2K18/ECE/163

Shubham Gupta
Electronic Instrumentations and Measurement

ASSIGNMENT – 4

Q-1) Measurement of Physical Quantities

1.Flow Measurement
• Turbine Flow Meter
The turbine flow meter translates the mechanical action of the turbine rotating
in the liquid flow around an axis into a user-
readable rate of flow (gpm, lpm, etc.). The
turbine tends to have all the flow traveling
around it.The turbine wheel is set in the path of
a fluid stream. The flowing fluid impinges on
the turbine blades, imparting a force to the
blade surface and setting the rotor in motion.
When a steady rotation speed has been reached, the speed is proportional to
fluid velocity. Turbine flow meters are used for the measurement of natural gas
and liquid flow. These are less accurate.
• Electromagnetic Flow Meter
An electromagnetic flow meter can be used
to measure the flow of fluids. According to
Faraday’s law, a voltage ‘e’ is induced in a
conductor of length ‘l’ meters which is
dependent on the flux density and liquid
flowing velocity ‘v’m/s The parameter used for the measurement of flow is the
speed of flow, and is measured in terms of the potential difference induced
when the moves in a tubing/pipe with a transverse magnetic field impressed.
(E = B.l.v)
• Ultrasonic Flow Meter
When pressure waves are released into the flowing fluid, their velocity and
amplitude are affected by the fluid velocity. Ultrasonic flow meters help in
measuring these pressure wave changes, especially in the ones having
frequencies greater than 20KiloHertz using specialized techniques. There are
two types of ultrasonic flow meters. One of them is based on the measurement
of phase shift between the waves
directed downstream and upstream
alternately. The other one is based on
the measurement of separation of
frequency of oscillation directed
downstream and upstream
simultaneously.

2.Temperature Measurement

• Thermometer
Thermometers are well-known
liquid expansion devices also used
for temperature measurement.
Generally speaking, they come in
two main classifications: the
mercury type and the organic,
usually red, liquid type. The distinction between the two is notable, because
mercury devices have certain limitations when it comes to how they can be
safely transported or shipped.For example, mercury is considered an
environmental contaminant, so breakage can be
hazardous. Be sure to check the current
restrictions for air transportation of mercury
products before shipping.
• Thermocouples
Thermocouples are voltage devices that indicate
temperature measurement with a change in
voltage. As temperature goes up, the output
voltage of the thermocouple rises - not necessarily linearly.Often the
thermocouple is located inside a metal or ceramic shield that protects it from
exposure to a variety of environments. Metal-sheathed thermocouples also are
available with many types of outer coatings, such as Teflon, for trouble-free
use in acids and strong caustic solutions.
•Resistance Temperature Devices(RTD)
Resistive temperature devices capitalize on the fact that the electrical
resistance of a material changes as its temperature changes. Two key types
are the metallic devices (commonly referred to as RTDs), and thermistors. As
their name indicates, RTDs rely on resistance change in a metal, with the
resistance rising more or less linearly with temperature. Thermistors are based
on resistance change in a ceramic semiconductor; the resistance drops
nonlinearly with temperature rise.

3.Pressure Measurement
Pressure measurement is one of the most common of all measurements made
on systems. Pressure along with flow measurements is extensively used in
industry, laboratories and many other fields for a wide variety of reasons.
Pressure measurements are concerned not only with determination of force
per unit area but are also involved in many liquid
level, density, flow and temperature measurements.
• The Barometer

The barometer is a device meant for measuring the

local atmospheric pressure. Fig. 2.18 shows a
mercury barometer which consists of a 1 metre long
glass tube closed at one end and completely filled
with mercury and kept inverted in a bowl of mercury.
A small quantity of mercury will drop into the bowl
and thus a vacuum forms at the upper end of the
tube.
Let Pa be the atmospheric pressure intensity

A reading of a barometer recorded at a spot indicates only the local

atmospheric pressure.
The International standard atmospheric pressure is 101.325 kPa
corresponding to 10.325 m of water or 760 mm of mercury.
• Piezometer or Pressure Tube

The piezometer is used to measure the static pressure head of a liquid flowing
at any section of a pipe. It consists of a tube whose open lower end is
mounted flush with the inside wall of the pipe. The other end of the tube is
exposed to the atmosphere. In the arrangement shown in Fig. 2.21 and 2.22
the height h to which the liquid rises in the tube represents the pressure head
at the level A where the tube is connected to the pipe.

The piezometer may also be so shaped and connected to the pipe so that the
pressure head at the level of the centre of the pipe may be directly obtained.
Limitations of a Piezometer:
 The piezometer has limitations for
its use due to the following
reasons:
(i) It is very difficult or impracticable to
measure high pressures. Particularly
for liquids of low specific gravity, the
height of the liquid column in the
piezometer will be inconveniently high
requiring a very long piezometer tube.
(ii) The piezometer cannot work for negative gauge pressure since air would flow
into the container through the tube.

• The Bourdon Gauge

This device consists of a metallic
tube of elliptical section closed at one
end A, the other end B being fitted to
the gauge point where the pressure
is to be measured. As the fluid enters
the tube, the tube tends to straighten.
By using a pinion-sector arrangement
the small elastic deformation of the
tube is communicated to a pointer in
an amplified manner. The pointer moves over a graduated dial. The device is
calibrated by subjecting it to various known pressures.
The Bourdon gauge is suitable for measuring not only high pressures such as those
in a steam boiler or a water main but also negative or vacuum pressures. A gauge
which is so devised to measure positive as well as negative pressures is called a
compound gauge.

• The Diaphragm pressure Gauge

This device is based on the same principle as that of the Bourdon gauge. In this
case a corrugated diaphragm is provided instead
of the Bourdon tube. When the device is fitted to
any gauge point, the diaphragm will undergo an
elastic deformation.
This deformation is communicated to a pointer
which moves on a graduated scale indicating the
pressure. It may be noted that this device works
on the same principle as that of the aneroid
barometer. This device is found suitable for
measuring relatively low pressures.
4.Humidity Measurement
The presence of moisture (water vapor, an invisible gas) in the atmosphere is
measured by the humidity of the air.
Humidity and condensation are closely related as condensation inevitably
occurs when the air is saturated with moisture (100% humidity).
Absolute humidity measures the amount of water vapor in air. Grams
H2O/m3 of air. This water is a gas, water vapor.
Relative humidity measures the amount of water vapor in air relative to the
maximum amount of water vapor the air could hold at that temperature.
Relative humidity increases with increasing water vapor or decreasing
temperature. Cold air can’t “carry” as much water vapor as warm air. The dew
point is the temperature to which a given parcel of humid air must be cooled,
at constant barometric pressure, for water vapor to condense into liquid water.
• Hygrometer

A hygrometer is a sensor that senses the amount of evaporated water in air

by a mechanical or electronic method. A hygrometer is an instrument used for
measuring the moisture content in the atmosphere. The more humidity that is
the air the longer the hair is. The less the humidity the tighter and shorter the
hair gets. This transducers the amount of humidity into a force which can then
be converted into an electronic or other mechanical signal. where salt water
conducts electricity to turn a light on is utilized in a electronic resistive sensor.
As humidity decreases, the salt concentration increases causing the resistivity
of the circuit to decrease. Thus, resistance is directly proportional to humidity.
Since voltage changes are much smaller when dealing with small humidity
differences, precise measurement equipment must be used making these
sensors less practical. Temperature variation also produces varied results
during constant humidity and must be taken into account when measuring
from this sensor.
• Electrolytic Hygrometer

It utilizes a cell coated with a thin film of phosphorous pentoxide. Which

absorbs water from the sample gas.The cell has a bifilar winding of inert
electrodes on a fluorinated hydrocarbon capillary.Direct voltage applied to the
electrodes dissociates the water which is absorbed by the P2O5 into hydrogen
and oxygen. Two electrons are required for electrolyzing each water molecule
and so the current in the cell represents the no.of molecules
dissociated.Based on the fliow rate tempeqature and current yields the
humidity in ppm Aluminium oxide hygrometer: It is formed by depositing a
layer of aluminum oxide on a conductive substrate and then coating the oxide
with a thin film of gold.The conductive base and gold layer become the
capacitor electrodes and aluminium oxide coating becomes capacitors
dielectric. Water vapour penetrates into the gold layer and is absorbed by the
oxidation layer. The no. of water molecules absorbed determines the
impedance of the capacity which is measure of Relative humidity.
• Resistive Hygrometer

These are electrical transducers to measure Relative humidity. Insulative

substrate coated with a lithium chloride solution of a controlled concentration.
where salt water conducts electricity to turn a light on is utilized in a electronic
resistive sensor. As humidity decreases, the salt concentration increases
causing the resistivity of the circuit to decrease. The hygroscopic nature of salt
makes it to take up water vapour from the surrounding atmosphere.

5.Velocity Measurement

VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS MEASUREMENT OF LINEAR VELOCITY

• Velocity is the first derivative of displacement.
• Linear velocity is defined as the rate of change of the position vector with
time at an instant in time.
• MOVING MAGNET TYPE TRANSDUCER
The sensing element is a rod type permanent magnet that is rigidly coupled to
the device whose velocity is being measured .There is a coil surrounding the
permanent magnet.The motion of the magnet induces a voltage in the coil and
the amplitude of the voltage is directly proportional to the velocity.The polarity
of the output voltage determines the direction of motion. • For a coil placed in
magnetic field the voltage generated is:
e0= B .A. N .v
B=flux density ; Wb/m2 A= area of coil
N= Number of turns of coil v=relative velocity of magnet with
respect to coil
e0 = Kv K=BAN= a constant
• ADVANTAGES
1. The maintenance requirements of these transducers are negligible,
because there are no mechanical surfaces or contacts.
2. The output voltage is linearly proportional to velocity.
• DISADVANTAGES
1. The performance of these transducers is adversely affected by stray
magnetic fields. These fields can cause noise.
2. The frequency response is usually limited and is stated.
3. These transducers are not very useful for measurement of vibrations
because their calibration deteriorates as contact with steel tools etc. leads to
progressive demagnetization.
• MOVING COIL TYPE TRANSDUCER
It operates essentially through the action of a coil moving in a magnetic field.
A voltage is generated in the coil which is proportional to the velocity of the
coil. The velocity to be measured is applied to the arm and therefore the coil
moves in the field of permanent magnet. A voltage is generated on account of
motion of the coil in the magnetic field. The output voltage is proportional to
the velocity.
ADVANTAGES
1. This is a more satisfactory
arrangement as the system now
forms a closed magnetic circuit with
a constant air gap, and the whole
device is contained in an
antimagnetic case which reduces the
effects of stray magnetic fields.
2. The instrument has permanent pole pieces which generate the magnetic
field. 3. There is a pivoted arm on which a coil is mounted. There is a mass
attached to the end of the coil.The whole device is contained in an
antimagnetic case.
MEASUREMENT OF ANGULAR VELOCITY
• The measurement of angular velocity may be made with a tachometer. • The
tachometer(Mechanical Transducer) may be defined as: i. An instrument used
for measure of angular velocity , as of shaft , either by registering the total
number of revolutions during the period of contact, or by indicating directly the
number of revolutions per minute. ii. An instrument which either continuously
indicates the value of rotary speed or continuously displays a reading of
average speed over rapidly operated short intervals of time. ELECTRICAL
TACHOMETERS
• D.C. Tachometer Generators
 They consist of a small armature which is coupled to the machine whose
speed is to be
measured. This
armature revolves in a
field of permanent
magnet. The emf
generated is
proportional to the
product of flux and
speed. Since the flux
of the permanent
magnet is constant,
the voltage generated is proportional to speed. The polarity of output voltage
indicates the direction of rotation. This emf is measured with the help of a
moving coil voltmeter having a uniform scale and calibrated directly in terms of
speed. A series resistance is used in the circuit for the purpose of limiting the
current from the generator in the event of a short circuit on the output side.
• Advantages
i. The direction of rotation is directly indicated by the polarity of the output
voltage.
ii. The output voltage is typically 10mv/rpm
• Disadvantages
i. Brushes of small tachometer generators often produce maintenance
problems, as their contact resistance may vary and produce
appreciable error. Thus the commutator and the brushes require
periodic maintenance.
ii. The input resistance of meter should be very high as compared with
output resistance of generator. This is required to limit the armature
current to small value. If the armature current is large, the field of the
permanent magnet is distorted giving rise to non-linearity.

6.Thickness Measurement
Thickness measuring tools come in all sizes and shapes, with different
measurement ranges and techniques. Thickness measuring is important in
many industries, and there are areas such as aeronautics where material
thickness needs to be very precise, otherwise the results may be catastrophic.
Thickness measuring tools can be either mechanical or digital.
•Vernier Callipers
A Vernier calliper is a high-precision measurement tool that can be used in
multiple types of measurements. It can measure thickness, diameter and even
inside diameter for pipes. It consists of two jaws for thickness measurement,
two smaller jaws for measuring inner diameters and a scaled handle. The
lower thickness measuring jaw is connected to the lower smaller jaw, and
there is also another scale on the whole piece. The ensemble slides on the
handle of the Vernier calliper when you open the jaws to make a
measurement, and the combination resulting from the two scales gives the
precise measurement. Vernier callipers have a reading error of 0.05 mm.

• Micrometer
The micrometer is the most precise
mechanical measurement tool. It
consists of a thimble with a rotating
screw in one end and a frame at
the other end. Inside the thimble, a
spindle moves with the rotation of
the screw. The object to be
measured is inserted into the
frame, between the spindle and the
anvil situated at the opposite end
of the frame, and the screw is
rotated until the object is fixed between the spindle and the anvil. There are
two reading scales, one situated on the thimble, and another one on the body
over which the thimble is rotated, called the barrel. Micrometres have a
reading error of around 0.003 mm.