue.
2. Also the cracks result due to poor creep ductility due to
faulty heat treatment process.
10. What are the differences between impulse and
reaction turbines?
Answers:
1. The impulse turbine is characterized by the fact that it

requires nozzles and that the pressure drop of steam
takes place in the nozzles.
2. The reaction turbine, unlike the impulse turbines has
no nozzles, as such. It consists of a row of blades
mounted on a drum. The drum blades are separated by
rows of fixed blades mounted in the turbine casing.
These fixed blades serve as nozzles as well as the
means of correcting the direction of steam onto the
moving blades.
40
3. In the case of reaction turbines, the pressure drop of
steam takes place over the blades. This pressure drop
produces a reaction and hence cause the motion of the
rotor.
11. What are the disadvantages of velocity
compounding?
Answers:
1. Steam velocity is too high and that is responsible for

appreciable friction losses.
2. Blade efficiency decreases with the increase of the
number of stages.
3. With the increase of the number of rows, the power
developed in successive rows of blade decreases. For
as much as, the same space and material are required
for each stage, it means, therefore, that all stages are
not economically efficient.
12. What are the factors that contribute to bearing
failure in a steam turbine?
Answers:
1. Improper lubrication.
Only the recommended lubricant should be used.
2. Inadequate water-cooling.
a. The jacket temperature should be maintained in the

range of 37-60°C
41
b. The flow of cooling water should be adjusted
accordingly.
1. Misalignment.
It is desirable that ball bearings should fit on the turbine

shaft with a light press fit. If the fitting is too tight, it will
cause cramping. On the other hand, if the fitting is too
loose it will cause the inner race to turn on the shaft.
Both conditions are undesirable. They result in wear,
excessive vibration and overheating. And bearing
failure becomes the ultimate result.
2. Bearing fit.
3. Excessive thrust.
4. Unbalance.
5. Rusting of bearing.
1. What are the losses in steam turbines?
Answers:
1. Residual Velocity Loss - This is equal to the absolute

velocity of the steam at the blade exit.
2. Loss due to Friction - Friction loss occurs in the
nozzles, turbine blades and between the steam and
rotating discs. This loss is about 10%.
3. Leakage Loss.
4. Loss due to Mechanical Friction - Accounts for the
loss due to friction between the shaft and bearing.
42
5. Radiation Loss - Though this loss is negligible, as
turbine casings are insulated, it occurs due to heat
leakage from turbine to ambient air which is at a much
lower temperature than the turbine.
6. Loss due to Moisture - In the lower stages of the
turbine, the steam may become wet as the velocity of
water particles is lower than that of steam. So a part of
the kinetic energy of steam is lost to drag the water
particles along with it.
2. What are the main causes of turbine vibration?
Answer:
1. unbalanced parts
2. poor alignment of parts
3. loose parts
4. rubbing parts
5. lubrication troubles
6. steam troubles
7. foundation troubles
8. cracked or excessively worn parts
3. What are the points of SCC attack?
Answers:
1. SCC attack predominates where corrodents deposit

and build up i.e. in those blading areas where flowing
steam cannot provide a washing effect.
2. What are these points in particular?
a. Tie wires.
43
b. Tie wire holes.
c. Brazings.
d. Blade covers.
e. Tenon holes.
1. At what points does corrosion fatigue does show up?
It attacks trailing edges, near the base of the foil and

also the blade-root serration’s.
1. What are the possible causes for the turbine not running
at rated speed?
Answers:
1. The possible causes are:
a. too many hand valves closed,

b. oil relay governor set too low,
c. inlet steam pressure too low or exhaust pressure too
high,
d. load higher than turbine rating,
e. throttle valve not opening fully,
f. safety trip valve not opening properly,
g. nozzles plugged,
h. steam strainer choked.
1. What are the possible causes of a governor not

operating?
Answers:
1. Restriction of throttle valve reflex.
44
2. Failure of governor control on start-up.
If it is found that after start-up, the speed increases

continuously and the governor is not closing the throttle
valve, it may be that the governor pump has been installed in
the wrong direction.
2. What are the possible causes of excessive vibration or

noise in a steam turbine?
Answers:
1. Misalignment.
2. Worn bearings.
3. Worn coupling to driven machine.
4. Unbalanced coupling to driven machine.
5. Unbalanced wheel.
6. Piping strain.
7. Bent shaft.
3. What are the possible causes of the speed of the turbine
rotor increasing excessively as the load is decreased?
Answers:
1. Throttle valve not closing fully.

2. Wearing of throttle valve seats.
4. What are the stresses to which a steam turbine rotor is
subjected during its service life?
Answers:
45
1. Mechanical stress - The factors that contribute to
mechanical stress in the shaft are the centrifugal forces
and torque’s generated due to revolving motion of the
shaft as well as bending arising during steady-state
operation.
2. Thermal stress - Transient operating phases i.e.
startup and shutdown the genesis of thermal stress
induced to the turbine shaft.
3. Electrically induced stress - They originate due to
short circuits and faulty synchronization.
5. What are these points in particular?
Answers:
1. Tie wires.
2. Tie wire holes.
3. Brazings.
4. Blade covers.
5. Tenon holes.
6. What are three types of condensers?
Answer:
1. surface (shell-and-tube)
2. jet
3. barometric.
7. What are topping and superposed turbines?
Answer:
46
Topping and superposed turbines are high-pressure, non-
condensing units that can be added to an older, moderate-
pressure plant. Topping turbines receive high-pressure
steam from new high-pressure boilers. The exhaust steam of
the new turbine is at the same pressure as the old boilers
and is used to supply the old turbines.
8. What are two types of clearance in a turbine?
Answers:
1. radial - the clearance at the tips of the rotor and casing

2. axial - the fore-and-aft clearance, at the sides of the
rotor and the casing
9. What design modification is adopted to reduce
susceptibility of last low-pressure stages to fatigue
failure?
Answer:
One modification is to join the blade segments together at

the shroud band.
10. What does "upgrading" generally means in the

context of steam turbines?
Answer:
Upgrading is a most widely used tern. It encompasses a

variety of meanings verses life extension, modernization and
up-rating of steam turbines.
11. What does the term "ramp rat" mean?
47
Answer:
Ramp rate is used in bringing a turbine up to operating

temperature and is the degrees Fahrenheit rise per hour that
metal surfaces are exposed to when bringing a machine to
rated conditions. Manufactures specify ramp rates for their
machines in order to avoid thermal stresses. Thermocouples
are used in measuring metal temperatures.
12. What factors are responsible for turbine-blade

failures?
Answers:
1. In the high pressure cylinder, the turbine blades are

mostly affected by:
a. solid-particle erosion (SPE),

b. high cycle fatigue,
1. Whereas in the last few stages of the low-pressure

cylinder, the blade damage is mainly afflicted by:
a. erosion,
b. corrosion,
c. stress/fatigue damage mechanism.
d. According to EPRI (Electric Power Research Institute,
USA) data stress-corrosion cracking and fatigue are
the chief exponents for turbine-blade failures in utility
industries.
48
1. What factors cause excessive steam leakage under
carbon rings?
Answers:
1. Dirt under rings. - steam borne scale or dirt foul up the

rings if steam is leaking under the carbon rings.
2. Shaft scored.
3. Worn or broken carbon rings.
These should be replaced with a new set of carbon rings.

The complete ring is to be replaced.
2. What factors contribute to excessive speed variation of

the turbine?
Answers:
1. Improper governor droop adjustment.

2. Improper governor lubrication.
3. Throttle assembly friction.
4. Friction in stuffing box.
5. High inlet steam pressure and light load.
6. Rapidly varying load.
Answer:
Reaction turbines have axial thrust because pressure on the

entering side is greater than pressure on the leaving side of
each stage. To counteract this force, steam is admitted to a
dummy (balance) piston chamber at the low-pressure end of
49
the rotor. Some designers also use a balance piston on
impulse turbines that have a high thrust. Instead of pistons,
seal strips are also used to duplicate a piston's counter force.
4. What is a combination thrust and radial bearing?
Answer:
This unit has the ends of the babbitt bearing extended

radially over the end of the shell. Collars on the rotor face
these thrust pads, and the journal is supported in the bearing
between the thrust collars.
5. What is a diaphragm (turbine)?
Answer:
Partitions between pressure stages in a turbine's casing are

called diaphragms. They hold the vane-shaped nozzles and
seals between the stages. Usually labyrinth-type seals are
used. One-half of the diaphragms are fitted into the top of the
casing, the other half into the bottom.
6. What is a multiport governor valve? Why is it used?
Answer:
In large turbines, a valve controls steam flow to groups of

nozzles. The number of open valves controls the number of
nozzles in use according to the load. A bar-lift or cam
arrangement operated by the governor, opens and close the
valves in sequence. Such a device is a multiport valve. Using
50
nozzles at full steam pressure is more efficient than throttling
the steam.
Answer:
In a radial-flow turbine, steam flows outward from the shaft to

the casing. The unit is usually a reaction unit, having both
fixed and moving blades. They are used for special jobs and
are more common to European manufacturers.
8. What is a shrunk-on-disc rotor?
Answer:
These are built by heat expanding the discs, so that upon

cooling they shrink on the main rotor forging.
Answer:
In an impulse turbine, the stage is a set of moving blades

behind the nozzle. In a reaction turbine, each row of blades
is called a "stage." A single Curtis stage may consist of two
or more rows of moving blades.
Answer:
The babbitt face of a tapered-land thrust bearing has a series

of fixed pads divided by radial slots. The leading edge of
51
each sector is tapered, allowing an oil wedge to build up and
carry the thrust between the collar and pad.
11. What is an air ejector?
Answer:
An air ejector is a steam siphon that removes non-

condensable gases from the condenser.
Answer:
In an extraction turbine, steam is withdrawn from one or

more stages, at one or more pressures, for heating, plant
process, or feedwater heater needs. They are often called
"bleeder turbines."
13. What is combined-cycle cogeneration?
Answer:
A combined cycle using a gas turbine or diesel, usually

driving a generator in which the exhaust gases are directed
to a waste heat-recovery boiler or heat-recovery steam
generator (HRSG). The steam from the HRSG is then
directed to a steam turbo-generator for additional electric
power production. The use of the exhaust heat from a gas
turbine improves the overall thermal efficiency. In
cogeneration, electric power is produced, but part of the
steam from the HRSG or from extraction from the steam
turbine is used for process heat, hence the term
52
cogeneration-the simultaneous production of electric power
and process heat steam.
14. What is done when cracks due to SCC or

corrosion-fatigue are found?
Answer:
The damaged blade is usually replaced, as repairing is

difficult.
15. What is gland-sealing steam?
Answer:
Low-pressure steam is led to a sealing gland. The steam

seals the gland, which may be a carbon ring or of the
labyrinth type, against air at the vacuum end of the shaft.
16. What is important to remember about radial

bearings?
Answer:
A turbine rotor is supported by two radial bearings, one on

each end of the steam cylinder. These bearings must be
accurately aligned to maintain the close clearances between
the shaft and the shaft seals, and between the rotor and the
casing. lf excessive bearing wear lowers the rotor, great
harm can be done to the turbine.
53
Answer:
It is the speed at, which the machine vibrates most violently.

It is due to many causes, such as imbalance or harmonic
vibrations set up by the entire machine. To minimize
damage, the turbine should be hurried through the known
critical speed as rapidly as possible.
Caution: Be sure the vibration is caused by critical speed

and not by some other trouble.
18. What is meant by the water rate of a turbine?
Answer:
It is the amount of water (steam) used by the turbine in

pounds per horsepower per hour or kilowatts per hour.
19. What is the cause of axial-bore cracks?
Answer:
Inadequate toughness of rotor steel and transient thermal

stresses.
20. What is the cause of circumferential cracking?
Answer:
High cycle fatigue with or without corrosion.
21. What is the cause of turbine deposits?
Answers:
54
The turbine deposits are steam-born foreign matters settled
on turbine blades. Substances dissolved in the BFW transfer
partly from the water to steam, during the process of
evaporation. They get dissolved in the steam and are carried
into the steam turbine.
22. What is the definition of a steam turbine?
Answers:
A steam turbine is a prime mover that derives its energy of

rotation due to conversion of the heat energy of steam into
kinetic energy as it expands through a series of nozzles
mounted on the casing or produced by the fixed blades.
1. Neilson defines it: The turbine is a machine in which a

rotary motion is obtained by the gradual change of the
momentum of the fluid.
2. Graham's definition: The turbine is a prime mover in
which a rotary motion is obtained by the centrifugal
force brought into action by changing the direction of a
jet of a fluid (steam) escaping from the nozzle at high
velocity.
23. What is the difference between partial and full arc
admission?
Answer:
In multi-valve turbine inlets, partial arc admission allows the

steam to enter per valve opening in a sequential manner, so
as load is increased, more valves open to admit steam. This
55
can cause uneven heating on the high-pressure annulus as
the valves are individually opened with load increase. In full-
arc admission, all regulating valves open but only at a
percentage of their full opening. With load increase, they all
open more fully. This provides more uniform heating around
the high-pressure part of the turbine. Most modern controls
start with full-arc and switch to partial arc to reduce throttling
losses through the valves.
24. What is the essential distinguishing feature

between a steam turbine and reciprocating steam
engine?
Answers:
1. In a steam turbine, the heat energy of steam is

converted into kinetic energy by allowing it to expand
through a series of nozzles and this kinetic energy of
steam is then imparted to the turbine blades mounted
on a shaft free to rotate to drive this prime mover.
2. In a reciprocating steam engine, the pressure energy of
steam is directly utilized to overcome the external
resistance. Here, the utilization of the KE of input
steam is negligibly small.
25. What is the function of a gland drain?
Answer:
The function of a gland drain is to draw off water from

sealing-gland cavities created by the condensation of the
sealing steam. Drains are led to either the condenser air-
56
ejector tube nest or the feedwater heaters. Often, gland
drains are led to a low-pressure stage of the turbine to
extract more work from the gland-sealing steam.
Answer:
Thrust bearings keep the rotor in its correct axial position.
27. What is the harm if the rotor is oversped?
Answer:
Overspeed rotor grows radially causing heavy rub in the

casing and the seal system. As a result, considerable
amount of shroud-band and tenon-rivet head damage
occurs.
28. What is the nature of circumferential cracking in

shrunk-on-disc rotors in steam turbines?
Answer:
Regions of high stress concentration give birth to this type of

cracking. It begins in corrosion pits and propagates towards
the bore by high-cycle fatigue. It may culminate in a
catastrophe, if it penetrates the bore (happily this usually
does not occur).
29. What is the nature of rotor surface cracks in steam

turbines?
57
Answer:
They are shallow in depth and have been located in heat

grooves and other small radii at labyrinth-seal areas along
the rotor.
30. What is the operating principle of a reaction

turbine?
Answer:
A reaction turbine utilizes a jet of steam that flows from a

nozzle on the rotor. Actually, the steam is directed into the
moving blades by fixed blades designed to expand the
steam. The result is a small increase in velocity over that of
the moving blades. These blades form a wall of moving
nozzles that further expand the steam. The steam flow is
partially reversed by the moving blades, producing a reaction
on the blades. Since the pressure drop is small across each
row of nozzles (blades), the speed is comparatively low.
Therefore, more rows of moving blades are needed than in
an impulse turbine.
31. What is the possible cause of slow start up of a

steam turbine?
Answer:
This may be due to high starting torque required by the

driven equipment.
58
32. What is the potential problem of shrunk-on-disc
type rotor?
Answers:
1. It is the failure due to circumferential cracks, which are

not limited to old rotors of early models (1960), but they
also take place on present-day rotors.
2. As a result corrodent impurities like chlorides
concentrate at key ways. This factor coupled with high
stress concentration lead to SCC attack on keyway
areas.
33. What is the principle of a steam turbine?
Answers:
1. If high-velocity steam is allowed to blow on to a curved

blade, the steam will suffer a change in direction as it
passes across the blade, and leaves it as shown.
2. As a result of its change in direction across the blade,
the steam will impart a force to the blade. This force
will act in the direction shown.
3. Now if the blade were free in the direction of force as
depicted. if, therefore, a number of blades were fixed
on the circumference of a disc which is free to rotate on
a shaft, then steam blown across the blades in the way
described, would cause the disc to rotate. This is the
working principle of a steam turbine.
34. What is the purpose of a turning gear?
Answer:
59
Heat must be prevented from warping the rotors of large
turbines or high-temperature turbines of 400°C or more.
When the turbine is being shut down, a motor-driven turning
gear is engaged to the turbine to rotate the spindle and allow
uniform cooling.
35. What is the remedy for a bent steam turbine shaft

causing excessive vibration?
Answers:
1. The run-out of the shaft near the center as well as the

shaft extension should be checked.
2. If the run-out is excessive, the shaft is to be replaced.
36. What is the remedy for rotor-surface cracking?
Answer:
Current rotor/shaft should be machined off (skin-peeling).
37. What is the remedy of the damage to blade

profiles?
Answers:
1. Upgrading the turbine and depending on the extent of

damage, upgrading may involve:
a. weld repair of affected zones of the blade,

b. replacement of damaged blades by new ones and of
new design,
c. replacement of base material,
60
d. application of protective coatings to guard against
corrosion and erosion damage.
1. What are the remedies to this failure?
Answers:
2. For existing rotor, weld repair may be a choice;

otherwise retire it.
3. For new rotors, materials with improved pitting
resistance should be used.
1. What is the safe maximum tripping speed of a turbine

operating at 2500 rpm?
Answer:
The rule is to trip at 10 percent overspeed. Therefore, 2500 x

1.10 = 2750 rpm.
2. What is the solution to the problem of SCC/corrosion

fatigue of steam turbine blades?
Answer:
It involves changing the blade material as well as minimizing

the presence of corrodents in steam to a permissible level.
3. What is to be done for erosion-induced damage on high-

and low-pressure stage blading?
Answers:
61
1. In such cases welding repair can be a good solution
and this can be carried out during a normal
maintenance outage without removing the blade. Using
oxyacetylene torch, Stellite is generally deposited onto
the damaged site. Following this, the weld is subjected
to stress-relieving and re-profiling.
2. In case of erosion penetrating the erosion shield and
extending to the base material, a filler material of
consistent or identical composition of blade material is
used.
3. In some cases use is made of Inconel alloy to build up
the metal base. Therefore, using welding or brazing
technique, a new shield can be attached to the blade. If
brazing technique is followed, the rebuilt section is
stress-relieved prior to the attachment of shield to it. If,
on the other hand, the shield is attached by welding,
then they are stress-relieved together.
4. What is to be done in case of cracks originating at the
lacing-wire holes?
Answers:
1. These are to be weld-repaired. However the following

factors must be considered:
a. The length of the crack that appears on the pressure

and/or suction face.
b. Whether the cracks propagate towards inlet end,
discharge end and or both.
62
1. What maybe the possible causes for the safety trip to
trip at normal speed?
Answers:
1. Excessive vibration.
2. Leakage in the pilot valve.
3. Deposition of dirt in the safety trip valve.
2. What maybe the possible causes for the safety trip
tripping during load variation?
Answers:
1. Light load and high inlet steam pressure.

2. Safety trip set very close to the operating speed of
turbine.
3. What other parts of the steam turbine blades suffer from
damage?
Answers:
1. Blade roots.
2. Shroud band.
4. What provisions in the layout of a combined-cycle
should be considered?
Answer:
It is important to consider the use of a bypass stack that will

permit operating the gas turbo-generator in case of a forced
outage on the HRSG or steam turbo-generator. However, in
certain states, such as California, also to be considered are
63
NO limits that require steam injection and loading to limit the
exhaust temperature coming out of the simple-cycle gas
turbine so that they do not exceed jurisdictional limits.
5. What remedial measures you can suggest to cope with

radial axial-bore cracks?
Answer:
For new rotors, modified heat treatment process is

recommended while for existing rotors de-rating the turbine
or replacement of the rotor may be a solution.
6. What should be done if excessive vibration is due to an

unbalanced turbine wheel?
Answers:
1. The turbine wheel is to be checked if it became

unbalanced due to overspeeding.
2. The turbine wheel must be re-balanced or replaced.
3. What should be the remedial action?
Answers:
4. For new rotors, control cleanliness of the steel.

5. i.e. inclusion and segregates free and more
homogeneous steel shaft is required.
6. For current rotors, replace the rotor, grind and
overbore.
7. What should be the remedial actions for blade-groove-
wall cracking?
64
Answers:
1. Modified heat treatment of new rotors is a sound and

lasting remedy.
2. For current rotors, cracks should be machined off and
lighter blades should be installed. Better, retire the
cracked shaft.
8. What should you do if you lost vacuum while operating a
condensing turbine plant?
Answer:
If vacuum is lost shut down immediately. The condenser

cannot stand steam pressure; the condenser tubes may leak
from excessive temperature. Excessive pressure will also
damage the shell, the exhaust, and the low-pressure parts of
the turbine.
9. What steps are taken to minimize damage from moisture

on steam turbine blades?
Answers:
The following measures are employed at the design

stage:
1. Stellite inserts.
2. Hardening of the base metal.
3. Moisture-removal devices to combat impingement
corrosion due to moisture.
10. What steps are taken to minimize damage from
moisture?
65
Answers:
1. Stellite inserts.
2. Hardening of the base metal.
3. Moisture-removal devices to combat impingement
corrosion due to moisture.
11. What steps/modifications should be implemented
to curtail the damage from moisture impingement on
steam turbine blades?
Answers:
1. The drainage system should be redesigned. Larger

drains are to be provided.
2. More effective water-catchers are to be in-stalled.
3. Radial seals are to be eliminated to remove water
before it can chance upon the blades.
4. Nozzle trailing edges are to be thinned to promote the
formation of smaller and less harmful droplets.
12. What steps/modifications should be implemented
to curtail the damage from moisture impingement?
Answers:
1. The drainage system should be redesigned. Larger

drains are to be provided.
2. More effective water-catchers are to be in-stalled.
3. Radial seals are to be eliminated to remove water
before it can chance upon the blades.
4. Nozzle trailing edges are to be thinned to promote the
formation of smaller and less harmful droplets.
66
13. What type of deposits are formed on steam turbine
blading?
Answers:
1. Water-soluble deposits.
a. NaCl, Na2SO4, NaOH and Na3PO4
1. Water-insoluble deposits.
a. SiO2 (mainly).
1. What types of cracking occur in the LP rotor shaft?
Answers:
1. Radial axial-bore cracks.

2. Circumferential cracks.
2. When "stall flutter" occurs?
Answers:
This problem is encountered when operating limits are

exceeded i.e., when turbine exhaust pressure exceeds the
value what the manufacturer has recommended. Stall flutter
induces stress in the blades
3. When does SPE damage usually occur on steam turbine

blades?
Answer:
It occurs usually during startup or abrupt load change.
67
4. When does SPE damage usually occur?
Answer:
It occurs usually during startup or abrupt load change.
5. When does upgrading mean modernization of utility

industry?
Answer:
Upgrading is really modernization to all those units other

than those facing uncertain load growth and low-capital utility
system. It involves replacement of damaged
parts/components by state-of-the-art components without
scrapping the entire machine.
6. Where are velocity compounded steam turbines mostly

employed?
Answers:
1. They are chiefly used as the prime mover for:
a. Centrifugal pumps.
b. Centrifugal compressors.
c. Low capacity turbo-generators.
d. Feed pumps of high capacity power plants.
1. Where do water-soluble deposits prevail?
Answer:
68
In the high-and intermediate-pressure sections of steam
turbines.
2. Where is pitting corrosion mostly prevalent?
Answer:
Upstream of LP stages as well as wet stages of LP cylinder.
3. Where would you look for a fault if the air ejector did not
raise enough vacuum?
Answer:
In this case, the trouble is usually in the nozzle. You will

probably find that:
1. the nozzle is eroded

2. the strainer protecting the nozzle is clogged
3. the steam pressure to the nozzle is too low
4. Which factors affect the extent of an upgrading
program?
Answers:
1. Age of the unit.

2. How it has been operated.
Note: Turbines less than quarter of a century old can

simply be upgraded to their original design conditions.
69
5. Why are free-standing blades in the last low-pressure
stage favored more, in some cases, than those that are
coupled and shrouded together?
Answers:
1. These free-standing blades are known to provide good

and adequate protection against stresses and
aggressive environment.
2. They eliminate all areas viz. shroud/tenon interface and
tie-wire/hole area where corrodents can collect
6. Why are simple impulse turbines not so common?
Answers:
1. Since the whole pressure drop from boiler to

condenser pressure takes place in a single row of
nozzles, the velocity of the steam entering the turbine
is very high. If some of this velocity is used up in a
single row of turbine blading, as in the de Laval turbine,
the speed of the rotation of the wheel will be too high to
be blades are be useful for practical purposes, as there
is the danger of structural failures due to excessive
centrifugal stresses.
2. Steam exits from the turbine with a sufficiently high
velocity, meaning a considerable loss of kinetic energy.
7. Why are some groups of steam turbine blades,
particularly the first or control stages more prone to
fatigue failures than others?
Answer:
70
Blades in the first or control stages are under partial-arc
admission that forces the blades to move into and out of the
steam flow causing alternating high-and low-impact forces.
This periodic change of impact forces imparts fatigue stress
that makes such groups of blades susceptible to fatigue
failure.
8. Why could a turbine wheel become unbalanced?
Answer:
If the turbine is kept idle for a long spell without complete

drainage of exhaust casing, the solid matter can deposit in
the lower half of the wheel causing unbalance.
9. Why do blade roots suffer from damage?
Answers:
1. Fatigue is the common cause to the effect of blade root

damage. Also a generic type of fault often assists this
factor in design or manufacturer.
2. Moreover, the root-fillet radii are subjected to a high
degree of stress concentration with the effect that they
crack relatively easily.
10. Why do electrically induced stresses occur in
steam turbine rotors occur?
Answer:
They originate due to short circuits and faulty

synchronization.
71
11. Why do shroud bands suffer from damage?
Answer:
Steam borne solid particles and moisture strike the shroud

band continually and in that process they remove material
from rivet heads until the rivet becomes too weak to exercise
its clamping effect whereupon it fails to hold the band in
place.
12. Why do thermal stress occur in the steam turbine

rotors?
Answer:
Transient operating phases i.e. startup and shutdown the

genesis of thermal stress induced to the turbine shaft.
13. Why do these two types of cracking take place?
Answers:
1. The cause to the effect of blade-groove-wall cracking is

creep with or without low cycle fatigue.
2. Faulty heat treatment procedure results in poor creep
ductility that may also contribute to this type of faults.
3. Whereas thermal fatigue have been identified as the
single cause to rotor-surface cracking.
14. Why does mechanical stress occur in turbine
rotors?
Answer:
72
The factors that contribute to mechanical stress in the shaft
are the centrifugal forces and torque’s generated due to
revolving motion of the shaft as well as bending arising
during steady-state operation.
15. Why does SCC occur at the intermediate pressure

stage in the steam turbine?
Answer:
Steam turbines of nuclear power plants usually operate on

wetter steam, than those of thermal power plants. So even at
the intermediate pressure stage, steam becomes wet and it
precipitates the impurities i.e. corrodents dissolved in it
These corrodents deposit and build up on rotor shaft causing
stress-corrosion-cracking.
16. Why is it poor practice to allow turbine oil to

become too cool?
Answer:
If the turbine oil is allowed to become too cool, condensation

of atmospheric moisture takes place in the oil and starts rust
on the polished surfaces of the journals and bearings.
Condensed moisture may also interfere with lubrication.
17. Why is there a relief valve on a turbine casing?
Answer:
The turbine casing is fitted with spring-loaded relief valves to

prevent damage by excessive steam pressure at the low-
73
pressure end if the exhaust valve is closed accidentally.
Some casings on smaller turbines are fitted with a sentinel
valve, which serves only to warn the operator of
overpressure on the exhaust end. A spring-loaded relief
valve is needed to relieve high pressure.
18. Why must condensate be subjected to salinity

tests where brackish cooling water is used?
Answer:
Condensate may leak from the cooling-water side to the

steam side of the condenser and contaminate the feedwater,
thus causing scale to form in the boilers. Or brackish cooling
water may leak into the steam space from cracked or porous
lubes or from around the joints at the end of the tube ends,
etc. By taking salinity readings of the condensate, leaks may
be found before they can do any harm.
19. Why must steam turbines be warmed up gradually?
Answer:
Although it is probable that a turbine can, if its shaft is

straight, be started from a cold condition without warming up,
such operation does not contribute to continued successful
operation of the unit. The temperature strains set up in the
casings and rotors by such rapid heating have a harmful
effect. The turbine, in larger units especially, should be
warmed slowly by recommended warm-up ramp rates
because of close clearances.
74
20. Why were cracks at the bore common for high-
pressure and intermediate-pressure rotors of the early
sixties in steam turbines?
Answers:
1. These rotors were manufactured from forgings which

were not "clean" steel and that's why cracks were
initiated at the sites of inclusions, and
2. Segregation bands in the steel. This coupled with low
inherent toughness of rotor materials resulted in bore
cracks.
1. Where is an evaporative condenser used in

practice?
Answer:
In those cases where the shortage of cooling

water is acute.
2. What should be the basic criteria for an

efficient steam condenser?
Answers:
1. Maximum amount of steam condensed per

unit area of available heat transfer surface.
2. Minimum quantity of circulating coolant
required.
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3. Minimum heat transfer surface required per
kW capacity
4. Minimum power drawn by the auxiliaries.
3. Why must a vacuum be maintained in the
steam condenser?
Answers:
1. By maintaining a vacuum in the steam

condenser, the efficiency of the steam-
power plant can be increased as greater
the vacuum in the system, greater will be
the enthalpy drop of steam. Therefore,
more work will be available per kg of steam
condensing.
2. Secondly, the non-condensate (air) can be
removed from the condensate-steam circuit
by pulling and maintaining a vacuum in the
steam side. Therefore, the condensate can
be used as boiler feed.
4. What are the limitations of a surface
condenser?
Answers:
1. It is very bulky and as such requires more

floor space.
2. Its manufacturing, running and
maintenance costs are high.
76
5. What should be the requirements of an ideal
surface condenser used for steam power
plants?
Answers:
1. Uniform distribution of exhaust steam

throughout the heat transfer surface of the
condenser.
2. Absence of condensate sub cooling.
3. There should not be any leakage of air into
the condenser.
4. There should not be any tube leakage.
5. The heat transfer surface in contact with
cooling water must be free from any deposit
as scaling reduces the efficiency of heat
exchangers.
6. What do you mean by vacuum?
Answer:
Vacuum means any pressure below atmospheric

pressure.
7. How is vacuum in a condenser usually

measured?
Answer:
It is measured by means of a Bourdon pressure

gauge, which is calibrated to read the pressure in
mm of mercury below atmospheric pressure.
77
8. On what factors does the degree of vacuum in
a condenser depend?
Answers:
It depends on the partial pressure of steam and

the partial pressure of air in the condenser.
9. What is the vacuum efficiency of a

condenser?
Answers:
It is the ratio of the actual vacuum at the steam

inlet to the maximum obtainable vacuum in a
perfect condensing plant, i.e., it is the ratio of
actual vacuum to ideal vacuum.
10. What are the effects of air leakage in the

condenser?
Answers:
1. It increases the back pressure on the

turbine with the effect that there is less heat
drop and low thermal efficiency of the plant
2. The pressure of air in the condenser lowers
the partial pressure of steam, which means
steam, will condense at a lower
temperature and that will require greater
amount of cooling water.
78
3. It reduces the rate of condensation of
steam, because air having poor thermal
conductivity impairs the overall heat
transfer from the steam-air mixture.
11. What is a steam condenser?
Answers:
1. It is a heat exchanger wherein steam is

condensed either in direct contact with
cooling water or indirect contact with
cooling water through a heat transfer
medium separating them.
2. That is, a steam condenser is either a direct
contact or indirect contact heat exchanger.
12. How many types of steam condensers
are known?
Answers:
1. Jet Condensers - direct contact heat

exchanger.
2. Surface Condensers - indirect contact
heat exchanger.
13. What is a surface condenser?
Answer:
It is a shell-and-tube heat exchanger in which

steam is condensed on the shell-side while
cooling water flows through the tubes. The
79
condensate and cooling water leave the system
separately.
14. How does the down-flow type surface

condenser act?
Answer:
Exhaust steam is admitted to the top of the

condenser, which is a tube-and-shell type
crossflow heat exchanger. Cooling water flows
through the tubes and extracts heat from the
steam, which is on the shell-side. Mter having
been condensed on the surface of the water
tubes, steam is converted into condensate which
is discharged from the condenser bottom.
15. How does the central flow type surface

condenser work?
Answer:
It is also a shell-and-tube type crossflow heat

exchanger at the center of which is located the
suction of an air extraction pump, so that the
entire steam moves radially inward and comes in
better contact with the outer surface of the nest of
tubes through which the cooling water flows. The
steam condensate is extracted from the bottom
by the condensate-extraction pump.
80
16. How does the inverted type surface
condenser work?
Answer:
In this type of condenser, steam is admitted at

the bottom and flows upwards in cross-flow with
the cooling water flowing in the tubes. The air
extraction pump draws its suction from the top of
the condenser, maintaining a steady upward
current of steam, which after having been
condensed on the outer surface of water tubes is
removed by the condensate extraction pump.
17. How does the evaporative condenser

function?
Answer:
Exhaust steam from the turbine is condensed

inside the finned tubes as cooling water rains
down from the top through the nozzles. A part of
the cooling water in contact with the tube surface
evaporates by drawing enthalpy from the steam,
which upon losing its latent heat condenses and
discharges out as condensate.
18. What are the primary functions of a

condenser?
Answers:
81
There are two important functions of a
condenser:
1. It reduces the back pressure upon the

turbine by a considerable degree and
therefore, the work done per lb of steam
during expansion is increased
2. The exhaust steam condensate can be
recycled as boiler feedwater
19. Why else is steam from an HRSG used?
Answer:
For steam injection into the gas turbine for NOx

control.
20. What gas is used in the SCR method of

controlling NOx?
Answer:
Air-diluted ammonia vapor is injected into the flue

gas stream before it enters the catalyst units
consisting of honeycomb-shaped ceramic
material. These cells, with the ammonia vapor,
convert nitrogen oxides to nitrogen and water
vapor for discharge into the atmosphere.
21. What is a steam condenser?
Answers:
82
1. It is a heat exchanger wherein steam is
condensed either in direct contact with
cooling water or indirect contact with
cooling water through a heat transfer
medium separating them.
2. That is, a steam condenser is either a direct
contact or indirect contact heat exchanger.
22. How many types of steam condenser are
known?
Answers:
1. Jet Condensers - direct contact heat

exchanger.
2. Surface Condensers - indirect contact
heat exchanger using water.
3. Air Condensers - direct contact heat
exchangers using air.
23. What is a jet condenser?
Answers:
1. It is a direct contact heat exchanger in

which steam to be condensed comes into
direct contact with the cooling water (cold
condensate) which is usually introduced in
the form of a spray from a jet. (Fig. 30.1)
2. Upon contact with the cooling water, the
steam gives up its enthalpy and gets
83
cooled and ultimately settles as
condensate.
24. What is a surface condenser?
Answer:
It is a shell-and-tube heat exchanger in which

steam is condensed on the shell-side while
cooling water flows through the tubes. The
condensate and cooling water leave the system
separately.
25. How many types of jet condensers are

known?
Answers:
1. Parallel flow jet type condenser - It is a

kind of jet condenser in which both exhaust
steam and cooling water enter the
condenser at the top, both flow downward
and the steam condensate discharges out
from the bottom of the condenser. (Fig.
30.2)
2. Contra flow type jet condenser - The
cooling fluid (cold condensate) and exhaust
steam flow in a counter-current direction -
steam goes up and cold condensate rains
down.
84
3. Ejector type jet condenser - It is one kind
of jet condenser in which the mixing of
cooling water and steam takes place in a
series of combining cones and the kinetic
energy of the steam is expended to drain
off the condensate and cooling water from
the condenser. Cooling water is forced
through a series of cones and gets mixed
with steam coming through ports. As the
cooling water flows through the series of
nozzles, it suffers more and more pressure
drop and at the same time its velocity
gradually increases. Due to this pressure
drop, more and more steam is drawn
through the ports, gets intimately mixed
with the cooling water jet and condenses
thereafter.
26. What is the principle of operation of a
high-level-parallel-flow jet condenser?
Answer:
This condenser, also called barometric

condenser, works as follows - The condenser
is mounted on a long pipe (at least 10.34 m)
called barometric leg which acts in a way
identical to a barometer. Now if water is used in a
barometer then the barometric height would be
10.34 m. If some vacuum exists in the
condenser, the height of water column (h) will be
85
less than 10.34 in. Now it is possible, by using
this condenser leg, to drain away the condensate
from the condenser.
27. How many types of surface condensers

are known?
Answers:
1. Down flow type - Exhaust steam is

admitted to the top of the condenser, which
is a tube-and-shell type cross flow heat
exchanger. Cooling water flows through the
tubes and extracts heat from the steam
which is on the shell-side. After having
been condensed on the surface of the
water tubes, steam is converted into
condensate, which is discharged from the
condenser bottom. (Fig. 30.7)
2. Central flow type - It is also a shell-and-
tube type cross flow heat exchanger at the
center of which is located the suction of an
air extraction pump so that the entire steam
moves radially inward and comes in better
contact with the outer surface of the nest of
tubes through which the cooling water
flows. The steam condensate is extracted
from the bottom by the condensate-
extraction pump.
86
3. Inverted flow type - In this type of
condenser, steam is admitted at the bottom
and flows upwards in cross-flow with the
cooling water flowing in the tubes. The air
extraction pump draws its suction from the
top of the condenser, maintaining a steady
upward current of steam, which after having
been condensed on the outer surface of
water tubes is removed by the condensate
extraction pump.
4. Evaporative condenser type - Exhaust
steam from the turbine is condensed inside
the finned tubes as cooling water rains
down from the top through the nozzles. A
part of the cooling water in contact with the
tube surface evaporates by drawing
enthalpy from the steam, which upon losing
its latent heat condenses and discharges
out as condensate.
28. Where is the evaporative condenser
used in practice?
Answers:
In those cases where the shortage of cooling

water is acute.
29. What are the two prime functions of a

condenser?
87
Answers:
1. It reduces the backpressure upon the

turbine by a considerable degree and
therefore, the work done per kg of steam
during expansion is increased.
2. The exhaust steam condensate can be
recycled as boiler feedwater.
30. What are the auxiliary equipment
required for operating a steam condenser?
Answers:
1. Cooling water (which may be cold

condensate) circulation pump. Generally, it
is a centrifugal one.
2. Arrangement for cooling the condensate
(i.e., a heat exchanger) in case the
condensate is recycled to extract heat from
the exhaust steam.
3. An air pump or steam ejector to remove air
and other non-condensing gases from the
condenser.
4. An extraction pump (usually centrifugal) to
remove the condensate from the
condenser.
31. What should be the basic criteria for an
efficient steam condenser?
Answer:
88
1. Maximum amount of steam condensed per
unit area of available heat transfer surface.
2. Minimum quantity of circulating coolant
required.
3. Minimum heat transfer surface required per
kW capacity.
4. Minimum power drawn by the auxiliaries.
32. Why is vacuum maintained in the steam
condenser?
Answers:
1. By maintaining a vacuum in the steam

condenser, the efficiency of the steam-
power plant can be increased as greater
the vacuum in the system, greater will be
the enthalpy drop of steam. Therefore,
more work will be available per kg of steam
condensing.
2. Secondly, the non-condensate (air) can be
removed from the condensate-steam circuit
by pulling and maintaining a vacuum in the
steam side. Therefore, the condensate can
be used as boiler feed.
33. What are the advantages of a jet
condenser over a surface condenser?
Answers:
1. Simplicity in design.
89
2. Lower in manufacturing cost.
3. Lower maintenance cost.
4. Occupies lesser floor space.
5. Requires lesser amount of cooling water.
34. What are the advantages of a surface
condenser over a jet condenser?
Answers:
1. It imparts to power generation plant a

higher thermal efficiency.
2. The condensate can be reused as boiler
feedwater.
3. Auxiliary power requirement is less than
that of a jet condenser.
4. Less amount of air is carried to the boiler.
35. What are the limitations of a surface
condenser?
Answers:
1. It is very bulky and as such requires more

floor space.
2. Its manufacturing, running and
maintenance costs are high.
36. What should be the requirements of an
ideal surface condenser used for steam
power plants?
Answers:
90
1. Uniform distribution of exhaust steam
throughout the heat transfer surface of the
condenser.
2. Absence of condensate subcooling.
3. There should not be any leakage of air into
the condenser.
4. There should not be any tube leakage.
5. The heat transfer surface in contact with
cooling water must be free from any deposit
as scaling reduces the efficiency of heat
exchangers.
37. What do you mean by vacuum?
Answer:
Vacuum means any pressure below atmospheric

pressure.
38. How is vacuum in a condenser usually

measured?
Answers:
It is measured by means of a Bourdon pressure

gauge, which is calibrated to read the pressure in
mm of mercury below atmospheric pressure.
39. If the gauge pressure of a condenser is

630 mm of Hg, what will be the absolute
pressure in the condenser?
Answer:
91
It means the pressure in the condenser is 630
mm below atmospheric pressure. The
atmospheric pressure is 760 mm of Hg, the
absolute pressure in the condenser.
40. On what factors does the degree of

vacuum in a condenser depend?
Answer:
It depends on the partial pressure of steam and

the partial pressure of air in the condenser.
41. How could air enter the condenser?
Answers:
1. With the boiler feedwater as dissolved

gases.
2. Flange leakage.
3. Cooling water (for jet condenser) containing
a certain amount of dissolved air in it.
42. What are the effects of air leakage in the
condenser?
Answers:
1. It increases the backpressure on the

turbine with the effect that there is less heat
drop and low thermal efficiency of the plant.
2. The pressure of air in the condenser lowers
the partial pressure of steam, which means
92
steam, will condense at a lower
temperature and that will require greater
amount of cooling water.
3. It reduces the rate of condensation of
steam, because air having poor thermal
conductivity impairs the overall heat
transfer from the steam-air mixture.
43. What basic governor troubles are apt to
occur?
Answers:
1. Hunting-alternate speeding and slowing of

the engine, which means that the governor
is too sensitive to load changes.
2. Sticking-failure to control speed, allowing
the engine to run away or slow down-which
means that the governor is not sensitive to
load changes or parts are binding or worn.
44. What is a governor safety stop?
Answers:
On throttling-type governors, the safety stop is a

weighted arm that needs the support of a
governor belt. If the belt breaks, the idler arm
drops and shuts the steam supply valve to the
engine. On Corliss units, the flyballs fall to the
lowest position and knock off the safety cams;
the cams disengage the catch blocks on the
93
steam intake valves so that no steam is admitted
to the engine.
45. Why is condensation or excessive

carryover dangerous to reciprocating
engines?
Answer:
Because water is non-compressible. If an

excessive amount of water gets into the cylinder,
it will wreck the engine.
46. Why should a steam or moisture

separator be installed in the steam line next
to a steam turbine?
Answer:
All multistage turbines, low-pressure turbines,

and turbines operating at high pressure with
saturated steam should have a moisture
separator in order to prevent rapid blade wear
from water erosion.
47. Under what conditions may a relief valve

not be required on the exhaust end of a
turbine?
Answer:
If the manufacturer has provided that the turbine

shells are constructed for full-inlet steam
94
pressure for the entire length of the shell. It is
absolutely essential to have a relief valve to
protect the shell in the event an exhaust valve is
closed and high-pressure steam is admitted to
the shell on the front end of the machine.
Explosions have occurred when this happened.
48. What are some conditions that may

prevent a turbine from developing full power?
Answers:
1. The machine is overloaded.

2. The initial steam pressure and temperature
are not up to design conditions.
3. The exhaust pressure is too high.
4. The governor is set too low.
5. The steam strainer is clogged.
6. Turbine nozzles are clogged with deposits.
7. Internal wear on nozzles and blades.
49. Why is it necessary to open casing
drains and drains on the steam line going to
the turbine when a turbine is to be started?.
Answers:
To avoid slugging nozzles and blades inside the

turbine with condensate on start-up; this can
break these components from impact. The blades
were designed to handle steam, not water.
95
50. What three methods are used to restore
casing surfaces that are excessively eroded?
Answers:
1. Metal-spraying.
2. Welding.
3. Insertion of filler strips or patch plates. The
manufacturer should be consulted on the
metallurgy involved so that the best method
can be selected.
51. What is steam rate as applied to turbo-
generators?
Answer:
The steam rate is the pounds of steam that must

be supplied per kilowatt-hour of generator output
at the steam turbine inlet.
52. What is the most prevalent source of

water induction into a steam turbo-generator?
Answer:
Leaking water tubes in feedwater heaters, which

have steam on the shell side supplied from
turbine extraction lines. The water at higher
pressure can flow back into the turbine because
the extraction steam is at a lower pressure.
Check valves are needed on the steam extraction
96
line to prevent the back-flow of water into the
turbine.
53. What is a regenerative cycle?
Answer:
In the regenerative cycle, feedwater is passed

through a series of feed-water heaters and is
heated by steam extracted from stages of a
steam turbine. This raises the feedwater to near
the temperature of boiler water, thus increasing
the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
54. What is the re-heating cycle?
Answer:
In the re-heating cycle, superheated steam is

expanded in a high-pressure turbine and then
returned to the boiler's re-heater to raise the
temperature of the steam to the inlet
temperature, usually to around 537°C; it is then
returned to the turbine to be expanded through
intermediate-pressure turbines. In some cases,
the steam is again returned for re-heating in the
boiler and then expanded in the lower-pressure
sections of the turbine. The main purpose of re-
heating the steam on large turbo-generators is to
avoid condensation in the lower-pressure
97
sections of the turbine, which can rapidly cause
blade erosion problems from wet steam.
55. What does the Willans line show?
Answer:
The Willians line is a plot of throttle flow versus

the load, usually expressed in kilowatts; generally
it is a straight line except for low and high loads.
The Willians line is used to show steam rates at
different loads on the turbine.
56. What are the two basic types of

turbines?
Answer:
1. Impulse type.
2. Reaction type.
57. What is the operating principle of an
impulse turbine?
Answer:
The basic idea of an impulse turbine is that a jet

of steam from a fixed nozzle pushes against the
rotor blades and impels them forward. The
velocity of the steam is about twice as fast as the
velocity of the blades. Only turbines utilizing fixed
nozzles are classified as impulse turbines.
98
58. What is the operating principle of a
reaction turbine?
Answer:
A reaction turbine utilizes a jet of steam that flows

from a nozzle on the rotor. Actually, the steam is
directed into the moving blades by fixed blades
designed to expand the steam. The result is a
small increase in velocity over that of the moving
blades. These blades form a wall of moving
nozzles that further expand the steam. The
steam flow is partially reversed by the moving
blades, producing a reaction on the blades. Since
the pressure drop is small across each row of
nozzles (blades), the speed is comparatively low.
Therefore, more rows of moving blades are
needed than in an impulse turbine.
59. What are topping and superposed

turbines?
Answer:
Topping and superposed turbines arc high-

pressure, non-condensing units that can be
added to an older, moderate-pressure plant.
Topping turbines receive high-pressure steam
from new high-pressure boilers. The exhaust
steam of the new turbine has the same pressure
99
as the old boilers and is used to supply the old
turbines.
Answer:
In an extraction turbine, steam is withdrawn from

one or more stages, at one or more pressures,
for heating, plant process, or feedwater heater
needs. They are often called "bleeder turbines."
Answer:
In a radial-flow turbine, steam flows outward from

the shaft to the casing. The unit is usually a
reaction unit, having both fixed and moving
blades. They are used for special jobs and are
more common to European manufacturers, such
as Sta-Laval (now ABB).
Answer:
In an impulse turbine, the stage is a set of

moving blades behind the nozzle. In a reaction
turbine, each row of blades is called a "stage." A
single Curtis stage may consist of two or more
rows of moving blades.
100
63. What is a diaphragm?
Answer:
Partitions between pressure stages in a turbine's

casing are called diaphragms. They hold the
vane-shaped nozzles and seals between the
stages. Usually labyrinth-type seals are used.
One-half of the diaphragm is fitted into the top of
the casing, the other half into the bottom.
Answers:
1. Carbon rings fitted in segments around the

shaft and held together by garter or retainer
springs.
2. Labyrinth mated with shaft serration’s or
shaft seal strips.
3. Water seals where a shaft runner acts as a
pump to create a ring of water around the
shaft. Use only treated water to avoid shaft
pitting.
4. Stuffing box using woven or soft packing
rings that are compressed with a gland to
prevent leakage along the shaft.
65. In which turbine is tip leakage a
problem?
Answer:
101
Tip leakage is a problem in reaction turbines.
Here, each vane forms a nozzle; steam must flow
through the moving nozzle to the fixed nozzle.
Steam escaping across the tips of the blades
represents a loss of work. Therefore, tip seals are
used prevent this.
66. What are two types of clearance in a

turbine?
Answer:
1. Radial - clearance at the tips of the rotor

and casing.
2. Axial - the fore-and-aft clearance, at the
sides of the rotor and the casing.
67. What are four types of thrust hearings?
Answer:
1. Babbitt-faced collar bearings.

2. Tilting pivotal pads.
3. Tapered land bearings.
4. Rolling-contact (roller or ball) bearings.
Answer:
Thrust bearings keep the rotor in its correct axial

position.
102
Answer:
Reaction turbines have axial thrust because

pressure on the entering side is greater than
pressure on the leaving side of each stage. To
counteract this force, steam is admitted to a
dummy (balance) piston chamber at the low-
pressure end of the rotor. Some designers also
use a balance piston on impulse turbines that
have a high thrust. Instead of piston, seal strips
are also used to duplicate a piston's counter
force.
70. What is a combination thrust and radial

bearing?
Answer:
This unit has the ends of the babbitt bearing

extended radially over the end of the shell.
Collars on the rotor face these thrust pads, and
the journal is supported in the bearing between
the thrust collars.
Answer:
The babbitt face of a tapered-land thrust bearing

has a series of fixed pads divided by radial slots.
The leading edge of each sector is tapered,
103
allowing an oil wedge to build up and carry the
thrust between the collar and pad.
72. What is important to remember about

radial bearings?
Answer:
A turbine rotor is supported by two radial

bearings, one on each end of the steam cylinder.
These bearings must be accurately aligned to
maintain the close clearance between the shaft
and the shaft seals, and between the rotor and
the casing. If excessive bearing wear lowers the
he rotor, great harm can be done to the turbine.
73. What is gland-sealing steam?
Answer:
It is the low-pressure steam that is led to a

sealing gland. The steam seals the gland, which
may be either a carbon ring or labyrinth type
against air at the vacuum end of the shaft.
74. What is the function of a gland drain?
Answer:
The function of a gland drain is to draw of water

from sealing-gland cavities created by the
condensation of sealing steam.
104
75. What is an air ejector?
Answer:
An air ejector is a steam siphon that removes

non-condensable gases from the condenser.
76. How many governors are needed for

safe turbine operation? Why?
Answer:
Two independent governors are needed for safe

turbine operation. One is an overspeed or
emergency trip that shuts off the steam at 10
percent above running speed (maximum speed).
The second, or main governor, usually controls
speed at a constant rate; however, many
applications have variable speed control.
77. How is a flyball governor used with a

hydraulic control?
Answer:
As the turbine speeds up, the weights are moved

outward by centrifugal force, causing linkage to
open a pilot valve that admits and releases oil on
either side of a piston or on one side of a spring-
loaded piston. The movement of the piston
105
78. What is a multi-port governor valve?
Why is it used?
Answer:
In large turbines, a valve controls steam flow to

groups of nozzles. The number of open valves
controls the number of nozzles in use according
to the load. A bar-lift or cam arrangement
operated by the governor opens and closes these
valves in sequence. Such a device is a multi-port
valve. Using nozzles at full steam pressure is
more efficient than throttling the steam.
Answer:
It is the speed at which the machine vibrates

most violently. It is due to many causes, such as
imbalance or harmonic vibrations set up by the
entire machine. To minimize damage, the turbine
should be hurried through the known critical
speed as rapidly as possible. (Caution, be sure
the vibration is caused by critical speed and not
by some other trouble).
80. How is oil pressure maintained when

starting or stopping a medium-sized turbine?
Answer:
106
An auxiliary pump is provided to maintain oil
pressure. Some auxiliary pumps are turned by a
hand crank; others are motor-driven. This pump
is used when the integral pump is running too
slowly to provide pressure, as when starting or
81. Why is it poor practice to allow turbine

oil to become too cool?
Answer:
If a turbine oil is allowed to become too cold,

condensation of atmospheric moisture takes
place in the oil and starts rust on the polished
surfaces of the journal bearings. Condensed
moisture my interfere with lubrication.
82. Steam blowing from a turbine gland is

wasteful. Why else should it be avoided?
Answer:
It should be avoided because the steam usually

blows into the bearing, destroying the lubrication
oil in the main bearing. Steam blowing from a
turbine gland also creates condensate, causing
undue moisture in plant equipment.
83. Besides lubrication, which are two

functions of lubricating oil in some turbines?
107
Answer:
In large units, lube oil cools the bearings by

carrying off heat to the oil coolers. Lube oil in
some turbines also acts as a hydraulic fluid to
operate the governor speed-control system.
84. What is meant by the water rite of a

turbine?
Answer:
85. It is the amount of water (steam) used by

the turbine in pounds per horsepower per
hour or kilowatts per hour.
86. What are five types of condensers?
Answer:
1. Surface (shell-and-tube).
2. Jet condenser.
3. Barometric condenser.
4. Air-cooled condenser.
5. Evaporative condenser.
87. Why is there a relief valve on a turbine

casing?
Answer:
108
The turbine casing is fitted with spring-loaded
relief valves to prevent damage by excessive
steam pressure at the low-pressure end if the
exhaust valve is closed accidentally. Some
casings on smaller turbines are fitted with a
sentinel valve, which serves only to warn the
operator of over-pressure of the exhaust end. A
spring-loaded relic valve is needed to relieve high
pressure.
88. Why must steam turbines be warmed up

gradually?
Answer:
Although it is probable that a turbine can, if its

shaft is straight, be started from a cold condition
without warming up, such operation does not
contribute to continued successful operation of
the unit. The temperature strains set up in the
casings and rotors by such rapid heating have a
harmful effect. The turbine, in larger units
especially should be warmed slowly by
recommended warm-up ramp rates because of
close clearances.
89. What should you lost vacuum while

operating a condensing turbine plant?
Answer:
109
If vacuum is lost shut down immediately. The
condenser cannot stand steam pressure, the
condenser tubes may leak from excessive
temperature. Excessive pressure will also
damage the shell, the exhaust and the low-
pressure parts of the turbine.
90. What are the main causes of turbine

vibration?
Answers:
1. Unbalanced parts.
2. Poor alignment of parts.
3. Loose parts.
4. Rubbing parts.
5. Lubrication troubles.
6. steam troubles.
7. Foundation troubles.
8. Cracked or excessively worn parts.
91. What is the purpose of a turning gear?
Answer:
Heat must be prevented from warping the rotors

of large turbines or high-temperature turbines of
400°C or more. When the turbine is being shut
down, a motor-driven turning gear is engaged to
the turbine to rotate the spindle and allow uniform
cooling.
110
92. What does he term "ramp" rate mean?
Answer:
Ramp rate is used in bringing a turbine up to

operating temperature and is the degrees Celsius
rise per hour that metal surfaces are exposed to
when bringing a machine to rated conditions.
Manufacturers specify ramp rates or their
machines in order to avoid thermal stresses.
Thermocouples are used in measuring metal
temperatures.
93. What is the difference between partial

and full arc admission?
Answer:
In multi-valve turbine inlets, partial arc ad mission

allows the steam to enter per valve opening in a
sequential manner, so as load is increased, more
valves open to admit steam. This can cause
uneven heating on the high-pressure annulus as
the valves are individually opened with load
increase. In full-arc admission, all regulating
valves open but only at a percentage of their full
opening. With load increase, they all open more
fully. This provides more uniform heating around
the high-pressure part of the turbine. Most
modern controls start with full-arc and switch to
111
partial arc to reduce throttling losses through the
valves.
94. What are some common troubles in

surface-condenser operation?
Answer:
The greatest headache to the operator is loss of

vacuum caused by air leaking into the surface
condenser through the joints or packing glands.
Another trouble spot is cooling water leaking into
the steam space through the ends of the tubes or
through tiny holes in the tubes. The tubes may
also become plugged with mud, shells, debris,
slime or algae, thus cutting down on the cooling
water supply. Corrosion may be uniform, or it
may occur in small holes or pits.
95. Where would you look for a fault if the

air ejector didn't raise enough vacuum?
Answers:
1. In this case, the trouble is usually in the

nozzle. You will probably find that the
nozzle is eroded.
2. The strainer protecting the nozzle is
clogged.
3. The steam pressure to the nozzle is too
low.
112
96. How would you stop air from leaking
into a condenser?
Answer:
First find the leak by passing a flame over the

suspected part while the condenser is under
vacuum. Leaks in the flange joints or porous
castings can be stopped with asphalt paint or
shellac.
97. Do you stop cooling water flow through

a steam condenser as soon as the turbine is
stopped?
Answer:
You should keep the cooling water circulating for

about 15 minutes (also see the manufacturer’s
recommendation) or more so that the condenser
has a chance to cool down gradually and evenly.
Be sure to have cooling water flowing through the
condenser before starting up in order to prevent
steam from entering the condenser unless it is
cooled. Overheating cause severe leaks and
other headaches.
98. How would you stop a leaky tube in a

condenser that was contaminating the feed
water?
Answer:
113
To stop leaky tube from contaminating the
feedwater, shut down, remove the water-box
covers, and fill the steam space with water. By
observing tube ends, you can find the leaky tube.
An alternate method is to pressurize (30 kPa) the
steam space with air. Then flood the water boxes
to the top inspection plate and observe any air
bubbles. Once you have found the leaky tube or
tubes, drive a tape bronze plug (well-coated with
white lead) into each end of the tube to cut it out
service. This allows you to use the condenser
since the tubes need not be renewed until about
10 percent of the tubes are plugged.
99. Why must condensate be subjected to

salinity tests where brackish cooling water
used?
Answer:
Condensate may leak from the cooling-

water side to the steam side of condenser
and contaminate the feedwater, thus
causing scale to form in the boilers,
brackish cooling water may leak into the
steam space from cracked or porous tubes
or ruin around the joints at the end of the
tube ends, etc. By taking salinity readings
of the condensate, leaks may be found
before they can do any harm.
114

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Question & Answers on Steam Turbines

1. What is a stage in a steam turbine?

In an impulse turbine, the stage is a set of moving blades

Partitions between pressure stages in a turbine's casing are

3. What is a radial-flow turbine?

In a radial-flow turbine, steam flows outward from the shaft to

1. Carbon rings fitted in segments around the shaft and

Tip leakage is a problem in reaction turbines. Here, each

6. What are two types of clearance in a turbine?

1. Radial - clearance at the tips of the rotor and casing.

1. Babbitt-faced collar bearings.

Thrust bearings keep the rotor in its correct axial position.

9. What is a balance piston?

Reaction turbines have axial thrust because pressure on the

10. Why should a steam or moisture separator be

All multistage turbines, low-pressure turbines, and turbines

1. The machine is overloaded.

To avoid slugging nozzles and blades inside the turbine with

13. What is steam rate as applied to turbo-generators?

The steam rate is the pounds of steam that must be supplied

The basic idea of an impulse turbine is that a jet of steam

16. What is the operating principle of a reaction

A reaction turbine utilizes a jet of steam that flows from a

17. What are topping and superposed turbines?

Topping and superposed turbines arc high-pressure, non-

18. What is an extraction turbine?

In an extraction turbine, steam is withdrawn from one or

19. What is a combination thrust and radial bearing?

This unit has the ends of the babbitt bearing extended

20. What is a tapered-land thrust bearing?

The babbitt face of a tapered-land thrust bearing has a series

21. What is important to remember about radial

A turbine rotor is supported by two radial bearings, one on

22. How many governors are needed for safe turbine

Two independent governors are needed for safe turbine

As the turbine speeds up, the weights are moved outward by

24. What is a multi-port governor valve? Why is it

In large turbines, a valve controls steam flow to groups of

25. What is meant by critical speed?

It is the speed at which the machine vibrates most violently.

26. How is oil pressure maintained when starting or

An auxiliary pump is provided to maintain oil pressure. Some

27. Besides lubrication, which are two functions of

28. What is meant by the water rite of a turbine?

29. What is the difference between partial and full arc

30. At what points does corrosion fatigue does show

31. Besides lubrication, what are two functions of

32. But despite these preventive measures, damage

1. Shields are designed and fabricated on the basis of

1. Immediately after the 1st commissioning, the different

These are also known to occur in the HP as well as HP

35. Do you stop cooling-water flow through a steam

You should keep the cooling water circulating for about 15

36. Do you think that turbine blade failure is the only

Stress-Corrosion Cracking 22%

High-Cycle Fatigue 20%

Temperature Creep Rupture 6%

Other causes 10%